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UPSC PRELIMS 2024
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 UPSC PRELIMININARY EXAMINATION 2024
RAPID REVISION BOOKS
‘Perfect’ your revision for 26th May, 2024

PURPOSE: To provide a HIGH QUALITY, PRECISE, CONCISE and CONFIDENCE BUILDING

revision books for fulfilling the needs of UPSC aspirants for the ‘SUCCESS’ in the Preliminary
Examination 2024.

With respect to the scheduled Civil Services (Preliminary) Examination, 2024, which is to be
conducted on 26th May, 2024, the most important need is a ‘UPSC Standard Fast Revision
Material’.
This requirement of students is fulfilled by SHIELD IAS ‘RAPID REVISION BOOKS’.

‘RAPID REVISION BOOKS’ are the series of NINE BOOKLETS covering the most important scoring
portions of the General Studies (Preliminary) examination to provide confidence boosting edge in the final
preparation.

Note: The benefits and impacts of ‘RAPID REVISION BOOKS’ will multiply if you study them
according to *MONTHLY ‘REVISION AND PRACTICE’ TIMETABLE released by SHIELD IAS.

* SHIELD IAS has launched for students ‘MONTHLY REVISION AND PRACTICE TIMETABLE’.
This timetable is made available for the 5 MONTH PERIOD starting from January 2024 till May
2024, hence leading students to 26th May, 2024 through a proper ‘DAILY TIME MANAGEMENT
SCHEDULE’. {Refer to the timetable: Visit website: www.shieldias.in (resources section) }

RAPID BOOK 4
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Highlights of this book:
o One stop solution for the standard study material.
o Research and curation of content as per relevance of the examination.
o Covers the content comprehensively.
o Content combined with suitable images.
o Lucid presentation for speed reading and memorisation.
o Builds confidence for handling both MCQs and Essay type questions.

Hence, this revision book takes care of detailed knowledge of subject, and relevant facts, alongwith
sound mix of relational understanding.
The overall emphasis is on making students supremely confident for the examination.
Start your journey of sound preparation with SHIELD IAS revision material to emerge ahead in the journey
of Civil Services Examination preparation.
Relish the revision material.

Best of Efforts and Sound Luck!

From
Ritesh Kumar Singh (Academic Director, Shield IAS)
Ex- Civil Servant
Ex-Sr. Faculty & Head Content and Quality Management, Rau’s IAS Study Circle
The Quality is Here Now!
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SIGNIFICANCE OF CRISPR-BASED 23
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
THERAPEUTIC SOLUTIONS
GENES 01
PLASMA 23
GENECTIC CODE 01
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE 24
GENOME 02
POMPE DISEASE 25
GENOME SEQUENCING 03
MITOCHONDRIA 26
WHOLE GENOME SEQUENCING 04
CRISTAE 27
DNA AND RNA 05
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX 27
RNA 06 28
MITOCHONDRIAL
MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) 07 REPLACEMENT THERAPY

RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL 29

08
SCLEROSIS (ALS)
TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) 08
BROWN FAT 29
RNA VACCINES 08
SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA 29
NASAL VACCINE 09
BIO-POLYMER 30
R21/MATRIX-M VACCINE 12
CHOANOFLAGELLATES 30
R21/Matrix-M Vaccine 12
ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE 31
METAGENOMICS 13
SOIL MICROBES 32
IMMUNE RESPONSE 14
MEFTAL DRUG 33
INNATE IMMUNITY 14
INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA 33
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY 15 COMMISSION (IPC)
PASSIVE IMMUNITY 15 PHARMACOPOEIAL DISCUSSION 34
BLOOD COMPONENTS 15 GROUP (PDG)
DNA NANOBALL STRATEGY 15 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS 34

UTERUS TRANSPLANT 16 HELIUM 35

GMO CROPS 17 BENZENE 36

GM RUBBER NEON 37
17
18 VANADIUM 38
DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION
19 NICKEL 39
FRAGILE X SYNDROME
TANTALUM 40
DIABETES 19
Uses of Tantalum 40
MUCORMYCOSIS 20
FOUCAULT’S PENDULUM 41
EPIGENETICS 21
Coriolis force 41
CRISPR-CAS9 23
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 42

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
GRAPHENE 42 Chimeric 58

NUCLEAR REACTOR 43 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME 58

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR 44 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- PHYSICS 59

REACTOR Research 59
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR 44 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- CHEMISTRY 59
Light Water Reactors (LWR) 44 Research 59

Heavy Water Reactors 44 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- MEDICINE 60

Gas-Cooled Reactors 44 Research 60

Fast Reactors 45 CAR-T CELL THERAPY 61

CRITICAL MASS 45 T-cells 61

NUCLEAR ENERGY 45 ELECTRIC BATTERIES 62

SMALL MODULAR REACTOR 47 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS 63

(SMR) RASTRIYA VIGYAN PURASKAR 64
NUCLEAR FUSION 49 Included Awards 64
NUCLEAR BOMB 51 CORD BLOOD BANKING 65
FISSION-BASED NUCLEAR BOMBS 51 TECHNOLOGY
(ATOMIC BOMBS)
QUANTUM COMPUTER 67
FUSION-BASED NUCLEAR BOMBS 52
(THERMONUCLEAR BOMBS) QUBIT 67

Implosion-Type Design 52 SUPERPOSITION 67

Gun-Type Design 52 ENTANGLEMENT 67

ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY 53 DECOHERENCE 68

BOARD (AERB) QUANTUM SUPREMACY 68
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE 53 QUANTUM DOTS 69
TOMV AND CMV 54 Key principles and properties of 69
ENDOMETRIOSIS 55 quantum dots

POLYPILLS 56 QUANTUM ENGINE 70

SCRUB TYPHUS 56 QUANTUM STATE 70

CHIKUNGUNYA VACCINE 57 Fermions 70

Ixchiq Vaccine 57 Bosons 70

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES 57 Pauli's Exclusion Principle states 71

Examples of Monoclonal Antibodies 58 QUANTUM ENGINE 71

58 SUPERCOMPUTER 71
Murine
DIGITAL COOKIES 72
Human 58
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH 73
Humanised 58
COOKIES

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
GENERATIVE AI 73 CLOUD COMPUTING 90
MULTIMODAL ARTIFICIAL 75 PUBLIC CLOUD 91
INTELLIGENCE (AI) PRIVATE CLOUD 91
Recent Developments in Multimodal AI 75 HYBRID CLOUD 92
What are the Advantages of Multimodal 76 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE 93
AI over Unimodal AI? (HEV)
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMODAL 76 HEVs (Hybrid EVs) 94
AI
PHEVs (Plug-in hybrid vehicles) 94
CHALLENGES OF MULTIMODAL 76
BEVs/full EVs 94
AI
FCVs (Fuel cell vehicles) 95
AI SUMMIT 2023 77
BIOSECURITY 95
THERMAL DEPOLYMERIZATION 78
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY 97
KAVACH 79
DARK NET 98
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY 79
SURFACE WEB 98
GEOSPATIAL DATA 80
DEEP WEB 98
REMOTE SENSING 81
DARK NET 98
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 81
SYSTEM (GIS) DEEPFAKES 99

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) 81 Detection 100

INTERNET MAPPING 81 OPTICAL FIBRES 101

TECHNOLOGIES 3D PRINTING 102
LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS 81 CLOUD SEEDING 103
RADIATIVE COOLING 82 Types of Cloud Seeding 104
TECHNOLOGY
Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding 104
MICROBIAL FUEL CELL 83
Static Cloud Seeding 104
STEM CELL TRANSPLANT 84
Dynamic Cloud Seeding 104
STEM CELLS 84
INTERNET OF THINGS 104
BONE MARROW 84
MACHINE LEARNING 105
AUTOLOGOUS TRANSPLANT 85
SAM ALTMAN’S BIOMETRIC 106
ALLOGENIC TRANSPLANT 85 PROJECT
TISSUE CULTURE 85 WORLDCOIN 106
PRIMARY CULTURES 86 CELL BROADCAST TECHNOLOGY 107
HAYFLICK LIMIT 86 ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY 108
ENZYMES 87 CARBON CAPTURE AND 109
FACIAL RECOGNITION 88 STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY (FRT) OXY-FUEL COMBUSTION 110
LK-99 90 BIOROCK TECHNOLOGY 111

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
DRS TECHNOLOGY 112 BLUE MOON 125
SALINITY GRADIENT ENERGY 113 SUPER BLUE MOON 125
PRESSURE RETARDED OSMOSIS 113
SUN TERMINOLOGIES 125
(PRO)
SOLAR CORONA 125
REVERSED ELECTRO DIALYSIS (RED) 113
PHOTOSPHERE 126
PULSE OXIMETER 114
CHROMOSPHERE 126
BLOOD OXYGEN 114
SOLAR WIND 126
NANO UREA FERTILISER 114
LAGRANGE POINTS 126
IRON FORTIFICATION 116
L1 126
GPS TRACKER ANKLETS 116
L2 126
SPACE AND TECHNOLOGY
L3 127
STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS 118
L4 AND L5 127
ANTIMATTER 118
OSIRIS-REX MISSION 127
QUARKS 118
NVS-01 SATELLITE 128
LEPTONS 118
NAVIC 129
FERMION 118
ADITYA L1 130
BOSON 118
ADITYA-L1 PAYLOADS 130
NEUTRINOS 119
MISSION MERCURY 132
DARK MATTER & DARK ENERGY 119
MAGNETAR 133
GOD PARTICLE 120
EXOPLANET 133
BLACK HOLE 120
HD 110067 134
PRIMORDIAL BLACK HOLES 121
ISRO AND SVALBARD 134
EINSTEIN CROSS 122
BETELGEUSE 136
WEIRD GALAXY 123
GRAVITATIONAL WAVES 136
SOLAR ECLIPSE 123
TYPES OF EARTH ORBITS 137
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSES 123
GEOSTATIONARY EARTH ORBIT 138
PARTIAL SOLAR ECLIPSES 123 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO) 138
ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSES 124 MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO) 138

HYBRID SOLAR ECLIPSES 124 POLAR ORBIT AND SUN- 139

SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT (SSO)
GALACTIC TIDES 124
GEOSTATIONARY TRANSFER 139
MOON TERMINOLOGIES 125
ORBIT (GTO)
FULL MOON 125
EARTH OBSERVING SATELLITE 139
SUPER MOON 125 (EOS-01)

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
DEPARTMENT OF SPACE 140 REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE – 150
141 TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATOR
NATIONAL ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH
(RLV-TD)
LABORATORY (NARL), TIRUPATI
SCRAMJET ENGINE - TD 151
NORTH EASTERN SPACE APPLICATIONS 141
COMMUNICATION SATELLITES 151
CENTRE (NESAC), SHILLONG
EARTH OBSERVATION 152
SEMI-CONDUCTOR LABORATORY (SCL), 141 SATELLITES
MOHALI ASTROSAT 152
SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY (SPL), 141 MARS ORBITER MISSION 152
MOHALI SATELLITE NAVIGATION 153
INDIAN CENTRE FOR SPACE PHYSICS 141 GPS AIDED GEO AUGMENTED 153
(ICSP), KOLKATA NAVIGATION (GAGAN)
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE 141 INDIAN REGIONAL NAVIGATION 153
SENSING (IIRS), DEHRADUN SATELLITE SYSTEM (IRNSS) : NAVIC
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SPACE SCIENCE 142 SMALL SATELLITES 154
AND TECHNOLOGY (IIST), INDIAN MINI SATELLITE -1 (IMS-1) 154
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
NDIAN MINI SATELLITE -2 (IMS-2) BUS 154
PHYSICAL RESEARCH LABORATORY 142
GAGANYAAN 154
(PRL), AHMEDABAD
GSLV F10 AND EOS-03 155
KESSLER SYNDROME 142
INDIAN SPACE ASSOCIATION 156
SPACE SUSTAINABILITY 143 (ISPA)
ASTEROID 16 PSYCHE 145 NASA TO DECOMMISSION ISS 157
CHANDRAYAAN 3 145 1967 OUTER SPACE TREATY 158
INDIA AND SPACE SCIENCE JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE 159

LAUNCH VEHICLES 147 SPACEX 161

SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE-3 147 ARTEMIS MISSION 161

(SLV-3) PSLV- C56 162
AUGMENTED SATELLITE 148 DS-SAR SATELLITE 163
LAUNCH VEHICLE (ASLV)
POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH 148
MISCELLANEOUS
VEHICLE (PSLV) AERV 164
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE 149 AGNI-P MISSILE 164
LAUNCH VEHICLE (GSLV)
PINAKA 164
GSLV MK III 149 ASTRA MISSILE 165
SOUNDING ROCKETS 150 CHAFF TECHNOLOGY 166
CYBER SECURITY 167

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
MALWARE 167 DOMAIN-BASED MESSAGE 170

VIRUS 167 AUTHENTICATION, REPORTING, AND

CONFORMANCE (DMARC)
TROJANS 167
DOMAIN KEYS IDENTIFIED MAIL 170
RANSOMWARE 167
(DKIM)
ADWARE 168
MULTI-FACTOR AUTHENTICATION 170
BOTNETS 168
(MFA)
SQL INJECTION 168 TELEGRAM BOTS 170
PHISHING 168 C-295 MW TRANSPORT 171
AIRCRAFT
MAN-IN-THE-MIDDLE ATTACK 168
ICGS VIGRAHA 171
DENIAL-OF-SERVICE ATTACK 168
MPATGM 172
MAZE RANSOMWARE 168
KRIVAK CLASS SHIPS 172
AKIRA RANSOMWARE 168
P-8I PATROL AIRCRAFT 173

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
 SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024)

SCIENCE

 GENES
o The gene is considered the basic unit of inheritance. Genes are passed from parents to offspring
and contain the information needed to specify physical and biological traits. Most genes code
for specific proteins, or segments of proteins, which have differing functions within the body.
Humans have approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes.
GENECTIC CODE
o Genetic code refers to the instructions contained in a gene that tell a cell how to make a specific
protein. Each gene’s code uses the four nucleotide bases of DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G) and thymine (T) — in various ways to spell out three-letter “codons” that specify
which amino acid is needed at each position within a protein.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

 GENOME
A genome is an organism’s complete set of genetic instructions. Each genome contains all of
the information needed to build that organism and allow it to grow and develop.
o Our bodies are made up of millions of cells, each with their own complete set of instructions
for making us, like a recipe book for the body. This set of instructions is known as our genome
and is made up of DNA. Each cell in the body, for example, a skin cell or a liver cell, contains
this same set of instructions:
▪ The instructions in our genome are made up of DNA.
▪ Within DNA is a unique chemical code that guides our growth, development and health.
▪ This code is determined by the order of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA,
adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine, A, C, G and T for short.
▪ DNA has a twisted structure in the shape of a double helix.
▪ Single strands of DNA are coiled up into structures called chromosomes.
▪ Your chromosomes are located in the nucleus within each cell.
▪ Within our chromosomes, sections of DNA are "read" together to form genes.
▪ Genes control different characteristics such as eye colour and height.
▪ All living things have a unique genome.
▪ The human genome is made of 3.2 billion bases of DNA but other organisms have different
genome sizes.

GENOME MAP
o A genome map helps scientists navigate around the genome. Like road maps and other familiar
maps, a genome map is a set of landmarks that tells people where they are, and helps them get
where they want to go.
o The landmarks on a genome map might include short DNA sequences, regulatory sites that
turn genes on and off, and genes themselves. Often, genome maps are used to help scientists
find new genes.
o Road maps chart well-known territory surveyed with astonishing precision, but a genome map
is a map of a new frontier.
o Some parts of the genome have been mapped in great detail, while others remain relatively
uncharted territory. It may turn out that a few landmarks on current genome maps appear in
the wrong place or at the wrong distance from other landmarks. But over time, as scientists
continue to explore the genome frontier, maps will become more accurate and more detailed.
A genome map is a work in progress.
WHAT DOES A GENOME MAP LOOK LIKE?
o Most everyday maps have length and width, latitude and longitude, like the world around us.
But a genome map is one-dimensional—it is linear, like the DNA molecules that make up
the genome itself. A genome map looks like a straight line with landmarks noted at irregular
intervals along it, much like the towns along the map of a highway. The landmarks are usually
inscrutable combinations of letters and numbers that stand for genes or other features—for
example, D14S72, GATA-P7042, and so on.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A GENOME MAP AND A GENOME

SEQUENCE?
o Both are portraits of a genome, but a genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence. A
sequence spells out the order of every DNA base in the genome, while a map simply identifies
a series of landmarks in the genome.
o Sometimes mapping and sequencing are completely separate processes. For example, it's
possible to determine the location of a gene—to "map" the gene—without sequencing it. Thus,
a map may tell you nothing about the sequence of the genome, and a sequence may tell you
nothing about the map.
o Genome maps help scientists find genes, particularly those involved in human disease. This
process is much like a scientific game of hot and cold. Scientists study many families affected
by a disease, tracing the inheritance of the disease and of specific genome landmarks through
several generations. Landmarks that tend to be inherited along with the disease are likely to be
located close to the disease gene and become "markers" for the gene in question.
o Once they have identified a few such markers, scientists know the approximate location of the
disease gene. In this way, they narrow down their search from the entire 3-billion-base-pair
genome to a region of the genome a few million base pairs long.

 GENOME SEQUENCING
o Genome sequencing is figuring out the order of DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a
genome—the order of As, Cs, Gs, and Ts that make up an organism's DNA. The human
genome is made up of over 3 billion of these genetic letters.
o Today, DNA sequencing on a large scale—the scale necessary for ambitious projects such as
sequencing an entire genome—is mostly done by high-tech machines. Much as your eye scans
a sequence of letters to read a sentence, these machines "read" a sequence of DNA bases.
o A DNA sequence that has been translated from life's chemical alphabet into our alphabet of
written letters might look like this:

o That is, in this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is followed by a guanine (G),
which is followed by a thymine (T), which in turn is followed by a cytosine (C),
another cytosine (C), and so on.
WHAT IS GENOME SEQUENCING?
o Genome sequencing is often compared to "decoding," but a sequence is still very much in
code. In a sense, a genome sequence is simply a very long string of letters in a mysterious
language.
o When you read a sentence, the meaning is not just in the sequence of the letters. It is also in
the words those letters make and in the grammar of the language. Similarly, the human
genome is more than just its sequence.
o Imagine the genome as a book written without capitalization or punctuation, without breaks
between words, sentences, or paragraphs, and with strings of nonsense letters scattered
between and even within sentences.
o So sequencing the genome doesn't immediately lay open the genetic secrets of an entire species.
Even with a rough draft of the human genome sequence in hand, much work remains to be
done. Scientists still have to translate those strings of letters into an understanding of how the
genome works: what the various genes that make up the genome do, how different genes are

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

related, and how the various parts of the genome are coordinated. That is, they have to figure
out what those letters of the genome sequence mean.
WHY IS GENOME SEQUENCING SO IMPORTANT?
o Sequencing the genome is an important step towards understanding it.
o At the very least, the genome sequence will represent a valuable shortcut, helping scientists
find genes much more easily and quickly. A genome sequence does contain some clues about
where genes are, even though scientists are just learning to interpret these clues.
o Scientists also hope that being able to study the entire genome sequence will help them
understand how the genome as a whole works—how genes work together to direct the growth,
development and maintenance of an entire organism.
o Finally, genes account for less than 25 percent of the DNA in the genome, and so
knowing the entire genome sequence will help scientists study the parts of the genome outside
the genes. This includes the regulatory regions that control how genes are turned on an
off, as well as long stretches of "nonsense" or "junk" DNA—so called because we don't
yet know what, if anything, it does.

 WHOLE GENOME SEQUENCING

o Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is a comprehensive method for analyzing entire

genomes.
o Genomic information has been instrumental in identifying inherited disorders,
characterizing the mutations that drive cancer progression, and tracking disease
outbreaks. Rapidly dropping sequencing costs and the ability to produce large volumes of
data with today’s sequencers make whole-genome sequencing a powerful tool for genomics
research.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

o While this method is commonly associated with sequencing human genomes, the scalable,
flexible nature of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology makes it equally
useful for sequencing any species, such as agriculturally important livestock, plants, or disease-
related microbes.
ADVANTAGES
o Provides a high-resolution, base-by-base view of the genome.
o Captures both large and small variants that might be missed with targeted approaches.
o Identifies potential causative variants for further follow-up studies of gene expression and
regulation mechanisms.
o Delivers large volumes of data in a short amount of time to support assembly of novel genomes.

 DNA and RNA

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Parameter DNA RNA

Structure DNA is a double-stranded It is a single-stranded helix

molecule consisting of a long consisting of a short chain of
chain of nucleotides. nucleotides. A type of helix.
B type of helix.
Function Transmits genetic information to It transfers the genetic code from the
make other cells and new nucleus to the ribosomes to make
organisms. Long-term storage of proteins.
genetic information
Propagation DNA is self-replicating. Synthesized from DNA.
Composition Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
phosphate backbone phosphate backbone
adenine, guanine, cytosine, adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
thymine bases. bases.
Location In the nucleus of a cell and in the Located in the cytoplasm, nucleus,
mitochondria. and in the ribosome.
Nitrogenous GC (Guanine pairs with Cytosine) GC (Guanine pairs with Cytosine) A-
Bases and A-T (Adenine pairs with U (Adenine pairs with Uracil)
Pairing Thymine).
Molecular 2 to 6 million 25,000 to 2 million
Weight
Stability DNA is a more stable molecule Much more reactive than DNA and is
than RNA. DNA is stable under not stable in alkaline conditions.
alkaline conditions.
Ultraviolet (UV) DNA is vulnerable to damage by Much more resistant to damage from
Sensitivity ultraviolet light. UV light than DNA.

 RNA
• Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has
structural similarities to DNA.
• Unlike DNA, however, RNA is most often single-stranded. An RNA molecule has a backbone
made of alternating phosphate groups and the sugar ribose, rather than the deoxyribose found
in DNA.
• Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) or
guanine (G).
• Different types of RNA exist in cells: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
transfer RNA (tRNA). In addition, some RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression.
Certain viruses use RNA as their genomic material.

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 ‘SUCCEED IN’ UPSC EXAMINATION 2025
through

ACHIEVE ‘RANK’ IN UPSC

‘COMPLETE REVISION AND PRACTICE PROGRAM’

Suitable for all students:
✓ Completed GS ‘Foundation’ Coaching but still struggling with lack of confidence
✓ Doing self-study but are clueless about right approach
✓ College students not having regular studies
✓ Working professionals having lack of time for regular studies

BASED ON: DAILY, WEEKLY AND MONTHLY TIMETABLE

Covers all stages- Preliminary, Main Examination and Interview

1. Daily guided revision by UPSC expert: Monday to Friday revision classes (2

hours/day).
2. Revision Material: Daily Class Handouts and Monthly ‘ACHIEVE’ Revision Books
3. Preliminary Examination: Revision classes comprise of - General Studies and CSAT.
4. Main Examination: Revision classes comprise of - Essay Paper, General Studies Papers-
1,2,3 and 4.
5. Planned Completion: Monthly timetable based coverage of subjects
6. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs): Weekly with Answer Keys and explanations;
Monthly Full Length Tests (FLTs)
7. General Studies Main Answers: Writing practice with discussions in class and Tests
8. Essay Paper: Writing Practice with discussions in class and Tests
9. Case studies: Writing Practice with discussions in class and Tests
10. Current Affairs: Monthly Current Affairs Magazine; ; Monthly Current Affairs Quiz;
Current affairs revision classes
11. Performance Improvement: One to one discussion; performance tracker- daily, weekly
and monthly.
12. Prelims build up: ‘Thematic’ and complete ‘General Studies’ FLTs
13. Main examination build up: Fast revision classes, Topic tests, ‘General Studies’ FLTs,
Essay Paper Test.
14. Sessions by Officers
15. Interview Guidance

To know more about: ACHIEVE Program 2025, Detailed Timetable, and the UPSC
Expert (visit the website: www.shieldias.in; Contact: 7037272363)
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

TYPES OF RNA: MRNA, RRNA AND TRNA

MESSENGER RNA (MRNA)

o mRNA accounts for just 5% of the total RNA in the cell. mRNA is the most heterogeneous of
the 3 types of RNA in terms of both base sequence and size. It carries complementary genetic

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

code copied, from DNA during transcription, in the form of triplets of nucleotides called
codons.
o Each codon specifies a particular amino acid, though one amino acid may be coded for by many
different codons. Although there are 64 possible codons or triplet bases in the genetic code,
only 20 of them represent amino acids. There are also 3 stop codons, which indicate that
ribosomes should cease protein generation by translation.
o As part of post-transcriptional processing in eukaryotes, the 5’ end of mRNA is capped with a
guanosine triphosphate nucleotide, which helps in mRNA recognition during translation or
protein synthesis. Similarly, the 3’ end of an mRNA has a poly-A tail or multiple adenylate
residues added to it, which prevents enzymatic degradation of mRNA. Both the 5’ and 3’ end
of an mRNA imparts stability to the mRNA.
RIBOSOMAL RNA (RRNA)
o rRNAs are found in the ribosomes and account for 80% of the total RNA present in the cell.
Ribosomes are composed of a large subunit called the 50S and a small subunit called the 30S,
each of which is made up of its own specific rRNA molecules. Different rRNAs present in the
ribosomes include small rRNAs and large rRNAs, which belong to the small and large subunits
of the ribosome, respectively.
o rRNAs combine with proteins and enzymes in the cytoplasm to form ribosomes, which act as
the site of protein synthesis. These complex structures travel along the mRNA molecule during
translation and facilitate the assembly of amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. They
interact with tRNAs and other molecules that are crucial to protein synthesis.
o In bacteria, the small and large rRNAs contain about 1500 and 3000 nucleotides, respectively,
whereas in humans, they have about 1800 and 5000 nucleotides, respectively. However, the
structure and function of ribosomes is largely similar across all species.
TRANSFER RNA (TRNA)
o tRNA is the smallest of the 3 types of RNA, possessing around 75-95 nucleotides. tRNAs are
an essential component of translation, where their main function is the transfer of amino acids
during protein synthesis. Therefore, they are called transfer RNAs.
o Each of the 20 amino acids has a specific tRNA that binds with it and transfers it to the growing
polypeptide chain. tRNAs also act as adapters in the translation of the genetic sequence of
mRNA into proteins. Thus, they are also called adapter molecules.
o tRNAs have a cloverleaf structure which is stabilized by strong hydrogen bonds between the
nucleotides. They normally contain some unusual bases in addition to the usual 4, which are
formed by methylation of the usual bases. Methyl guanine and methylcytosine are two
examples of methylated bases.

 RNA VACCINES
o Conventional vaccines usually contain inactivated disease-causing organisms or proteins made
by the pathogen (antigens), which work by mimicking the infectious agent. They stimulate the
body’s immune response, so it is primed to respond more rapidly and effectively if exposed to
the infectious agent in the future.
o RNA vaccines use a different approach that takes advantage of the process that cells use to
make proteins: cells use DNA as the template to make messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules,
which are then translated to build proteins.
o An RNA vaccine consists of an mRNA strand that codes for a disease-specific antigen.
o Once the mRNA strand in the vaccine is inside the body’s cells, the cells use the genetic
information to produce the antigen. This antigen is then displayed on the cell surface, where it
is recognised by the immune system.

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WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER VACCINE STRATEGIES?

• Safety: Unlike live-attenuated or viral-vectored vaccines, mRNA is non-infectious and poses
no concern for DNA integration—mainly because it cannot enter the nucleus which contains
DNA. Other strategies such as protein-based or inactivated vaccines also require chemicals and
cell cultures to produce. mRNA is made through a cell-independent process and does not
require inactivation; thus, it poses no safety concerns due to contamination with toxic agents.
• Efficacy: mRNA is rapidly degraded in the body, and cells don't readily take up foreign mRNA.
Recent technology has modified the mRNA molecule to make it more stable and packaged the
molecules in fats (called lipids), increasing cell delivery efficiency. These advances increase the
amount of spike protein produced on your cells, thereby stimulating a more effective immune
response.
• Production: mRNA can be quickly designed and scaled up, if necessary. The manufacturing
is sequence-independent, which makes it highly adaptable to different pathogens. The cost is
also lower than other platforms and will continue to decrease as the technology expands.

 NASAL VACCINE
o The nasal vaccine is a recombinant replication-deficient adenovirus vectored
vaccine with a pre-fusion stabilized spike protein. The vaccine has been approved by the
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation. The nasal vaccine for COVID-19 will further
strengthen the level of preparations to fight the possible rise in infections in India, given the
surge in COVID-19 cases in China.
HOW DOES THE IMMUNE SYSTEM FIGHT PATHOGENS?
o The immune system has two distinct components: Mucosal and Circulatory.
o The Mucosal Immune System provides protection at the mucosal surfaces of the body.
These include the mouth, eyes, middle ear, the mammary and other glands, and
the gastrointestinal, respiratory and urogenital tracts.

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o Sticky secretions cover these mucosal surfaces. Various Antibodies and anti-microbial
proteins are present in these secretions. Immune Cells are also located in the lining of
these surfaces. Together they attack the invading pathogens.
o The Circulatory Immune System generates antibodies and immune cells that
are delivered through the bloodstream to the internal tissues and organs. These
circulating antibodies do not usually reach the mucosal surfaces in large enough amounts to
be effective.
o The Mucosal and Circulatory compartments of the immune system are largely
separate and independent.
WHAT ARE THE KEY PLAYERS IN MUCOSAL IMMUNITY?
o Proteins known as Antibodies or Immunoglobulins are the most well-known immune
components. Antibodies are produced by the immune system in response to invading
agents that the body recognises as ‘non-self’ (or foreign) such as viruses and bacteria.
o Antibodies bind to specific antigens. Antigen is a substance that enters the body and
starts a process that can cause disease. The presence of antigens in the body generally
triggers an immune response. Antibodies that bind to antigens can either inactivate them,
as they do with toxins and viruses, or kill bacteria with the help of other immune
proteins or cells.
o The Mucosal Immune System generates a specialized form of antibody called Secretory
IgA, or SIgA. SIgA is located in mucosal secretions, such
as saliva, tears, nasal and intestinal secretions, and breast milk. It is resistant to
digestive enzymes that readily destroy other forms of antibodies. It is also superior to
most other immunoglobulins at neutralizing viruses and toxins, and at preventing
bacteria from attaching to and invading the cells lining the surfaces of organs.
o There are also many other key players in the mucosal immune system, including different types
of anti-microbial proteins that kill pathogens, as well as immune cells that generate
antibody responses.
HOW DOES THE COVID-19 VIRUS ENTER THE BODY?
o The vast majority of infectious diseases that affect humans are contracted through the
mucosal surfaces of the body, such as through the act of breathing, eating, or sexual contact.
Important exceptions include infections that originate from wounds as well as pathogens
transmitted by bites from insects or ticks.
o The virus, that causes COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), can enter the body through the nose, mouth,
or eyes if droplets or aerosols come into contact with these areas. If the virus travels deep into
the lungs and triggers an overactive and inflammatory immune response, it has the potential
to cause severe disease.
o Evidence indicates that the COVID-19 virus most likely makes its initial contact with
the immune system through the mucous membranes that line the surfaces of the
mouth, nose, and throat. This is supported by the presence of SIgA antibodies (against the
SARS-CoV-2) in the secretions of infected people, including their saliva, nasal fluid and tears.
These locations, especially the tonsils, have specialized areas that specifically trigger mucosal
immune responses.
o Research suggests that if these SIgA antibody responses form as a result of vaccination or prior
infection, or occur quickly enough in response to a new infection, they could prevent
serious disease by confining the virus to the upper respiratory tract until it is
eliminated.

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Source: Bharat Biotech

HOW DO NASAL VACCINES FOR COVID-19 WORK?
o Nasal Vaccines can be administered via mucosal routes such as the mouth or nose.
This induces an immune response by stimulating the mucosal immune system, causing
mucosal secretions to produce SIgA antibodies. Antibody Immunoglobulin A (Ig A, SIgA
in its secretory form) plays an important role in the immune function of mucous membranes.
The amount of IgA produced in association with mucosal membranes is greater than all other
types of antibody combined.
o In nasal vaccines, the viral antigens intended to stimulate the immune system would be taken
up by immune cells within the lining of the nose or tonsils. Researchers believe nasal
vaccines work analogously to oral mucosal vaccines. Antigens in the vaccine induce B
cells in mucosal sites to mature into plasma cells that secrete a form of IgA. The
IgA is then transported into mucosal secretions throughout the body, where it
becomes SIgA.
o If the SIgA antibodies in the nose, mouth or throat target SARS-CoV-2, they could neutralize
the virus before it can drop down into the lungs and establish an infection.
WHAT ADVANTAGE DO NASAL VACCINES HAVE AGAINST COVID-19?
o First, it provides local immunity (nose, where the virus first enters) and is expected to be
more effective than other vaccines. This is because these Nasal vaccine will help block the
virus at its point of entry, or at least to confine it to the upper respiratory tract, where it
might inflict relatively little damage.
o Second, Nasal vaccines are also expected to limit the transmissibility of the COVID-
19 virus. Research has shown that COVID-19 spreads during normal breathing and speech,
and is exacerbated by sneezing, coughing, shouting, singing and other forms of
exertion. Presence of SIgA antibodies (due to vaccine) in nasal secretions will limit the
transmission through above mechanisms. (Existing vaccines do not induce SIgA antibody
responses. Injected vaccines primarily induce circulating IgG antibodies, which are effective
in preventing serious disease in the lungs).
o Third, It is easy to administer with no need for syringes and trained manpower.
o Fourth, it will be practical and affordable. Nasal vaccines are expected to have lower
costs, easy distribution, etc. Nasal vaccines for COVID-19 will not require cold chain
infrastructure with very low temperature.
o Fifth, iNCOVACC could be developed as a multivalent so as to cover a wider spectrum of the
Sars-CoV-2 virus.

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o Sixth, Nasal vaccines may be a useful supplement to injected vaccines in hot spots of
infection.

 R21/Matrix-M VACCINE
The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended a new vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, for the
prevention of malaria in children.
• The R21 vaccine is the second malaria vaccine recommended by the WHO, following the
RTS,S/AS01 vaccine, which received a WHO recommendation in 2021.
• WHO is now reviewing the vaccine for prequalification, which is the WHO stamp of
approval, and will enable GAVI (a global vaccine alliance) and UNICEF to buy the vaccine
from manufacturers.
MALARIA
• It is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through
the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• There are 5 parasite species that cause malaria in humans, and 2 of these species,
Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, pose the greatest threat.
• Malaria is common in tropical areas where it’s hot and humid.
• Children under 5 years of age are the most vulnerable group affected by malaria.
SYMPTOMS

 Fever and sweating.

 Chills that shake your whole body
 Headache and muscle aches.
 Fatigue.
 Chest pain, breathing problems, and cough.
 Diarrhoea, nausea, and vomiting.
 As malaria gets worse, it can cause anemia and jaundice.
 The most severe form of malaria, which may progress to a coma, is known as cerebral
malaria. This type represents about 15% of deaths in children and nearly 20% of adult deaths.
THE MAIN ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS ARE:
• chloroquine
• hydroxychloroquine
• primaquine
• artemisinin-based therapy
• atovaquone-proguanil

R21/MATRIX-M VACCINE
• It was developed by the University of Oxford and the Serum Institute of India with
support from the European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership ('EDCTP'),
the Wellcome Trust, and the European Investment Bank ('EIB').
• It is the first malaria vaccine to reach the WHO’s target of 75% efficacy.

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• It has already been approved for use in Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria.
• The vaccine will be rolled out in those African countries in early 2024 and will be available in
mid-2024 in other countries.

 METAGENOMICS
• Metagenomics is a field of molecular biology and genomics.
• It refers to the application of sequencing techniques to analyse the totality of the
genomic material (DNA or RNA) present in a sample.
• Metagenomics uses gene sequencing to discover proteins in samples from environments
across Earth, microbes living in the soil, in extreme environments like hydrothermal vents,
deep in the oceans and in our guts and on the skin.
• A vast number of proteins, beyond those catalogued in well-studied organisms, exist in the
natural world.
MAJOR APPLICATIONS

• Understanding the composition and functional roles of

microbial communities in various environments, such as the
Microbiome human gut, soil, oceans, and plants.
Research
• This knowledge has implications for health, agriculture, and
ecology.
• Identifying novel enzymes, pathways, and metabolic functions from
Biotechnology environmental samples, which can be used for industrial processes,
such as bioremediation, biofuel production, and the synthesis
of valuable chemicals.
• Investigating the role of microbial communities in human health
and disease.
Disease
Diagnosis • Metagenomic analysis can help identify potential pathogens,
study the human microbiome, and understand the impact of microbial
dysbiosis on various health conditions.
Environmental • Assessing the impact of pollution, climate change, and other
Monitoring environmental factors on microbial ecosystems.
• Metagenomics can provide insights into ecosystem health and
aid in conservation efforts.

Pharmaceutical • Exploring natural products and bioactive compounds

Discovery produced by diverse microorganisms in the environment, which may
have potential applications in drug development.

Evolutionary • Examining the evolutionary relationships between

Studies microorganisms and tracing the evolution of specific genes or functions
within microbial communities.
Agriculture • Analyzing the microbiota of crops, livestock, and food
and Food products to improve agricultural practices, enhance crop yield, and
Safety ensure food safety.

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• Identifying novel species and genetic elements with unique

Bioprospecting properties that can be used for various purposes, including
biotechnology, medicine, and industrial processes.

 IMMUNE RESPONSE
o The immune system protects the
body from possibly harmful
substances by recognizing
and responding to antigens.
o Antigens are substances (usually
proteins) on the surface of cells,
viruses, fungi, or bacteria.
Nonliving substances such as
toxins, chemicals, drugs, and
foreign particles (such as a
splinter) can also be antigens.
o The immune system recognizes
and destroys, or tries to destroy,
substances that contain antigens.
INNATE IMMUNITY
o Innate, or nonspecific, immunity
is the defense system with which
you were born. It protects you
against all antigens. Innate
immunity involves barriers that
keep harmful materials from
entering your body. These
barriers form the first line of
defense in the immune response.
Examples of innate immunity
include:
o Cough reflex
o Enzymes in tears and skin oils
o Mucus, which traps bacteria and
small particles
o Skin
o Stomach acid
o Innate immunity also comes in a
protein chemical form, called
innate humoral immunity.
Examples include the body's
complement system and
substances called interferon and
interleukin-1 (which causes
fever).
o If an antigen gets past these barriers, it is attacked and destroyed by other parts of the immune
system.

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ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
o Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to various antigens. Your immune
system builds a defense against that specific antigen.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
o Passive immunity is due to antibodies that are produced in a body other than your own. Infants
have passive immunity because they are born with antibodies that are transferred through the
placenta from their mother. These antibodies disappear between ages 6 and 12 months.
o Passive immunization may also be due to injection of antiserum, which contains antibodies
that are formed by another person or animal. It provides immediate protection against an
antigen, but does not provide long-lasting protection. Immune serum globulin (given for
hepatitis exposure) and tetanus antitoxin are examples of passive immunization.
BLOOD COMPONENTS
o The immune system includes certain types of white blood cells. It also includes chemicals and
proteins in the blood, such as antibodies, complement proteins, and interferon. Some of these
directly attack foreign substances in the body, and others work together to help the immune
system cells.
o Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. There are B and T type lymphocytes.
o B lymphocytes become cells that produce antibodies. Antibodies attach to a specific antigen
and make it easier for the immune cells to destroy the antigen.
o T lymphocytes attack antigens directly and help control the immune response. They also
release chemicals, known as cytokines, which control the entire immune response.
o As lymphocytes develop, they normally learn to tell the difference between your own body
tissues and substances that are not normally found in your body. Once B cells and T cells are
formed, a few of those cells will multiply and provide "memory" for your immune system. This
allows your immune system to respond faster and more efficiently the next time you are
exposed to the same antigen. In many cases, it will prevent you from getting sick. For example,
a person who has had chickenpox or has been immunized against chickenpox is immune from
getting chickenpox again.

 DNA NANOBALL STRATEGY

In a remarkable scientific development, the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) nanoball strategy has
emerged as a groundbreaking, cost-effective technology for the rapid detection of pathogens in
the field.
• Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause disease in their host. They can be
viruses, bacteria, protozoans, or fungi.
• The DNA nanoball strategy combines nucleic acids-based diagnostics and loop-
mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technology for rapid pathogen detection.
• LAMP is a process that amplifies circular DNA molecules into long strands that contain
multiple copies of DNA. These strands then fold into spherical structures called DNA
nanoballs, which can be easily observed by a microscope or an electrical device.
• The design does not need laboratory techniques to support diagnosis. It is a low-cost
technology that can be widely deployed and scalable.

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 UTERUS TRANSPLANT
• Unlike heart or liver transplants, uterus transplants aren’t life-saving transplants. Instead, they
are more like limb or skin transplants – which improve the quality of individuals’
lives.
• Uterus transplants can help women who lack a uterus fulfill their reproductive needs.
• The first live birth after a uterus transplant occurred in Sweden in 2014, marking a
breakthrough in treating uterine factor infertility.
STEPS INVOLVED IN A UTERUS TRANSPLANT:
• The donor's uterus, whether from a live or deceased donor, is rigorously examined for viability.
• Live donors undergo various tests, including gynaecological examinations and cancer
screenings.
• The procedure doesn’t
connect the uterus to the
fallopian tubes, which ensures
the ovum from the ovaries moves
to the uterus – so the individual
can’t become pregnant
through natural means.
• Instead, doctors remove the
recipient’s ova, create
embryos using in vitro
fertilization, and freeze them
embryos (cryopreservation).
• Once the newly transplanted
uterus is ‘ready’, the doctors
implant the embryos in the
uterus.
• Robot-assisted laparoscopy is used to precisely remove the donor's uterus, making the
process less invasive.
CONSIDERATIONS AND SIDE EFFECTS
• Immunosuppressant drugs are necessary to prevent rejection but may cause side effects.
• Side effects include kidney and bone marrow toxicity and an increased risk of diabetes and
cancer.
• For these concerns, the uterus must be removed after successful childbirth and regular follow-
ups for at least a decade are recommended after childbirth.
FURTHER,
• Researchers, at the University of Gothenburg, are working on bioengineered uteri.
These are created using stem cells taken from a woman's blood or bone marrow as a foundation
for a 3D scaffold.
• Artificial uteri could eliminate the need for live donors, addressing ethical concerns and
reducing the potential risks to healthy donors.
• Artificial uteri could benefit women facing infertility issues.

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 GMO CROPS
o Under the broadest definition, the use of biological sciences to develop products, conventional
plant and animal breeding techniques, conducted since the dawn of civilization, fall under
biotechnology. In the popular press, biotechnology generally refers to newly-developed
scientific methods used to create products by altering the genetic makeup of organisms and
producing unique individuals or traits that are not easily obtained through conventional
breeding techniques. These products are often referred to as transgenic, bioengineered, or
genetically modified because they contain foreign genetic material.
ADVANTAGES
o Pesticide Resistance in Insect Pests
o Bt has been widely used as a microbial spray because it is toxic only to caterpillars.
o Effects on Beneficial Organisms
o Studies show that Bt crops exude Bt in concentrations high enough to be toxic to some
beneficial soil organisms.
o Antibiotic Resistance
o The transfer of genes for transgenic crops is accomplished by the use of what are called
antibiotic-resistant marker genes. This practice carries the possible danger of spreading
antibiotic-resistant bacteria into the environment
o Genetic Diversity Reduction in GMO Crops
o As fewer and larger firms dominate the customer base of seed and biotechnology markets,
transgenic and gene-edited crops may continue the current trend toward simplification of
cropping systems by reducing the diversity of crops and cultivars planted
o Food Safety Concerns
o Possibility of toxins in food
o Possibility of new pathogens
o Reduced nutritional value
o Introduction of human allergens
o Transfer of antibiotic resistance to humans
o Unexpected immune-system and genetic effects from the introduction of novel compounds
o Farm-Management Issues
o Farmers who grow both transgenic, non-organic, and certified organic or certified non-GMO
varieties of the same crop will need to segregate them during all production, harvesting,
storage, and transportation phases if they sell into differentiated markets or plan to save their
own seed from the non-GMO or organic crops.

 GM RUBBER
• GM Rubber Crop has been developed at the Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII) in
Kerala.
HOW WAS GM RUBBER DEVELOPED?
• GM rubber was developed by inserting the MnSOD (manganese containing superoxide
dismutase) gene which was taken from the rubber plant itself.

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WHAT WAS THE NEED OF GM RUBBER?

• Natural rubber is a native of warm humid Amazon forests and is not naturally suited for the
colder conditions in the Northeast which is one of the largest producers of rubber in India. Due
to this, the growth of young rubber plants remains suspended during the winter months.
This leads to progressive drying of the soil.
• However, the GM rubber plants are expected to overcome the severe cold conditions during
winter which is a major factor affecting the growth of young rubber plants. Hence, this is the
reason GM Rubber crop has been developed.
SIGNIFICANCE OF GM RUBBER:
• Firstly, the GM Rubber is the first GM crop developed exclusively for the North-East.
• Secondly, GM Rubber has the ability to protect itself from the adverse effects of severe
environmental stresses such as cold, drought among others.
• Thirdly, there are no plant species in India that can breed with natural rubber. Therefore,
there is no risk of genes flowing from GM rubber into any native species, a concern often raised
by environmental groups.

 DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION

o Physicians at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) have successfully treated a
patient with severe depression by recognising and tapping into the brain circuits linked with
depressive brain patterns. The physicians have tried to reset these patterns, which they have
said is the equivalent of using a pacemaker for the heart.
o The work, which represents a landmark in the use of neuroscience to treat psychiatric
disorders, has been published in the journal Nature Medicine.
o The doctors used an existing technique called deep brain stimulation (DBS), customising
it for this patient’s case.
o DBS is a surgical procedure in which electrodes are implanted into certain brain
areas. These electrodes, or leads, generate electrical impulses that control abnormal brain
activity.
o The electrical impulses can also adjust for the chemical
imbalances within the brain that cause various
conditions.
o A DBS system has three components (see illustration):
▪ The electrode, or lead. This is a thin, insulated wire
inserted through a small opening in the skull and
implanted into a specific brain area.
▪ The extension wire. This too is insulated, and is
passed under the skin of the head, neck and shoulder,
connecting the electrode to the third component of the
system.
▪ The internal pulse generator (IPG) is the third
component. It is usually implanted under the skin in the
upper chest, according to the AANS.

o Conditions that are traditionally treated using DBS include dystonia, epilepsy, essential
tumour, obsessive-compulsive disorder and Parkinson’s disease.

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o In treating depression, however, previous clinical trials with DBS has shown limited success
because most devices are only able to deliver constant electrical stimulation to one area of the
brain.
o During this treatment, UCSF physicians customised a new DBS device, which would stimulate
the brain whenever it recognised the depressive pattern. Additionally, the team of physicians
had also found a neural biomarker that indicated the onset of symptoms. Using the customised
DBS device, they were able to stimulate a different area of the brain, which in turn created
immediate therapy for the brain.

 FRAGILE X SYNDROME
o Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a genetic disorder. FXS is caused by changes in a gene that
scientists called FMR1 gene when it was first discovered.
o The FMR1 gene usually makes a protein called FMRP. FMRP is needed for brain
development.
o People who have FXS do not make this protein. People who have other fragile X-associated
disorders have changes in their FMR1 gene but usually make some of the protein.
o FXS affects both males and females. However, females often have milder symptoms than
males. The exact number of people who have FXS is unknown, but a review of research studies
estimated that about 1 in 7,000 males about 1 in 11,000 females have been diagnosed with
FXS.
SIGNS THAT A CHILD MIGHT HAVE FXS INCLUDE:
o Developmental delays (not sitting, walking, or talking at the same time as other children the
same age);
o Learning disabilities (trouble learning new skills); and
o Social and behavior problems (such as not making eye contact, anxiety, trouble paying
attention, hand flapping, acting and speaking without thinking, and being very active).
o Males who have FXS usually have some degree of intellectual disability that can range from
mild to severe. Females with FXS can have normal intelligence or some degree of intellectual
disability. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) also occur more frequently in people with FXS.

o FXS can be diagnosed by testing a person’s DNA from a blood test. A doctor or genetic
counselor can order the test. Testing also can be done to find changes in the FMR1 gene that
can lead to fragile X-associated disorders.
o A diagnosis of FXS can be helpful to the family because it can provide a reason for a child’s
intellectual disabilities and behavior problems.
o This allows the family and other caregivers to learn more about the disorder and manage care
so that the child can reach his or her full potential.

 DIABETES
o Diabetes is a disease that occurs when your blood glucose, also called blood sugar, is too high.
o Blood glucose is your main source of energy and comes from the food you eat.
o Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps glucose from food get into your
cells to be used for energy. Sometimes your body doesn’t make enough—or any—insulin
or doesn’t use insulin well. Glucose then stays in your blood and doesn’t reach your cells.

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o Over time, having too much glucose in your blood can cause health problems. Although
diabetes has no cure, you can take steps to manage your diabetes and stay healthy.
o Sometimes people call diabetes “a touch of sugar” or “borderline diabetes.” These terms
suggest that someone doesn’t really have diabetes or has a less serious case, but every case of
diabetes is serious.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIABETES?
o Type 1 diabetes: If you have type 1 diabetes, your body does not make insulin. Your immune
system attacks and destroys the cells in your pancreas that make insulin. Type 1 diabetes is
usually diagnosed in children and young adults, although it can appear at any age.
People with type 1 diabetes need to take insulin every day to stay alive.
o Type 2 diabetes: If you have type 2 diabetes, your body does not make or use insulin
well. You can develop type 2 diabetes at any age, even during childhood. However, this type of
diabetes occurs most often in middle-aged and older people. Type 2 is the most
common type of diabetes.
o Gestational diabetes: Gestational diabetes develops in some women when they are
pregnant. Most of the time, this type of diabetes goes away after the baby is born. However,
if you’ve had gestational diabetes, you have a greater chance of developing type 2 diabetes later
in life. Sometimes diabetes diagnosed during pregnancy is actually type 2 diabetes.

o Other types of diabetes: Less common types include monogenic diabetes, which is an
inherited form of diabetes, and cystic fibrosis-related diabetes.
o Health problems : Over time, high blood glucose leads to problems such as:- heart disease,
stroke. kidney disease, eye problems, dental disease, nerve damage, foot problems.

 MUCORMYCOSIS
o Mucormycosis (sometimes called zygomycosis) is a serious but rare fungal infection caused
by a group of molds called mucormycetes. These fungi live throughout the environment,
particularly in soil and in decaying organic matter, such as leaves, compost piles, or rotten
wood.
o People get mucormycosis by coming in contact with the fungal spores in the environment.
For example, the lung or sinus forms of the infection can occur after someone breathes in
spores. These forms of mucormycosis usually occur in people who have health problems or
take medicines that lower the body’s ability to fight germs and sickness.
o Mucormycosis can also develop on the skin after the fungus enters the skin through a cut,
scrape, burn, or other type of skin trauma.
TYPES OF MUCORMYCOSIS
o Rhinocerebral (sinus and brain) mucormycosis is an infection in the sinuses that can
spread to the brain. This form of mucormycosis is most common in people with uncontrolled
diabetes and in people who have had a kidney transplant.
o Pulmonary (lung) mucormycosis is the most common type of mucormycosis in people
with cancer and in people who have had an organ transplant or a stem cell transplant.
o Gastrointestinal mucormycosis is more common among young children than adults,
especially premature and low birth weight infants less than 1 month of age, who have had
antibiotics, surgery, or medications that lower the body’s ability to fight germs and sickness.

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o Cutaneous (skin) mucormycosis: occurs after the fungi enter the body through a break in
the skin (for example, after surgery, a burn, or other type of skin trauma). This is the most
common form of mucormycosis among people who do not have weakened immune systems.
o Disseminated mucormycosis occurs when the infection spreads through the bloodstream
to affect another part of the body. The infection most commonly affects the brain, but also can
affect other organs such as the spleen, heart, and skin.

TYPES OF FUNGI THAT MOST COMMONLY CAUSE MUCORMYCOSIS

Examples are: Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor species, Syncephalastrum species,
Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Apophysomyces species, and Lichtheimia (formerly Absidia)
species.
Symptoms of rhinocerebral (sinus and brain) mucormycosis include:
o One-sided facial swelling
o Headache
o Nasal or sinus congestion
o Black lesions on nasal bridge or upper inside of mouth that quickly become more severe
o Fever

Symptoms of pulmonary (lung) mucormycosis include:

o Fever
o Cough
o Chest pain
o Shortness of breath
o Cutaneous (skin) mucormycosis can look like blisters or ulcers, and the infected area may turn
black. Other symptoms include pain, warmth, excessive redness, or swelling around a wound.

Symptoms of gastrointestinal mucormycosis include:

o Abdominal pain
o Nausea and vomiting
o Gastrointestinal bleeding
o Disseminated mucormycosis typically occurs in people who are already sick from other medical
conditions, so it can be difficult to know which symptoms are related to mucormycosis.
Patients with disseminated infection in the brain can develop mental status changes or coma.

TREATMENT
Common antifungal medications that doctor may prescribe for mucormycosis include:
o amphotericin B (given through an IV)
o posaconazole (given through an IV or orally)
o isavuconazole (given through an IV or orally)

 EPIGENETICS
o Epigenetics is the study of how your behaviours and environment can cause changes
that affect the way your genes work. Unlike genetic changes, epigenetic changes are

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reversible and do not change your DNA sequence, but they can change how your body reads a
DNA sequence.
o Gene expression refers to how often or when proteins are created from the instructions within
your genes. While genetic changes can alter which protein is made, epigenetic changes
affect gene expression to turn genes “on” and “off.” Since your environment and
behaviours, such as diet and exercise, can result in epigenetic changes, it is easy to see the
connection between your genes and your behaviours and environment.
HOW DOES EPIGENETICS WORK?
Epigenetic changes affect gene expression in different ways. Types of epigenetic changes include:
o DNA Methylation: DNA methylation works by adding a chemical group to DNA.
Typically, this group is added to specific places on the DNA, where it blocks the proteins that
attach to DNA to “read” the gene. This chemical group can be removed through a process called
demethylation. Typically, methylation turns genes “off” and demethylation turns genes “on.”
o Histone modification: DNA wraps around proteins called histones. DNA wrapped tightly
around histones cannot be accessed by proteins that “read” the gene. Some genes are wrapped
around histones and are turned “off” while some genes are not wrapped around histones and
are turned “on.” Chemical groups can be added or removed from histones and change whether
a gene is unwrapped or wrapped (“on” or “off”).
o Non-coding RNA: Your DNA is used as instructions for making coding and non-coding RNA.
Coding RNA is used to make proteins. Non-coding RNA helps control gene expression by
attaching to coding RNA, along with certain proteins, to break down the coding RNA so that it
cannot be used to make proteins. Non-coding RNA may also recruit proteins to modify histones
to turn genes “on” or “off.”

HOW CAN YOUR EPIGENETICS CHANGE?

Your epigenetics change as you age, both as part of normal development and aging and in
response to your behaviours and environment.
o Epigenetics and Development: Epigenetic changes begin before you are born. All your
cells have the same genes but look and act differently. As you grow and develop, epigenetics
helps determine which function a cell will have, for example, whether it will become a heart
cell, nerve cell, or skin cell.
o Epigenetics and Age: Your epigenetics change throughout your life. Your epigenetics at
birth is not the same as your epigenetics during childhood or adulthood.
o Epigenetics and Reversibility: Not all epigenetic changes are permanent. Some epigenetic
changes can be added or removed in response to changes in behavior or environment.
Epigenetics and Health: Epigenetic changes can affect your health in different ways:
o Infections: Germs can change your epigenetics to weaken your immune system. This helps
the germ survive.
o Cancer: Certain mutations make you more likely to develop cancer. Likewise, some epigenetic
changes increase your cancer risk. For example, having a mutation in the BRCA1 gene that
prevents it from working properly makes you more likely to get breast and other cancers.
o Nutrition During Pregnancy: A pregnant woman’s environment and behavior during
pregnancy, such as whether she eats healthy food, can change the baby’s epigenetics. Some of
these changes can remain for decades and might make the child more likely to get certain
diseases.

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 CRISPR-Cas9
• CRISPR-Cas9 is the most common, cheap and efficient system used for genome editing.
• CRISPR stands for ‘clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats’.
• CRISPR is the DNA-targeting part of the system which consists of an RNA molecule, or ‘guide’,
designed to bind to specific DNA bases through complementary base-pairing.
• Cas9 stands for CRISPR-associated protein 9, and is the nuclease part that cuts the DNA.
• The CRISPR-Cas9 system was originally discovered in bacteria that use this system to destroy
invading viruses.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CRISPR-BASED THERAPEUTIC SOLUTIONS
▪ Specific Treatment: CRISPR aids in the disease treatment by correcting the underlying
genetic problem. CRISPR-based therapeutic solutions are not in the form of a pill or drug.
Instead, some cells of every patient are extracted, the genes are edited in the
laboratory, and the corrected genes are then re-injected into the patients.
o What is to be edited, and where, is different in different cases. Therefore, a
specific solution needs to be devised for every disease or disorder that is to be
corrected.
• The solutions could be specific to particular population or racial groups, since these
are also dependent on genes.
• The changes in genetic sequences remain with the individual and are not passed on to the
offspring.
▪ Permanent Cure of Genetic Diseases/Anomalies: A vast number of diseases and
disorders are genetic in nature i.e.; they are caused by unwanted changes or mutations in
genes.
o These include common blood disorders like sickle cell anaemia, eye diseases including
colour blindness, several types of cancer, diabetes, HIV, and liver and heart
diseases. Many of these are hereditary as well.
o CRISPR opens up the possibility of finding a permanent cure for many of these
diseases.
o Deformities like stunted or slow growth, speech disorders, or inability to stand or
walk arise out of abnormalities in gene sequences.
• CRISPR presents a potential treatment for the cure of such abnormalities as well.

 PLASMA
Plasma is the often forgotten part of blood. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are
important to body function. But plasma also plays a key role. This fluid carries the blood
components throughout the body.
FACTS ABOUT PLASMA
o Plasma is the largest part of your blood. It, makes up more than half (about 55%) of
its overall content. When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a light yellow liquid.
Plasma carries water, salts and enzymes.
o The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of
the body that need it. Cells also put their waste products into the plasma. The plasma then

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helps remove this waste from the body. Blood plasma also carries all parts of the blood through
your circulatory system.
HOW DOES PLASMA KEEP YOU HEALTHY?
o Plasma is a critical part of the treatment for many serious health problems. This is why there
are blood drives asking people to donate blood plasma.
o Along with water, salt, and enzymes, plasma also contains important components. These
include antibodies, clotting factors, and the proteins albumin and fibrinogen.
When you donate blood, healthcare providers can separate these vital parts from your plasma.
These parts can then be concentrated into various products. These products are then used as
treatments that can help save the lives of people suffering from burns, shock, trauma, and other
medical emergencies.
o The proteins and antibodies in plasma are also used in therapies for rare chronic conditions.
These include autoimmune disorders and hemophilia. People with these conditions can live
long and productive lives because of the treatments. In fact, some health organizations call
plasma "the gift of life."

 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
o Alzheimer’s disease is a condition that affects the brain. The symptoms are mild at first and
become more severe over time. It is named after Dr. Alois Alzheimer, who first described
the condition in 1906.
o Common symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include memory loss, language problems, and
impulsive or unpredictable behaviour.
o Dementia is an umbrella term for a range of conditions that involve a loss of cognitive
functioning.
o Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia. It involves plaques and tangles
forming in the brain. Symptoms start gradually and are most likely to include a decline in
cognitive function and language ability.
o Other types of dementia include Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. A person can have more than one type of dementia.
o These features mean that information cannot pass easily between different areas of the brain
or between the brain and the muscles or organs.
o As the symptoms worsen, it becomes harder for people to remember recent events, to reason,
and to recognize people they know. Eventually, a person with Alzheimer’s disease may need
full-time assistance.
o According to the National Institute on Aging, Alzheimer’s disease is the sixth leading cause of
death in the U.S. However, other recent estimates suggest that it may be the third leading cause
of death, just behind heart disease and cancer.
SYMPTOMS
o Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive condition, meaning that the symptoms get worse over
time. Memory loss is a key feature, and this tends to be one of the first symptoms to develop.
o The symptoms appear gradually, over months or years. If they develop over hours or days, a
person may require medical attention, as this could indicate a stroke.
SYMPTOMS OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE INCLUDE:
Memory loss: A person may have difficulty taking in new information and remembering
information. This can lead to:

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o repeating questions or conversations

o losing objects
o forgetting about events or appointments
o wandering or getting lost

COGNITIVE DEFICITS: A person may experience difficulty with reasoning, complex tasks,
and judgment. This can lead to:
o a reduced understanding of safety and risks
o difficulty with money or paying bills
o difficulty making decisions
o difficulty completing tasks that have several stages, such as getting dressed

PROBLEMS WITH RECOGNITION: A person may become less able to recognize faces or
objects or less able to use basic tools. These issues are not due to problems with eyesight.
o Problems with spatial awareness: A person may have difficulty with their balance, trip over, or
spill things more often, or they may have difficulty orienting clothing to their body when getting
dressed.
o Problems with speaking, reading, or writing: A person may develop difficulties with thinking
of common words, or they may make more speech, spelling, or writing errors.

PERSONALITY OR BEHAVIOUR CHANGES: A person may experience changes in

personality and behavior that include:
o becoming upset, angry, or worried more often than before
o a loss of interest in or motivation for activities they usually enjoy
o a loss of empathy
o compulsive, obsessive, or socially inappropriate behaviour.

 POMPE DISEASE
• Definition and Cause: Pompe disease, or Glycogen Storage Disease Type II, is a rare genetic
disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme acid alpha-glucosidase (GAA).
• Enzyme’s Role: GAA is essential for converting glycogen into glucose within cells’
• Prevalence and Diversity: The disease’s prevalence ranges from 1 in 40,000 to 1 in 300,000
births and affects various ethnicities and populations.
• Variability in Symptoms: The age of onset and severity of Pompe disease can vary, leading
to a wide spectrum of clinical presentations.
IMPACT OF POMPE DISEASE ON INDIVIDUALS
• Muscle Weakness: A primary symptom is progressive muscle weakness, affecting skeletal
and smooth muscles, and causing mobility and respiratory issues.
• Motor Skill Development: Children with Pompe disease often experience delays in motor
milestones like sitting, crawling, and walking.
• Bone Degeneration: Prolonged muscle weakness can lead to joint contractures and skeletal
deformities.

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• Respiratory Complications: Weakened respiratory muscles can cause shortness of breath,

infections, and potentially respiratory failure.
• Cardiac Issues: The disease can affect heart muscles, leading to symptoms like palpitations,
fatigue, and chest pain.
• Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Characterized by thickened heart muscle walls, this
condition can impair heart functions.
• Daily Life Challenges: Patients may struggle with daily activities and require assistive
devices for mobility and respiratory support.
DIAGNOSING POMPE DISEASE
• Enzyme Assays: These tests measure GAA activity to identify enzyme deficiency.
• Genetic Testing: Mutations in the GAA gene are identified through genetic analysis.
• Clinical Evaluation: A comprehensive evaluation of symptoms and medical history is
conducted.
• Diagnostic Approach: A combination of enzyme tests and genetic analysis is used for an
accurate diagnosis, facilitating timely intervention.
TREATMENT
• No Cure Yet: Currently, there is no cure for Pompe disease.
• Enzyme Replacement Therapy (ERT): This standard treatment involves infusing the
missing enzyme to reduce glycogen buildup, helping manage symptoms and improve quality
of life.

 MITOCHONDRIA
o Popularly known as the
“Powerhouse of the
cell,” mitochondria
(singular: mitochondrion)
are a double
membrane-bound
organelle found in most
eukaryotic organisms.
o They are found inside
the cytoplasm and
essentially function as
the cell’s “digestive
system.”
o They play a major role in
breaking down
nutrients and
generating energy-rich
molecules for the cell.
Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within the
mitochondria.
o The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and “chondrion” which
means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively.
o It was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890.

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STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA
o The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and
animal cell.
o Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter.
o The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like material
called the matrix.
o The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and phospholipid
layers separated by the intermembrane space.
o The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large number of special
proteins known as porins.
o It is freely permeable to ions, nutrient molecules, energy molecules like the ADP and ATP
molecules.
CRISTAE
o The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that
form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside the
organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aids in the production of ATP
molecules.
o The inner membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and to ATP molecules. A number of
chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of mitochondria.
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
o The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It
also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and
organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis
of ATP molecules.
FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA
o The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of
oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:
o Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell
o Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
o Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
o Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
o Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like
testosterone and oestrogen
o Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell
o It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling, cell
senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.

DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH MITOCHONDRIA

o Any irregularity in the way mitochondria functions can directly affect human health, but often,
it is difficult to identify because symptoms differ from person to person. Disorders of the
mitochondria can be quite severe; in some cases, it can even cause an organ to fail.
o Mitochondrial diseases: Alpers Disease, Barth Syndrome, Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS)

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 MITOCHONDRIAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY

• To address the issue of mitochondrial diseases, scientists and researchers developed

an advanced In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) technique called Mitochondrial Donation
Treatment (MDT) or three-parent IVF.
• This technique involves a complex process to ensure that the baby inherits healthy
mitochondria while carrying the genetic material from both biological parents.
SCIENTIFIC PROCESS:
▪ Identifying Suitable Candidates:
o The procedure is specifically intended for couples who wish to have their genetic
child but do not want to use a donor egg.
▪ Selection of Donor and Biological Parents:
o The biological mother, who has a mitochondrial disease, provides her eggs, which are
fertilized by the biological father's sperm.
• Additionally, a separate female donor with healthy mitochondria is involved.

MITOCHONDRIAL REPLACEMENT:
o The genetic material (DNA) from the donor's egg is extracted and replaced with
the genetic material from the biological parents.
• This creates an embryo with the parents' DNA and the donor's mitochondria.

IMPLANTATION AND PREGNANCY:

o The modified embryo is then implanted in the uterus and carried to full term, resulting in
the birth of a baby free from the mother's mitochondrial disease.

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 AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS)

o It is a group of rare neurological diseases that mainly involve the nerve cells (neurons)
responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movement.
o It belongs to a wider group of disorders known as motor neuron diseases, which are caused
by gradual deterioration (degeneration) and death of motor neurons.
o Motor neurons are nerve cells that extend from the brain to the spinal cord and to muscles
throughout the body. These motor neurons initiate and provide vital communication links
between the brain and the voluntary muscles.
o ALS is progressive, meaning the symptoms get worse over time. Currently, there is no cure for
ALS and no effective treatment to halt, or reverse, the progression of the disease.
o It is also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, it causes lethal respiratory paralysis within several
years of diagnosis.

 BROWN FAT
o Brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat makes up the adipose organ together with
white adipose tissue (or white fat).
o Brown adipose tissue is found in almost all mammals.
o It is especially abundant in new-borns and in hibernating mammals, also present and
metabolically active in adult humans, but its prevalence decreases as humans age.
o Brown fat contains many more mitochondria than does white fat.
o These mitochondria are the “engines” in brown fat that burn calories to produce heat.
o Because of brown fats ability to burn calories, scientists are looking for ways to exploit its
power to help fight obesity.
o In adults exposed to cold temperatures, brown fat may serve as an ‘internal heating jacket’ to
keep blood warm as it flows back to the heart and brain from our chilly extremities.
o Brown fat helps babies — who do not have the ability to shiver — to stay warm.
o It offers potential to combat the Metabolic syndrome conditions.
o Metabolic syndrome conditions IS cluster of conditions that includes -increased blood
pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat around the waist, and abnormal cholesterol or
triglyceride levels — that occur together, increasing risk of heart disease, stroke and diabetes.

 SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

o It is a major genetic disease that affects most
countries in the African Region.
o In sickle cell disease, the normal round shape of red
blood cells become like crescent moons.
o Round red blood cells can move easily through the
blood vessels but sickled shaped cells interconnect
and can result in blood clots.
o These blood clots can cause extreme pain in the back,
chest, hands and feet.

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o The disrupted blood flow can also cause damage to bones, muscles and organs.
o People with sickle cell disease often feel weak, tired and look pale.
o At the moment the only remedy available for the disease is a dangerous and expensive bone
marrow transplant.
o Regions: In countries such as Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Gabon, Ghana and Nigeria the
prevalence is between 20% to 30% while in some parts of Uganda it is as high as 45%.

 BIO-POLYMER
o It is a generic term used to describe a very long molecule consisting of structural units
and repeating units connected by covalent chemical bonds.
o Modern polymers are very useful. For instance, they can be used as:
✓ New packaging materials;
✓ Waterproof coatings for fabrics (e.g. for outdoor clothing);
✓ Fillings for teeth;
✓ Dressings for cuts;
✓ Hydrogels (e.g. for soft contact lenses and disposable nappy liners);
✓ Smart materials (e.g. shape memory polymers for shrink-wrap packaging).

WHAT IS BIO-POLYMER? It is a polymer that is developed from living beings. It is a

BIODEGRADABLE chemical compound that is regarded as the most organic compound in the
ecosphere. The name “Biopolymer” indicates that it is a bio-degradable polymer.
o Some Biopolymer examples are: Proteins, Carbohydrates, DNA, RNA, Lipids, Nucleic acids,
Peptides
o These polymers play an essential role in nature. They are extremely useful in performing
functions like storage of energy, preservation and transmittance of genetic information and
cellular construction.
o These polymers are carbon neutral and can always be renewed. These are sustainable as they
are composed of living materials.
o Starch based biopolymers can be used for creating conventional plastic by extruding and
injection moulding.

 CHOANOFLAGELLATES
o The choanoflagellates are a group of free-living unicellular and colonial flagellate eukaryotes
considered to be the closest living relatives of the animals.
o They help to reconstruct animal origins and elucidate core mechanisms underlying animal cell
and developmental biology.
o In the beginning, the environment of Earth was devoid of oxygen. It was high in methane, was
not fit for animal life.
o At the same time, it could ‘host’ microorganisms which could cope with the incoming sunlight
and use it to generate energy for living. This was around 3.4 billion years ago.
o In the process, these microorganisms generated the gaseous waste product called
oxygen.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

o About 2 Byr, later the amount of oxygen on Earth became an important component of the
Earths’ surface, and amenable for animal life.
o Choanoflagellates are the closest living relatives of animals that appeared nearly a billion years
ago.
o Over time, animal cells also evolved to produce increased amounts of molecules called
reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are involved in many essential cell activities but
toxic at high levels.
o In addition, more complexity necessitates a substantial increase in the genome size of the
animal with concomitant increase in all transactions in the cell: DNA, the genetic material in
the cells of the various organs, their transcription of the information to messenger RNA
(mRNAs), then translation of these into the amino acid sequences that make individual
proteins in the cells through what are called tRNAs — at least one per amino acid.
o If a wrong interpretation of the genetic code at the protein level occurs, it will lead to functional
disorders and even diseases.

 ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
o Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health and development threat. It requires urgent
multisectoral action in order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
o WHO has declared that AMR is one of the top 10 global public health threats facing
humanity.
o Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials are the main drivers in the development of drug-
resistant pathogens.
o Antimicrobials – including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics – are
medicines used to prevent and treat infections in humans, animals and plants.
o Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change
over time and no longer respond to medicines making infections harder to treat and increasing
the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death.
o As a result of drug resistance, antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines become ineffective
and infections become increasingly difficult or impossible to treat.
o Lack of clean water and sanitation and inadequate infection prevention and control promotes
the spread of microbes, some of which can be resistant to antimicrobial treatment.
WHY IS ANTIMICROBIAL
RESISTANCE A GLOBAL
CONCERN?
o The emergence and spread of
drug-resistant pathogens that
have acquired new resistance
mechanisms, leading to
antimicrobial resistance,
continues to threaten our
ability to treat common
infections.
o Especially alarming is the rapid
global spread of multi- and
pan-resistant bacteria
(also known as

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“superbugs”) that cause infections that are not treatable with existing antimicrobial
medicines such as antibiotics.
o Antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective as drug-resistance spreads globally leading to
more difficult to treat infections and death.
o New anti-bacterials are urgently needed – for example, to treat carbapenem-resistant
gram-negative bacterial infections as identified in the WHO priority pathogen list.
o The cost of AMR to national economies and their health systems is significant as it affects
productivity of patients or their caretakers through prolonged hospital stays and the need for
more expensive and intensive care.
o Without effective tools for the prevention and adequate treatment of drug-resistant infections
and improved access to existing and new quality-assured antimicrobials, the number of people
for whom treatment is failing or who die of infections will increase.
o Medical procedures, such as surgery, including caesarean sections or hip replacements,
cancer chemotherapy, and organ transplantation, will become more risky.

 SOIL MICROBES
o Soil microorganisms exist in large numbers in the soil as long as there is a carbon source for
energy. A large number of bacteria in the soil exists, but because of their small size, they have
a smaller biomass.
o Actinomycetes are a factor of 10 times smaller in number but are larger in size so they are
similar in biomass to bacteria.
o Fungus population numbers are smaller but they dominate the soil biomass when the soil is
not disturbed.
o Bacteria, actinomycetes, and protozoa are hardy and can tolerate more soil disturbance than
fungal populations so they dominate in tilled soils while fungal and nematode populations tend
to dominate in untilled or no-till soils.
There are more microbes in a teaspoon of soil than there are people on the earth.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL MICROBES?
There are five different types of soil microbes: bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa and
nematodes. Each of these microbe types has a different job to boost soil and plant health.
1. Bacteria: Bacteria is the crucial workforce of soils. They are the final stage of breaking down
nutrients and releasing them to the root zone for the plant. In fact, the Food and Agriculture
Organization once said “Bacteria may well be the most valuable of life forms in the soil.”
2. Actinomycetes: Actinomycetes were once classified as fungi, and act similarly in the soil.
However, some actinomycetes are predators and will harm the plant while others living in the
soil can act as antibiotics for the plant.
3. Fungi: Like bacteria, fungi also lives in the rootzone and helps make nutrients available to
plants. For example, Mycorrhizae is a fungi that facilitate water and nutrient uptake by the
roots and plants to provide sugars, amino acids and other nutrients.
4. Protozoa: Protozoa are larger microbes that love to consume and be surrounded by bacteria.
In fact, nutrients that are eaten by bacteria are released when protozoa in turn eat the bacteria.
5. Nematodes: Nematodes are microscopic worms that live around or inside the plant. Some
nematodes are predators while others are beneficial, eating pathogenic nematodes and
secreting nutrients to the plant.

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MICROBIAL SOIL ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION

o Organic matter decomposition serves two functions for the microorganisms, providing energy
for growth and suppling carbon for the formation of new cells.
o Soil organic matter (SOM) is composed of the "living" (microorganisms), the "dead"
(fresh residues), and the "very dead" (humus) fractions.
o The "very dead" or humus is the long-term SOM fraction that is thousands of years old and is
resistant to decomposition.
o Soil organic matter has two components called the active (35 percent) and the passive
(65 percent) SOM.
o Active SOM is composed of the "living" and "dead" fresh plant or animal material which is food
for microbes and is composed of easily digested sugars and proteins.
o The passive SOM is resistant to decomposition by microbes and is higher in lignin.
o Microbes need regular supplies of active SOM in the soil to survive in the soil.
o Long-term no-tilled soils have significantly greater levels of microbes, more active carbon,
more SOM, and more stored carbon than conventional tilled soils.
o A majority of the microbes in the soil exist under starvation conditions and thus they tend to
be in a dormant state, especially in tilled soils.
o Dead plant residues and plant nutrients become food for the microbes in the soil.
o Soil organic matter (SOM) is basically all the organic substances (anything with carbon) in the
soil, both living and dead.
o SOM includes plants, blue green algae, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes,
beetles, springtails, etc.) and the fresh and decomposing organic matter from plants, animals,
and microorganisms.
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO ITS COMPONENT PARTS.

▪ One hundred grams (g) or 100 pounds (lbs) of dead plant material yields about 60–80 g (lbs)
of carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere.
▪ The remaining 20–40 g (lbs) of energy and nutrients is decomposed and turned into about 3–
8 g (lbs) of microorganisms (the living), 3–8 g (lbs) of non-humic compounds (the dead), and
10–30 g (lbs) of humus (the very dead matter, resistant to decomposition).
▪ The molecular structure of SOM is mainly carbon and oxygen with some hydrogen and
nitrogen and small amounts of phosphorus and sulfur.
▪ Soil organic matter is a by-product of the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

 MEFTAL DRUG
o Meftal 500, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) is usually prescribed in treatment
for conditions like menstrual pain, headache, muscle, joint, or dental pain.
o IPC stated that a preliminary analysis of adverse drug reactions from the Pharmacovigilance
Programme of India (PvPI) database revealed drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic
symptoms (DRESS) syndrome.
o DRESS, also known as drug induced hypersensitivity syndrome, is an adverse drug reaction
that can even be life threatening.
INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA COMMISSION (IPC)
o IPC is an Autonomous Institution of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

o IPC was created to set standards for drugs in India. Its basic function is to regularly update the
standards of drugs commonly required for the treatment of diseases prevailing in this region.
o It publishes official documents for improving the Quality of Medicines by way of adding new
and updating existing monographs in the form of Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP).
o It further promotes the rational use of generic medicines by publishing the National Formulary
of
o IP prescribes standards for the identity, purity and strength of drugs essentially required from
the health care perspective of human beings and animals.
o IPC also provides IP Reference Substances (IPRS) which act as a fingerprint for identification
of an article under test and its purity as prescribed in IP.

 PHARMACOPOEIAL DISCUSSION GROUP

(PDG)
o The PDG is an international forum that aims to harmonize global pharmacopoeial standards
to reduce the burden on manufacturers and ensure consistent quality.
o The PDG was established in 1989 by the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), the Japanese
Pharmacopoeia (JP), and the US Pharmacopeia (USP).
o In 2001, the World Health Organization (WHO) joined as an observer.
o The Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) has joined the Pharmacopoeial Discussion
Group (PDG), a pivotal move to enhance global pharmaceutical standards, regulatory
compliance, and international recognition of Indian pharmaceutical products.

 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS

China’s dominance in these minerals, key to the future of manufacturing, is a cause for concern
for the West.
o In 2019, the U.S. imported 80% of its rare earth minerals from China.
o The EU gets 98% of its supply from China.
o Amid the transition to green energy, in which rare earth minerals are sure to play a role, China’s
market dominance is enough to sound an alarm in western capitals.
What if China were to cut off the U.S. and Europe from access to rare minerals
that are essential to electric vehicles, wind turbines and drones?
REE
o The rare earth elements (REE) are a set of seventeen metallic elements. These include the
fifteen lanthanides on the periodic table plus scandium and yttrium.
o Rare earth elements are an essential part of many high-tech devices.
o Rare-earth elements (REE) are necessary components of more than 200 products across a wide
range of applications, especially high-tech consumer products, such as cellular telephones,
computer hard drives, electric and hybrid vehicles, and flat-screen monitors and televisions.
o Significant defense applications include electronic displays, guidance systems, lasers, and
radar and sonar systems. Although the amount of REE used in a product may not be a
significant part of that product by weight, value, or volume, the REE can be necessary for the
device to function. For example, magnets made of REE often represent only a small fraction of

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

the total weight, but without them, the spindle motors and voice coils of desktops and laptops
would not be possible.
o The Japanese call them “the
seeds of technology.” The US
Department of Energy calls them
“technology metals.”
o In 1993, 38 percent of world
production of REEs was in
China, 33 percent was in the
United States, 12 percent was in
Australia, and five percent each
was in Malaysia and India.
Several other countries,
including Brazil, Canada, South
Africa, Sri Lanka, and Thailand,
made up the remainder.
However, in 2008, China
accounted for more than 90
percent of world production of REEs, and by 2011, China accounted for 97 percent of world
production. Beginning in 1990 and beyond, supplies of REEs became an issue as the
Government of China began to change the amount of the REEs that it allows to be produced
and exported. The Chinese Government also began to limit the number of Chinese and Sino-
foreign joint-venture companies that could export REEs from China.

 HELIUM
o Helium (He), chemical element,
inert gas of Group 18
(noble gases) of the periodic
table.
o The second lightest element
(only hydrogen is lighter),
helium is a colourless,
odourless, and tasteless gas
that becomes liquid at
−268.9 °C (−452 °F).
o The boiling and freezing
points of helium are lower
than those of any other
known substance.
o Helium is the only element that cannot be solidified by sufficient cooling at normal
atmospheric pressure; it is necessary to apply pressure of 25 atmospheres at a temperature of
1 K (−272 °C, or −458 °F) to convert it to its solid form.
o Helium was discovered in the gaseous atmosphere surrounding the Sun by the French
astronomer Pierre Janssen.
o The British chemist Sir William Ramsay discovered the existence of helium on Earth in 1895.
o Helium constitutes about 23 percent of the mass of the universe and is thus second
in abundance to hydrogen in the cosmos. Helium is concentrated in stars, where it is
synthesized from hydrogen by nuclear fusion.

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o Although helium occurs in Earth’s atmosphere only to the extent of 1 part in 200,000 (0.0005
percent) and small amounts occur in radioactive minerals, meteoric iron, and mineral springs,
great volumes of helium are found as a component (up to 7.6 percent) in natural gases in the
United States (especially in Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arizona, and Utah).
Smaller supplies have been discovered in Algeria, Australia, Poland, Qatar, and Russia.
Ordinary air contains about 5 parts per million of helium, and Earth’s crust is only about 8
parts per billion.

Production and Uses

o Helium gas (98.2 percent pure) is isolated from natural gas by liquefying the other components
at low temperatures and under high pressures. Adsorption of other gases on cooled,
activated charcoal yields 99.995 percent pure helium. Some helium is supplied from
liquefaction of air on a large scale; the amount of helium obtainable from 1,000 tons (900
metric tons) of air is about 112 cubic feet (3.17 cubic metres), as measured at room
temperature and at normal atmospheric pressure.
o Uses: Helium is used as an inert-gas atmosphere for welding metals such as
aluminum; in rocket propulsion (to pressurize fuel tanks, especially those for liquid
hydrogen, because only helium is still a gas at liquid-hydrogen temperature); in meteorology
(as a lifting gas for instrument-carrying balloons); in cryogenics (as a coolant because liquid
helium is the coldest substance); and in high-pressure breathing operations (mixed with
oxygen, as in scuba diving and caisson work, especially because of its low solubility in the
bloodstream).
o Meteorites and rocks have been analyzed for helium content as a means of dating.

 BENZENE
o Benzene is a colorless, sweet-smelling chemical that can be derived from natural gas,
crude oil, or coal.
o Benzene is primarily used as a feedstock, or raw material, to make other industrial chemicals,
such as ethylbenzene, cumene and cyclohexane. Benzene is also used as a solvent in the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
o Most benzene exposure comes from the air from a number of sources, including
forest fires, auto exhaust and gasoline from fueling stations. Benzene in cigarette smoke
is a major source of exposure. Very low levels of benzene have been detected in fruits,
vegetables, nuts, dairy products, eggs and fish. Most people are exposed to only very tiny
amounts of benzene from water and food.
USES & BENEFITS
o As a building block chemical, benzene is reacted with other chemicals to produce a variety of
other chemistries, materials and, ultimately, consumer goods.
o Benzene is used to make other chemicals like ethylbenzene, cumene and cyclohexane,
which are then reacted and used in the manufacture of a variety of materials and
plastics such as polystyrene, ABS, and nylon. There can be many steps in the process that
starts with the benzene molecule and ends with a completed material or consumer product.
For example, benzene is a building block used to make ethylbenzene, which is then used to
make styrene, which is used to make polystyrene. The end material, polystyrene, is a
completely different material chemically than benzene.

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o For consumer products where benzene is used as a building block or intermediate, the benzene
is typically fully reacted in a closed
system, with little to no benzene
remaining in the finished consumer
product.
o Benzene also is used to make some
types of lubricants, rubbers, dyes,
detergents, drugs, explosives and
pesticides.
o Benzene is naturally found in
crude oil. Crude oil is refined into
gasoline by using heat, pressure and
chemicals in the refinery to separate
the spectrum of petroleum products
from crude oil. The refining process yields gasoline and a number of other petroleum products,
including diesel and jet fuels, solvents, lubricating oils, many of which include small amounts
of benzene.

 NEON
o Neon (Ne), chemical element,
inert gas of Group 18
(noble gases) of the periodic
table, used in electric signs and
fluorescent lamps.
o Colourless, odourless,
tasteless, and lighter than
air, neon gas occurs in
minute quantities in
Earth’s atmosphere and
trapped within the rocks of
Earth’s crust.
o Though neon is about 31/2
times as plentiful as helium in
the atmosphere, dry air
contains only 0.0018 percent
neon by volume.
o This element is more abundant in the cosmos than on Earth.
o Neon liquefies at −246.048 °C (−411 °F).
o When under low pressure, it emits a bright orange-red light if an electrical current
is passed through it. This property is utilized in neon signs (which first became familiar in the
1920s), in some fluorescent and gaseous conduction lamps, and in high-voltage testers.
o The name neon is derived from the Greek word neos, “new.”
o Neon was discovered (1898) by the British chemists Sir William Ramsay and Morris W.
Travers as a component of the most volatile fraction of liquefied crude argon obtained from
air. It was immediately recognized as a new element by its unique glow when electrically
stimulated.
o Its only commercial source is the atmosphere, in which it is 18 parts per million by
volume.

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o Because its boiling point is −246 °C (−411 °F), neon remains, along with helium and
hydrogen, in the small fraction of air that resists liquefaction upon cooling to −195.8 °C
(−320.4 °F, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen).
o Neon is isolated from this cold, gaseous mixture by bringing it into contact with activated
charcoal, which adsorbs the neon and hydrogen; removal of hydrogen is effected by
adding enough oxygen to convert it all to water, which, along with any surplus oxygen,
condenses upon cooling.
o Processing 88,000 pounds of liquid air will produce one pound of neon.
o No stable chemical compounds of neon have been observed. Molecules of the element consist
of single atoms.
o Natural neon is a mixture of three stable isotopes: neon-20 (90.92 percent); neon-21
(0.26 percent); and neon-22 (8.82 percent).
o Neon was the first element shown to consist of more than one stable isotope.
o In 1913, application of the technique of mass spectrometry revealed the existence of neon-20
and neon-22. The third stable isotope, neon-21 was detected later.
o Twelve radioactive isotopes of neon also have been identified.

 VANADIUM
o Vanadium (V), chemical
element, silvery white soft
metal of Group 5 (Vb) of the
periodic table. It is alloyed with
steel and iron for high-speed tool
steel, high-strength low-alloy
steel, and wear-resistant cast iron.
o Vanadium was discovered (1801)
by the Spanish mineralogist
Andrés Manuel del Río, who
named it erythronium but
eventually came to believe it was
merely impure chromium. The
element was rediscovered (1830)
by the Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström, who named it after Vanadis, the Scandinavian
goddess of beauty and youth, a name suggested by the beautiful colours of vanadium’s
compounds in solution. The English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe first isolated the metal in
1867 by hydrogen reduction of vanadium dichloride, VCl2, and the American chemists John
Wesley Marden and Malcolm N. Rich obtained it 99.7 percent pure in 1925 by reduction of
vanadium pentoxide, V2O5, with calcium metal.
o Found combined in various minerals, coal, and petroleum, vanadium is the 22nd most
abundant element in Earth’s crust. Some commercial sources are the minerals
carnotite, vanadinite, and roscoelite. (Deposits of the important vanadium-bearing
mineral patronite occurring in coal at Mina Ragra, Peru, have been materially depleted.) Other
commercial sources are vanadium-bearing magnetite and flue dust from smokestacks and
boilers of ships burning certain Venezuelan and Mexican oils. China, South Africa, and Russia
were the leading producers of vanadium in the early 21st century.
o Vanadium is obtained from ores as vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) through a variety of
smelting, leaching, and roasting processes. The pentoxide is then reduced to ferrovanadium or
vanadium powder. The preparation of very pure vanadium is difficult because the metal is quite
reactive toward oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon at elevated temperatures.

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o Vanadium metal, sheet, strip, foil, bar, wire, and tubing have found use in high-temperature
service, in the chemical industry, and in bonding other metals. Because the major commercial
use of vanadium is in steel and cast iron, to which it lends ductility and shock resistance,
most of the vanadium produced is used with iron as ferrovanadium (about 85 percent
vanadium) in making vanadium steels.
o Vanadium (added in amounts between 0.1 and 5.0 percent) has two effects upon steel: it
refines the grain of the steel matrix, and with the carbon present it forms
carbides. Thus, vanadium steel is especially strong and hard, with improved resistance to
shock. When the very pure metal is required, it may be obtained by processes similar to those
for titanium.
o Very pure vanadium metal resembles titanium in being quite corrosion resistant, hard, and
steel grey in colour.

 NICKEL
• Pentlaudite (a mixture of nickel, iron, and sulfur) is Nickel Ore.
• Another source of nickel is polymetallic sea nodules.
• Nickel does not occur naturally. It is found in association with copper, uranium and other
metals.
Properties Of Nickel
• Nickel is a silvery-
white, hard,
malleable, and
ductile metal.
• It is a good conductor
of heat and
electricity.
• It is bivalent, that is it
has a valency of two.
• The metal dissolves
slowly in dilute acids.
• Its melting point is 1453
°C and its boiling point is 2913 °C.
• It is radioactive metal, it is toxic and harmful to life.
USES OF NICKEL

• The most crucial use of this element is that it is used to make coins.
• It is used in making wires.
• It is used in gas turbines and rocket engines as it has the capability to resist corrosion
even at high temperatures.
• It is used to make a variety of alloys which are further used to make armour plating, nails,
or pipes.
• Monel (alloys of nickel and copper), is a hard compound and can resist corrosion by
seawater. Hence, it is used in propeller shafts in boats and desalination plants.

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• Nickel is used in batteries. For example, rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and

nickel-metal hydride batteries in hybrid automobiles.

NICKEL IN FOOD ITEMS

• Nickel is naturally present in foods in trace amounts.
• Chocolate and fats are known to have extremely high amounts.
• When people consume large amounts of vegetables grown in polluted soils, their nickel
intake will increase.
• Plants are known to accumulate nickel, so vegetable nickel uptake will be significant.
PRODUCERS
• Indonesia is the world’s largest producer, followed by the Philippines and Russia. Australia
has the highest reserves, followed by Brazil, Russia, and Cuba.
• India: Sukinda valley in the Jajapur district of Odisha; East Sighbhum district and Jaduguda
in Jharkhand.

 TANTALUM
• Tantalum is a rare metal with the atomic number 73. It was first discovered in 1802 by
Swedish chemist Anders Gustaf Ekenberg.
• It is grey, heavy, and highly corrosion-resistant, forming an oxide layer when exposed
to air.
• Pure tantalum is ductile, allowing it to be stretched into thin wires without breaking.
• Extremely resistant to chemical attack at temperatures below 150°C, it is affected only
by hydrofluoric acid, acidic solutions with fluoride ions, and free sulphur trioxide.
• Tantalum also has an extremely high melting point.
USES OF TANTALUM

• Capacitors made from tantalum are vital for storing more electricity
in smaller sizes, ideal for portable electronic devices.
Electronic • A committee of experts within the Ministry of Mines has recognized a
sector collection of 30 critical minerals for India, with Tantalum being among
them.
• It is also used to make components for chemical plants, nuclear power
plants, aeroplanes, and missiles.
Substitute for • It has a high melting point, and is frequently used as a substitute for
platinum platinum, which is more expensive.
Medical • Tantalum does not react with bodily fluids and is used to make
applications surgical equipment and implants, like artificial joints.
Cutting Edge • Composite with tantalum carbide (TaC) and graphite is one of the hardest
Material materials, used in high-speed machine tool cutting edges.

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 FOUCAULT’s PENDULUM
• The National Council of Science Museum (NCSM) in Kolkata produced the pendulum
which was mounted in the new Parliament building.
• The pendulum, which hangs from a skylight at the top of Constitution Hall, represents
the “integration of the idea of India with the idea of the cosmos”.
ABOUT THE PENDULUM
• It is a simple experiment to demonstrate the earth’s rotation, which is originally named
after 19th-century French
scientist Leon
Foucault.
• When Foucault carried
out this experiment for
the public in 1851, it was
the first direct visual
evidence of the fact that
the earth rotates on its
axis.
• With respect to the
surface of the Earth, it
also rotates.
• The pendulum returns
precisely to its starting
position in “24 hours”
when it is positioned at
the north and south poles along the axis of the Earth.
• The pendulum completes one full rotation in a total time of 49 hours, 59 minutes, and 18
seconds.
• A Foucault pendulum rotates constantly anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
and always clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
• The latitude affects the rotation rate.
• An equilibrium Foucault pendulum does not revolve at the Equator (0° latitude).
• This relative motion explains the Coriolis effect.
CORIOLIS FORCE
o Coriolis force is a phenomenon that appears to act on objects in motion in a rotating
reference frame, like the earth.
o In the Northern Hemisphere, Coriolis force causes moving objects to be deflected to the
right, while its effect is the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is called the
Coriolis effect.
o The direction in which Foucault pendulum swings is in line with the Coriolis effect.
With each swing, the bob of Foucault pendulum moves a little to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and vice versa in the South.
o This is why the plane of the swing is observed to have rotated in the clockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere over a period of time.

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 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
• Superconductivity refers to a
state in which a material
offers zero, or near-zero,
resistance to electric current.
• A current is nothing but the
movement of charged
particles, electrons in most
cases, in a particular direction.
When the electrons move, they
collide and interact, with other
atoms in the material.
• Resistance involves a loss
of energy, mostly in the form
of heat. Part of the reason why
electrical appliances get heated
is this resistance.
• Elimination of this resistance
can result in super-efficient electrical appliances, the removal of transmission losses in
power cables, and massive gains in energy.
• As of now, superconductivity can be achieved only at very low temperatures, more
than 250 degree Celsius below zero, very close to absolute zero which is – 273 degree Celsius.
Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• The first material to have been discovered to show super conductive properties was
Mercury, which becomes a superconductor at close to 270 degrees Celsius below zero.
• Most of the other materials commonly used as superconductors – Lead, Aluminum, Tin,
Niobium, and several others – also become superconducting at comparable temperatures,
called critical temperature.

 GRAPHENE
o Graphene consists of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, each atom
bound to its neighbours by chemical bonds.
o The elasticity of these bonds produces resonant vibrations known as phonons.
o Graphene has been described as wondrous stuff — of being the strongest material ever tested,
almost 300 times stronger than steel.
o It is also the best heat- and electricity-conducting material to be discovered.
o It could also become a valuable aid in filtering water.
Graphene has a number of properties which makes it interesting for several
different applications such as:
✓ It is an ultimately thin, mechanically very strong, transparent and flexible conductor.
✓ Its conductivity can be modified over a large range either by chemical doping or by an electric
field.

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✓ The mobility of graphene is very high, which makes the material very interesting for electronic
high frequency applications.
✓ Since graphene is a transparent conductor it can be used in applications such as touch screens,
light panels and solar cells, where it can replace the rather fragile and expensive Indium-Tin-
Oxide (ITO).
✓ Flexible electronics and gas sensors are other potential applications.
✓ New types of composite materials based on graphene with great strength and low weight could
also become interesting for use in satellites and aircraft

 NUCLEAR REACTOR

o A nuclear reactor is the most important part of a nuclear power plant. It is where the nuclear
chain reactions occur that produce energy by fission. The heat thus produced can be used
to produce electricity.
o The main purpose of a reactor is to contain and control the energy released.
o Uranium is used as the nuclear fuel in the reactors.
o The heat produced by nuclear reactions is used to convert the water into steam, which
is further converted into carbon-free electricity with the help of turbines.

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MAIN COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

Core It contains all the fuel and generates the heat required for energy
production.
Coolant It passes through the core, absorbing the heat and transferring into
turbines.
Turbine Transfers energy into the mechanical form.
Cooling Tower It eliminates the excess heat that is not converted or transferred.
Neutron Moderators are used for reducing the speed of fast neutrons released from
Moderator the fission reaction and making them capable of sustaining a nuclear chain
reaction
Usually, water, solid graphite, and heavy water are used as a moderator in
nuclear reactors.
Commonly-used moderators include regular (light) water (in 74.8% of the
world’s reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors), heavy water (5% of
reactors).
Containment The enveloping structure that separates the nuclear reactor from the
surrounding environment.
Neutron A neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear poison) is a
Poison substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

o LWR is a type of Thermal Neutron Reactor.

o Uses Normal Water instead of Heavy Water as its coolant and Neutron
Moderator.
o BWR & PWR are Light Water Reactors.
o The BWR drives the steam turbine when the reactor core heats the
Light Water water converting it into steam.
Reactors
(LWR) o The PWR drives the steam turbine in two stages.
o Pressurized water has a higher boiling point. The reactor core
heats the water without producing any steam in the core.
o This pressurized hot water then exchanges heat with a secondary low-
pressure water unit which turns into steam.
o This steam drives the steam turbine.
o HWR is also a type of Thermal Neutron Reactor.
o Uses Heavy Water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and
Neutron Moderator.
o The HWR follows the working principle of the Pressurized Water
Heavy Water
Reactor.
Reactors
o Even though Heavy Water is very expensive, it allows the nuclear
reactor to operate without any fuel enrichment due to the enhanced
neutron economy.
o This also allows the Nuclear reactor to use alternate fuel cycles.
Gas-Cooled o In Gas-Cooled reactors, gas is replaced as a coolant and that drives the
Reactors turbine.

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o These reactors are called High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors

(HTGRs).
o Gases like Helium & Carbon-Dioxide are used as coolants.
o HTGRs provide high thermal efficiency (Upto 50%) as they can operate
at high temperatures.
o HTGRs can have multiple applications other than power production
which involve heat processes like hydrogen fuel cells, water desalination,
oil refineries, etc.
o Gas being, not the most efficient coolant, HTGRs need a highly- efficient
back-up coolant.
o The reactors discussed above use moderators that slow the high-energy
(fast) neutrons down to low-energy (slow).
o Fast reactors don’t use moderators and use Fast Neutrons.
Fast Reactors o To sustain the fission reaction by fast neutrons, the fission material needs
to be highly enriched.
o Uranium enrichment is very expensive thus making the use of Fast
reactors uneconomical.

CRITICAL MASS
o A critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained
nuclear chain reaction.
o The critical mass of a fissionable material depends upon its nuclear properties, its density, its
shape, its enrichment, its purity, its temperature, and its surroundings.
o When a nuclear chain reaction in a mass of fissile material is self-sustaining, the mass is said
to be in a critical state in which there is no increase or decrease in power, temperature, or
neutron population.

 NUCLEAR ENERGY
o India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the
purpose of power generation.
o In this direction a three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi
Bhabha in the 1950s.
o The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 was framed and implemented with the set objectives of using
two naturally occurring elements Uranium and Thorium as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear
Power Reactors.
o In December, 2021, the Government of India informed Parliament about building ten
indigenous Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) to be set up in fleet mode and had
granted “in principle approval” for 28 additional reactors, including 24 to be imported from
France, the U.S. and Russia.
o Recently, the Centre has given in-principle (first step ) approval for setting up of six nuclear
power reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra.
o Jaitapur would be the world’s most powerful nuclear power plant. There would be six state-of-
the-art Evolutionary Power Reactors (EPRs) with an installed capacity of 9.6 GWe that will
produce low carbon electricity.
o The six nuclear power reactors, which will have a capacity of 1,650 MW each, will be set up
with technical cooperation from France.

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WHY NUCLEAR ENERGY?

Availability o India is the leader of the new resource of nuclear fuel called Thorium,
of Thorium which is considered to be the nuclear fuel of the future.
o With the availability of Thorium, India has the potential to be the first
nation to realise the dream of a fossil fuel-free nation.
Cuts Import o Nuclear energy will also relieve the nation of about $100 billion annually
Bills which we spend on importing petroleum and coal.

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Stable and o The greenest sources of power are definitely solar and wind. But solar and
Reliable wind power, despite all their advantages, are not stable and are dependent
Source excessively on weather and sunshine conditions.
o Nuclear power, on the other hand, provides a relatively clean, high-density
source of reliable energy with an international presence.
Cheaper to o Nuclear power plants are cheaper to run than their coal or gas rivals. It has
Run been estimated that even factoring in costs such as managing radioactive
fuel and disposal nuclear plants cost between 33 to 50% of a coal plant and
20 to 25% of a gas combined-cycle plant.

CHALLENGES TO ADOPTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

Capital Nuclear power plants are capital intensive and recent nuclear builds have
Intensive suffered major cost overruns.
Insufficient In 2008, the Atomic Energy Commission projected that India would have
Nuclear 650GW of installed capacity by 2050; the current installed capacity is only
Installed 6.78 GW.
Capacity
Nuclear power has never received the quantum of generous subsidy the fossil
Lack of fuel received in the past and renewable is receiving currently.
Public
Funding In absence of public funding, nuclear power will find it tough to compete
against natural gas and renewables in the future.
Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) is
Acquisition also a major problem in the country.
of Land NPP’s like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu and Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh have
met with several delays due to the land acquisition related challenges.
Climate change will increase the risk of nuclear reactor accidents. During the
world’s increasingly hot summers, several nuclear power plants have already
had to be temporarily shut down or taken off the grid.
Impact of
Further, nuclear power plants depend on nearby water sources to cool their
Climate
reactors, and with many rivers drying up, those sources of water are no
Change
longer guaranteed.
The frequency of such extreme weather events is likely to increase in the
future.
Another side effect of nuclear power is the amount of nuclear waste it
Nuclear produces. Nuclear waste can have drastically bad effects on life, causing
Waste cancerous growths, for instance, or causing genetic problems for many
generations of animals and plants.

 SMALL MODULAR REACTOR (SMR)

The world’s quest to decarbonise is guided by the UN SDG 7: “to ensure access to affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”.
The rise in coal consumption despite increased solar and wind power underlines the need for
Low-Carbon Electricity Resources such as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) to ensure Deep
Decarbonization.

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• Conventional NPPs (Nuclear Power Plants) have generally suffered from time and cost
overruns.
• As an alternative, several countries are developing (SMRs) – nuclear reactors with a
maximum capacity of 300 MW – to complement conventional NPPs.
SMALL MODULAR REACTORS (SMRS)

• SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per
unit, which is about one-third of the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power reactors.
• SMRs, which can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity, are,
o Small: Physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
o Modular: Making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and
transported as a unit to a location for installation.
o Reactors: Harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
• Their designs incorporate enhanced safety features, reducing the risk of uncontrolled
radioactive material release.
• SMRs are designed to operate for 40-60 years with capacity factors exceeding 90%.
ADVANTAGES

• As the demand for electricity is projected to surge by 80-150% by 2050,

Reliable SMRs could provide a reliable 24/7 low-carbon electricity source
Low-carbon that complements intermittent renewables.
Electricity
Source • This is crucial for achieving grid reliability and reducing costs in
decarbonized electricity systems.
Minimized • SMRs generate less spent nuclear fuel and can be safely operated in
Land existing brownfield sites, minimizing land acquisition challenges.
Acquisition • SMRs are also simpler to design and manufacture, with potential for
Challenges cost reduction through serial manufacturing.
• The transition to clean energy requires Critical Minerals for technologies
Alternatives like lithium-ion batteries, leading to concerns about geopolitical risks and
to Critical environmental impacts.
Minerals • SMRs offer an alternative, as they require low-enriched uranium,
which is more widely distributed than critical minerals.
Integration • For India, which aims to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, SMRs can
with India's play a pivotal role.

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Energy • As coal-based thermal power plants and variable renewable energy sources
Strategy contribute significantly to the energy mix, SMRs can enhance energy
security and grid stability.
• India's Central Electricity Authority envisions SMRs as a crucial
element in meeting electricity demands, while private sector investments,
including public-private partnerships, are vital for expansion.

WAY FORWARD

• To facilitate SMR deployment, India needs to amend the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 to
allow private sector involvement.
• While maintaining government control over nuclear fuel and waste, an independent
regulatory board should oversee the entire nuclear power cycle.
• The India-US '123 agreement' provides opportunities for India to reprocess spent fuel from
SMRs under IAEA safeguards, contributing to resource sustainability.
• It also permits India to set up a facility to reprocess spent fuel from SMRs under
safeguards of the IAEA.

 NUCLEAR FUSION

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 NUCLEAR BOMB
• Nuclear bombs, also known as atomic bombs or nuclear weapons, are highly destructive
devices that release an enormous amount of energy through nuclear reactions.
• These reactions involve manipulating the fundamental forces that hold atomic nuclei
together, resulting in an unprecedented release of energy.
FISSION-BASED NUCLEAR BOMBS (ATOMIC BOMBS)
• Fission-based nuclear bombs, commonly referred to as atomic bombs, exploit the process of
nuclear fission, where the nucleus of an atom is split into smaller fragments, releasing energy.
• The key elements used in fission-based bombs are uranium-235 (U-235) and plutonium-
239 (Pu-239).
• A supercritical mass of fissile material is assembled. This mass is sufficient to sustain a chain
reaction, where each fission event releases neutrons that trigger subsequent fission
reactions.
• Neutrons are introduced to the fissile material, initiating fission reactions.
• During fission, the nucleus of the atom splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy,
gamma radiation, and additional neutrons.
• The energy released is in the form of kinetic energy of the fragments, gamma radiation, and
kinetic energy of neutrons.
• This energy creates a powerful explosion, generating shockwaves, heat, light, and ionizing
radiation.
• Uranium-235 (U-235), a rare isotope of uranium comprising
less than 1% of natural uranium, assumes paramount significance
in nuclear fission.
Uranium-235
• When a U-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it undergoes
destabilization, fracturing into lighter elements and liberating a
torrent of energy. This energy becomes the lifeblood of atomic bombs.
• The rupture of a U-235 nucleus cascades into the release of more
neutrons, initiating a chain reaction.
Chain Reaction • These liberated neutrons collide with neighboring U-235
Unleashed nuclei, sparking further fission reactions and cascading into an
exponential release of energy.
• The profound intensity of this energy becomes the linchpin of nuclear
weaponry.
• The preeminent challenge lies in enriching uranium, as
naturally occurring uranium predominantly comprises non-fissionable
U-238.
Enrichment • To attain weapons-grade material, uranium must be enriched to
amplify the U-235 concentration.
• This intricate process, replete with technological intricacies,
underscores the dual-purpose nature of nuclear technology, serving
both power generation and warfare.

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Triggering • Crucial to nuclear weapons is the precise triggering of nuclear

Mechanisms reactions.
• Preventing accidental detonation necessitates meticulous maintenance
of subcritical masses until the opportune moment.
• Gun-type designs employ collision-induced supercriticality, while
implosion designs rely on rapid compression of subcritical masses to
initiate an explosion.

FUSION-BASED NUCLEAR BOMBS (THERMONUCLEAR BOMBS)

• Fusion-based nuclear bombs, also known as thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs, utilize
nuclear fusion, where two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing
energy.
• The primary stage of a thermonuclear bomb is a fission bomb, which creates the
conditions necessary for fusion in the secondary stage.
• The primary stage involves a fission bomb that generates high
Primary Stage temperatures and pressures.
(Fission) • X-rays and high-energy particles produced by the fission process
irradiate the secondary stage.
• The secondary stage contains fusion fuel, typically deuterium and
tritium isotopes of hydrogen.
• The X-rays and particles from the primary stage heat and compress the
Secondary fusion fuel, initiating fusion reactions.
Stage (Fusion) • Fusion releases a significantly larger amount of energy compared to
fission.
• Deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen, coalesce under extreme
heat and pressure, propelling an explosion surpassing fission's might.

DETONATION MECHANISMS
• Nuclear bombs are detonated using various mechanisms that ensure the precise timing and
conditions for nuclear reactions.
IMPLOSION-TYPE DESIGN
• In implosion-type bombs, conventional explosives compress the fissile material into a
supercritical mass.
• The compression increases the density of the fissile material, leading to a more efficient
chain reaction.
GUN-TYPE DESIGN
• Gun-type bombs use conventional explosives to propel one subcritical mass of fissile material
into another, creating a supercritical mass.
• This design is simpler but less efficient and requires more fissile material.

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 ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD

(AERB)
o The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) was constituted on November 15, 1983, by the
President of India by exercising the powers conferred by the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 to
carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act.
o The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications promulgated
under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
o AERB’s headquarters is in Mumbai.
o The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board is the primary institution tasked to look at issues
regarding everything related to nuclear safety. It was constituted on 15 November 1983 by
the President of India by exercising the powers conferred by Section 27 of the Atomic
Energy Act, 1962.
o The mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in
India does not cause undue risk to health and the environment. Currently, the Board consists
of a full-time Chairman, an ex officio Member, three part-time Members, and a Secretary.
FUNCTIONS OF AERB
o Develop safety policies in nuclear, radiation, and industrial safety areas for facilities under its
purview.
o Develop Safety Codes, Guides, and Standards for siting, design, construction, commissioning,
operation and decommissioning of different types of nuclear and radiation facilities.
o Grant consents for siting, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning, after
an appropriate safety review and assessment, for the establishment of nuclear and radiation
facilities.
o Ensure compliance with the regulatory requirements prescribed by AERB.
o Prescribe the acceptance limits of radiation exposure to occupational workers and members of
the public and acceptable limits of environmental releases of radioactive substances.
o Review the emergency preparedness plans for nuclear and radiation facilities.
o Prescribe the syllabi for training and review the training program, qualifications, and licensing
policies for personnel of nuclear and radiation facilities.
o Maintain liaison with statutory bodies in the country as well as abroad regarding safety
matters.
o Promote research and development efforts in the areas of safety.
o Notifying the public, the ‘nuclear incident’, occurring in the nuclear installations in India, as
mandated by the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.

 LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
• Lactose is a sugar present in the milk. Lactose is a disaccharide that contains units of
galactose and glucose.
• Lactose monohydrate is mainly present in milk and exists as a naturally occurring
disaccharide.

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LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
• Lactose intolerance relates to a body that cannot digest lactose which is usually found in
milk and dairy products.
• When lactose travels through the colon (large intestine) without being properly digested,
it can create uncomfortable symptoms such as belly pain, loose stools, bloat, and
gas. The people with lactose intolerance cannot digest milk or dairy products.
• Lactose intolerance is found mostly in adults. A big challenge for the people who are
lactose-intolerant should learn what to eat for avoiding discomfort and get enough calcium for
healthy bones.
• The reason for lactose intolerance is when the small intestine does not make enough enzymes
called lactose. The body requires lactose to break down or digest lactose.
• Some premature babies also have temporary lactose intolerance since they are not yet capable
of producing lactose. After a baby starts to produce lactose, the condition goes away.
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE IS DIFFERENT FROM ALLERGY TO MILK
• Lactose intolerance is the digestive system’s response to the milk sugar (lactose), whereas in
the event of a milk allergy, the entire immune system will react against the milk protein.
• The reaction is often immediate and severe in the case of milk allergy, while lactose intolerance
will never lead to any serious disease or long-term complications.
ALTERNATIVE SUPPLEMENT TO THE MILK FOR LACTOSE INTOLERANT
PERSONS
• There are options such as plant-based milk (soy/almond milk) or lactose-free milk.
• There are plenty of other food sources — yoghurt, tofu, nuts, spinach, broccoli, orange, lentils
and legumes — that a lactose-intolerant person can depend on for calcium supplementation.

 ToMV and CMV

Over the last three years, growers of tomato have complained of increased infestation with these
two viruses, leading to partial to complete crop losses.
Tomato growers in Maharashtra attribute crop decline to the Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV),
while growers in Karnataka and other South Indian states blame the Tomato Mosaic Virus
(ToMV) for their crop losses.
TOMV
• ToMV belongs to the Virgaviridae family and is closely related to the Tobacco Mosaic
Virus (TMV). It infects tomato, tobacco, peppers, and certain ornamental plants.
• It was first identified in tomato in 1935.
• ToMV mainly spreads through infected seeds, saplings, agricultural tools, and human
contact.
• It can also be transmitted by some insect vectors, such as thrips and whiteflies.
IMPACTS
• ToMV causes green mottling and yellowing of leaves, which often appear as blisters or
fern-like patterns.

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• The leaves may also curl downwards or upwards and become distorted.
• Younger plants are dwarfed, and fruit setting is affected.
CMV
• CMV belongs to the Bromoviridae family and is one of the most widespread plant viruses.
It has a broader host range, affecting cucumber, melon, eggplant, tomato, carrot, lettuce,
celery, cucurbits, and some ornamentals.
• It was first identified in cucumber in 1934.
• CMV mainly spreads through aphids, which are sap-sucking insects that can acquire and
transmit the virus within minutes.
• It can also be transmitted by seeds, mechanical inoculation, and grafting.
IMPACTS
• Distorts leaves, primarily at the top and bottom while leaving the middle relatively unaffected.
• In cucumber, it causes a mosaic-like pattern of yellow and green spots.
• Affects fruit formation and leads to stunting and reduced production.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TOMV AND CMV
• Both viruses have a single-stranded RNA genome that is encapsulated in a rod-shaped
protein coat. Both viruses enter the plant cells through wounds or natural openings and
replicate in the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the interior of cells. It is a semifluid medium
composed of water, salts, proteins, and other molecules.
• They then move systemically throughout the plant via the phloem.
Phloem is a complex tissue found in vascular plants, responsible for the transport of organic
nutrients, primarily sugars, throughout the plant.
• Also, both viruses can cause almost 100% crop loss unless properly treated on time.

 ENDOMETRIOSIS
• Endometriosis affects roughly 10% (190 million) of reproductive age women and girls globally.
• It is a chronic disease associated with severe, life-impacting pain during periods, sexual
intercourse, bowel movements and/or urination, chronic pelvic pain, abdominal bloating,
nausea, fatigue, and sometimes depression, anxiety, and infertility.
• Endometriosis is a disease in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows
outside the uterus. It can cause severe pain in the pelvis and make it harder to get pregnant.
• Endometriosis can start at a person’s first menstrual period and last until
menopause.
• There is currently no known cure for endometriosis and treatment is usually aimed at
controlling symptoms.
• Access to early diagnosis and effective treatment of endometriosis is important.
• Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics (painkillers) like
ibuprofen and naproxen are often used to treat pain.
• Hormonal medicines like GnRH-analogues and contraceptive (birth control)
methods can also help control pain.

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 POLYPILLS
The World Health Organization has included three fixed dose combinations of cardiovascular
medicines or Polypills on its revised Model Lists of Essential Medicines 2023 for use in
cardiovascular diseases.

• The term "polypill" describes a pill that contains a combination of several

medications commonly used to treat heart disease and high blood pressure.
• The polypill is not a new drug but a drug delivery mechanism, promoting medication
adherence and saving costs by preventing hospitalizations.
• Polycap, manufactured by Cadila in India is one of the polypills that has been included in
the WHO’s Model Lists of Essential Medicines (EML).
• Polycap is a combination of four drugs simvastatin + ramipril + atenolol +
hydrochlorothiazide, along with acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin.
• According to research polypill reduced the risk of future heart attacks and strokes by 40% to
50%.
• Low-cost: The polypill is a simple and low-cost public health intervention that prevents
millions of cardiovascular events and deaths each year.
• It requires little monitoring, administered to many people with physician support.
• The inclusion of polypills into the EML can encourage governments and insurance companies
to recommend them.
• Private practitioners may also start prescribing it gradually, leading to increased availability in
the market.

 SCRUB TYPHUS
• It is a life-threatening infection caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi bacteria which is
a major public health threat in South and Southeast Asia.
• It spreads to people through bites of infected chiggers (larval mites).
• Symptoms: The most common symptoms of scrub typhus include fever, headache, body
aches, and sometimes rash.
• Treatment: Scrub typhus should be treated with the antibiotic doxycycline. Doxycycline
can be used in persons of any age.
• There is no vaccine available for this disease.
• It will not spread from person to person.
• India is one of the hotspots with at least 25% of the disease burden.
TYPHUS FEVER
• Typhus fevers are a group of diseases caused by bacteria that include epidemic typhus, scrub
typhus, and murine typhus.
o Epidemic typhus: It is caused due to Rickettsia prowazeki and it is spread to people through
contact with infected body lice.
o Scrub typhusis: It caused due to Orientia tsutsugamushi and spread by chiggers.

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o Murine typhus: It is caused due to Rickettsia typhi spread by fleas. It occurs in tropical and
subtropical climates around the world.

 CHIKUNGUNYA VACCINE
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States approved the world's inaugural
vaccine for chikungunya. This novel vaccine, named Ixchiq and developed by European vaccine
manufacturer Valneva, marks a significant leap in combating the chikungunya virus (CHIKV).
IXCHIQ VACCINE
• It is administered as a single dose via injection into the muscle.
• It contains a live, weakened version of the chikungunya virus, potentially causing
symptoms akin to the disease in vaccine recipients.
• The vaccine has been approved for administration in people who are 18 years or older and are
at increased risk of exposure to the virus.

 MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
• Monoclonal antibodies are artificially engineered in laboratories by scientists as a form
of medication.

• This is because they are characterised by their ability to help a human body combat viral
infections better.

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• These can target only one specific type of antigen.

• The short-form for them is Moabs or Mabs.
• The body responds by producing antibodies to counteract the virus or antigens, whenever a
person falls ill. These antibodies are specific to a particular antigen. Therefore, scientists can
replicate these antibodies and help in the treatment of a disease.
• So far, healthcare professionals have used monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of cancer.
EXAMPLES OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
There are four ways in which scientists prepare monoclonal antibodies. They are:

Murine • Murine monoclonal antibodies consist of mouse proteins, and any

treatment with these ends with the suffix -omab.

Human • These are made purely from human beings, and any treatment with these
ends with the suffix -umab.
• Humanised monoclonal antibodies are made of parts of mouse proteins
Humanised attached to human proteins. Any treatment with these ends with -
zumab.

Chimeric • These are also a combination of part mouse and part human. The
treatment ends with -umab.

 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME

• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a condition in which the ovaries produce an
abnormal amount of androgens, male sex hormones that are usually present in women
in small amounts.
• The name polycystic ovary syndrome describes the numerous small cysts (fluid-filled
sacs) that form in the ovaries. However, some women with this disorder do not have cysts,
while some women without the disorder do develop cysts.
• Ovulation occurs when a mature egg is released from an ovary. This happens so it can be
fertilized by a male sperm. If the egg is not fertilized, it is sent out of the body during your
period.
• In some cases, a woman doesn’t make enough of the hormones needed to ovulate.
When ovulation doesn’t happen, the ovaries can develop many small cysts. These cysts make
hormones called androgens.
• Women with PCOS often have high levels of androgens. This can cause more problems with a
woman’s menstrual cycle.
• The exact cause of PCOS is not clear. Many women with PCOS have insulin resistance. This
means the body can't use insulin well.
• Insulin levels build up in the body and may cause higher androgen levels. Obesity can
also increase insulin levels and make PCOS symptoms worse.

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 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- PHYSICS

Research: Groundbreaking work in the field of experimental physics has led to the
development of attosecond pulses, enabling scientists to directly observe and study the
rapid dynamics of electrons within matter.
It encompasses various aspects of electron behavior, including their movement,
interactions with electromagnetic fields, and responses to external forces.

 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- CHEMISTRY

Research: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for
groundbreaking discovery and synthesis of quantum dots.
Quantum dots are nanoscale particles, typically ranging in size from 1 to 100 nanometers.
These minuscule structures possess unique properties that are governed by their size.
Notably, the size of quantum dots determines the colour of light they emit, with
smaller dots emitting blue light and larger ones shining in yellow and red.

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 NOBEL PRIZE 2023- MEDICINE

Research: The Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for 2023 has been awarded to Katalin
Karikó and Drew Weissman for their groundbreaking work on nucleoside base
modification of messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA).
The discoveries by the two Nobel Laureates were critical for developing effective
mRNA vaccines against Covid-19.
UNDERSTANDING THE CHALLENGE
• Cells possess an inherent capability to detect foreign materials. Dendritic cells, which play a
crucial role in our immune system, had the ability to recognize in vitro transcribed
mRNA as foreign, setting off an inflammatory response.
• This reaction could potentially lead to harmful side effects and undermine the vaccine's
efficacy.

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• Furthermore, another challenge stemmed from the fact that in vitro transcribed mRNA was
highly unstable and susceptible to degradation by enzymes within the body.
• The research removed critical obstacles, making mRNA more suitable for clinical
applications.

 CAR-T CELL THERAPY

The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) granted market authorisation
for NexCAR19, India’s first indigenously-developed CAR-T cell therapy, to
ImmunoACT, a company incubated by IIT Bombay.
• CAR T-cell therapies are a major breakthrough in cancer treatment.
• Unlike chemotherapy or immunotherapy which involve taking drugs, CAR T-cell therapies
use a patient's own cells. They are modified in the laboratory to activate T-cells and
target tumour cells.
• T-cells are a type of white blood cell called lymphocytes. They help your immune system
fight germs and protect you from disease.
• There are two main types. Cytotoxic T-cells destroy infected cells. Helper T-cells send
signals that direct other immune cells to fight infection.

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• CAR T-cell therapy has been approved for leukaemias (cancers arising from the cells that
produce white blood cells) and lymphomas (arising from the lymphatic system).
PROCEDURE
• T cells are taken from a patient’s blood and then the gene for a special receptor that binds
to a certain protein on the patient’s cancer cells is added to the T cells in the laboratory.
• The special receptor is called a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). Large numbers of the
CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient by infusion.
SIGNIFICANCE
• CAR T-cell therapies are even more specific than targeted agents and directly stimulate
the patient's immune system to fight cancer, leading to greater clinical efficacy.
• That's why they're referred to as "living drugs."
CHALLENGES
• The potential side-effects are also significant, associated with cytokine release syndrome
(a widespread activation of the immune system and collateral damage to the body’s normal
cells) and neurological symptoms (severe confusion, seizures, and speech impairment).
• Introduction of CAR T-cell therapy in India can face challenges of cost and value.

 ELECTRIC BATTERIES
• An Electric battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it into
electricity.
• Batteries are made up of one or more electrochemical cells that are connected to
external inputs and outputs.
• Electric batteries have transformed our world, enabling the proliferation of motorization and
wireless technology.
MAJOR APPLICATIONS

• Portable Electronics: Powering

smartphones, laptops, tablets, and wearable
devices.
• Transportation: Driving electric vehicles
(EVs) for both personal and public
transportation, reducing reliance on fossil
fuels.
• Renewable Energy Storage: Storing
energy generated by solar panels and wind
turbines for later use.
• Electricity for Remote Areas: Providing
electricity in remote or off-grid locations
where conventional power sources are
unavailable or unreliable.

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MAJOR TYPES OF BATTERIES

• It is a battery that uses solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte instead

of a liquid or polymer gel electrolyte.
Solid-state
battery • Solid-state batteries are used in a variety of devices, including
pacemakers, radio frequency identifications (RFID) and
wearable devices.
Nickel– • They are used for Cordless electronic appliances, drills,
Cadmium camcorders, and other small battery-operated devices requiring an
battery (Ni- even power discharge.
Cd)
• This is a type of primary battery that uses zinc and manganese dioxide
Alkaline as electrodes.
Battery • It is used for applications that require low cost and reliable power,
such as flashlights, toys, radios, and remote controls.
• The Li-ion battery's groundbreaking principles earned its developers the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2019, underscoring its profound impact in the
Lithium-ion 20th and 21st centuries.
Battery
• Li-ion batteries are versatile, powering portable devices like phones
and laptops as well as fueling electric vehicles such as cars and bikes.

 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
• Electrochemical cells are devices that can
convert chemical energy into electrical
energy, or vice versa.
• They can produce an electric current
through chemical reactions, or they can use
electrical energy to facilitate chemical
reactions.
• Electrochemical cells, like voltaic or
galvanic cells, operate via redox
reactions wherein electrons are
liberated during oxidation and utilized
during reduction.
• A standard cell comprises two sections
accommodating metal electrodes immersed in
specific electrolytes.
• The electrodes, namely the anode and the
cathode, conduct electricity.
• The anode, where oxidation occurs, and the cathode, where reduction takes place,
form the fundamental components of the cell.
• Electrons flow from the negatively charged anode to the positively charged cathode through an
external circuit, providing power for a variety of uses.
• Connecting these halves is a wire and a salt bridge, facilitating the movement of ions
between them.

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• The energy carried by electrons dictates the source voltage, steering the electron flow
within the circuit.
• In ideal conditions, the source voltage is equal to the terminal voltage, ensuring an
efficient power supply.
• Advancements in cell design and materials, seen in nickel-cadmium, zinc-copper, and
modern lithium-ion cells, showcase increased voltages and enhanced efficiency.
RELATED CHALLENGES
• One of the well-known challenges affecting the efficiency of electrochemical cells is
corrosion. For instance, in environments with high humidity, electrodes can gather water
droplets.
• If the atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are elevated, the combination of water and gas leads
to the formation of carbonic acid, causing corrosion on the electrode surfaces.
• Another issue arises from galvanic corrosion, where one of the electrodes within a cell
deteriorates faster in the electrolyte due to its higher reactivity.
• For instance, in a carbon-zinc battery, the zinc electrode erodes more rapidly during the
battery's usage.

 RASTRIYA VIGYAN PURASKAR

The Ministry of Science and Technology has announced ‘Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar’ (RVP) at
par with the Padma and other national awards.
INCLUDED AWARDS:

• These awards will recognise lifetime achievements and

Vigyan Ratna
contributions made in any field of science and technology.
Awards

Vigyan Shri • These awards will recognise distinguished contributions to any field
Awards of science and technology.

Vigyan Team • These awards are to be given to a team comprising three or more
Awards scientists/researchers/innovators who have made an exceptional
contribution working in a team in any field of science and technology.
• These awards are the highest multidisciplinary science awards in
Vigyan Yuva- India for the young scientists (maximum 45 years).
Shanti
Swarup • They are named after Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar, the founder and
Bhatnagar director of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), who was
(VY-SSB) also a renowned chemist and visionary.

CRITERIA
• The awards encompass diverse criteria, incorporating technology-led innovations and
collaborative team efforts.
• Unlike previous awards, the RVP does not enforce age restrictions except for the Vigyan
Yuva-SSB award, aligning with calls to address ageism and gender biases.

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• The nominations for this bouquet of awards will be invited every year on 14th January which
would remain open till 28th February (National Science Day) every year.
• These awards shall be announced on 11th May (National Technology Day) every year.
The Award Ceremony for all categories of awards will be held on 23rd August (National Space
Day).
SIGNIFICANCE
• It acknowledges and encourages participation from Persons of Indian Origin abroad,
recognizing the global influence of Indian scientific talent.
• The new awards will be open to an expanded group of “scientists, technologists, and
innovators (or teams) working in government, private sector organisations or individuals
working outside any organisation.
• The new awards will also have expanded eligibility criteria, including technology-led
innovations or products, in addition to discovery-based research. The RVP also includes a set
of team awards (Vigyan Team), to acknowledge the increasingly collaborative, cross-
disciplinary, translational, and intersectional nature of scientific research.
• Importantly, with the exception of the Vigyan Yuva-SSB award – for scientists up to the
age of 45 years – the other RVP awards don’t have an age limit, while explicitly committing to
ensure equitable gender representation.

 CORD BLOOD BANKING

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ABOUT CORD BLOOD AND BANKING

• The blood from the newborn that is still present in the placenta and umbilical cord after
birth is known as cord blood.
• Umbilical cord blood is a rich source of stem cells; cord blood banking is the process
of conserving it for use in the future.
• Hematopoietic stem cells, which are unique cells, are present in them and can be
employed to cure certain disorders.
• In the body, hematopoietic stem cells can develop into many types of blood cells.
• Cord blood stem cells are now being used to treat a number of deadly diseases, most notably
malignancies, blood disorders, and genetic diseases of the blood and immune system.
• Cord blood transplants have special benefits over conventional bone marrow transplants.
• A system that preserves umbilical cord blood for use in the future is known as a Cord
Blood Bank.
• Public cord blood banks operate similarly to public blood banks in that they accept donations
to be utilised for anybody in need.
• Umbilical Cord Blood banks (UCB) are permitted only under license and monitoring by the
Central Drug Standards Controlling Organization (CDSCO).

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TECHNOLOGY

 QUANTUM COMPUTER
o A quantum computer harnesses some of the almost-mystical phenomena of quantum
mechanics to deliver huge leaps forward in processing power. Quantum machines promise
to outstrip even the most capable of today’s—and tomorrow’s—supercomputers.
o The secret to a quantum computer’s power lies in its ability to generate and manipulate
quantum bits, or qubits.
QUBIT
o Today's computers use bits—a stream of electrical or optical
pulses representing 1s or 0s. Everything from your tweets and e-
mails to your iTunes songs and YouTube videos are essentially
long strings of these binary digits.
o Quantum computers, on the other hand, use qubits, which are
typically subatomic particles such as electrons or
photons. Generating and managing qubits is a scientific and
engineering challenge. Some companies, such as IBM, Google,
and Rigetti Computing, use superconducting circuits cooled to
temperatures colder than deep space. Others, like IonQ, trap
individual atoms in electromagnetic fields on a silicon chip in
ultra-high-vacuum chambers. In both cases, the goal is to isolate
the qubits in a controlled quantum state.
o Qubits have some quirky quantum properties that mean a connected group of them can provide
way more processing power than the same number of binary bits. One of those properties is
known as superposition and another is called entanglement.
SUPERPOSITION
o Qubits can represent numerous possible combinations of 1
and 0 at the same time. This ability to simultaneously be in
multiple states is called superposition. To put qubits into
superposition, researchers manipulate them using precision
lasers or microwave beams.
o Thanks to this counterintuitive phenomenon, a quantum
computer with several qubits in superposition can crunch
through a vast number of potential outcomes simultaneously.
The final result of a calculation emerges only once the qubits are
measured, which immediately causes their quantum state to
“collapse” to either 1 or 0.
ENTANGLEMENT
o Researchers can generate pairs of qubits that are “entangled,” which means the two members
of a pair exist in a single quantum state. Changing the state of one of the qubits will
instantaneously change the state of the other one in a predictable way. This happens even if
they are separated by very long distances.

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o Nobody really knows quite how or why entanglement works. It

even baffled Einstein, who famously described it as “spooky
action at a distance.” But it’s key to the power of quantum
computers. In a conventional computer, doubling the number
of bits doubles its processing power. But thanks to
entanglement, adding extra qubits to a quantum machine
produces an exponential increase in its number-crunching
ability.
o Quantum computers harness entangled qubits in a kind of
quantum daisy chain to work their magic. The machines’ ability
to speed up calculations using specially designed quantum
algorithms is why there’s so much buzz about their potential.
o That’s the good news. The bad news is that quantum machines
are way more error-prone than classical computers because of decoherence.
DECOHERENCE
o The interaction of qubits with their environment in
ways that cause their quantum behaviour to decay and
ultimately disappear is called decoherence.
o Their quantum state is extremely fragile. The slightest
vibration or change in temperature—
disturbances known as “noise” in quantum-
speak—can cause them to tumble out of superposition
before their job has been properly done. That’s why
researchers do their best to protect qubits from the
outside world in those supercooled fridges and vacuum
chambers.
o But despite their efforts, noise still causes lots of errors
to creep into calculations. Smart quantum algorithms
can compensate for some of these, and adding more
qubits also helps. However, it will likely take thousands
of standard qubits to create a single, highly reliable one, known as a “logical” qubit. This will
sap a lot of a quantum computer’s computational capacity.
o And there’s the rub: so far, researchers haven’t been able to generate more than 128 standard
qubits (see our qubit counter here). So we’re still many years away from getting quantum
computers that will be broadly useful.
o That hasn’t dented pioneers’ hopes of being the first to demonstrate “quantum
supremacy.”
QUANTUM SUPREMACY
o It’s the point at which a quantum computer can
complete a mathematical calculation that is
demonstrably beyond the reach of even the most powerful
supercomputer.
o It’s still unclear exactly how many qubits will be needed to
achieve this because researchers keep finding new
algorithms to boost the performance of classical machines,
and supercomputing hardware keeps getting better. But
researchers and companies are working hard to claim the
title, running tests against some of the world’s most
powerful supercomputers.

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o There’s plenty of debate in the research world about just how significant achieving this
milestone will be. Rather than wait for supremacy to be declared, companies are already
starting to experiment with quantum computers made by companies like IBM, Rigetti, and D-
Wave, a Canadian firm. Chinese firms like Alibaba are also offering access to quantum
machines. Some businesses are buying quantum computers, while others are using ones made
available through cloud computing services.
WHERE IS A QUANTUM COMPUTER LIKELY TO BE MOST USEFUL FIRST?
o One of the most promising applications of quantum computers is for simulating the
behaviour of matter down to the molecular level. Auto manufacturers like Volkswagen
and Daimler are using quantum computers to simulate the chemical composition of
electrical-vehicle batteries to help find new ways to improve their performance. And
pharmaceutical companies are leveraging them to analyze and compare compounds that
could lead to the creation of new drugs.
o The machines are also great for optimization problems because they can crunch through vast
numbers of potential solutions extremely fast. Airbus, for instance, is using them to help
calculate the most fuel-efficient ascent and descent paths for aircraft. And
Volkswagen has unveiled a service that calculates the optimal routes for buses and taxis in
cities in order to minimize congestion. Some researchers also think the machines could be used
to accelerate artificial intelligence.
o It could take quite a few years for quantum computers to achieve their full potential.
Universities and businesses working on them are facing a shortage of skilled researchers in the
field—and a lack of suppliers of some key components. But if these exotic new computing
machines live up to their promise, they could transform entire industries and turbocharge
global innovation.

 QUANTUM DOTS
• Quantum dots (QDs) are artificial 'nanoscale particles, typically ranging in size from 1
to 100 nanometres that are made of semiconductor materials and have a size of a few
nanometres.
• They are sometimes called “artificial atoms” because they behave like individual atoms with
discrete energy levels.
KEY PRINCIPLES AND PROPERTIES OF QUANTUM DOTS

 Quantum Confinement: Electrons and holes are confined in small particles, creating
discrete energy levels.
 Broad Absorption Spectrum: Quantum dots absorb a wide range of wavelengths.
 High Quantum Yield: They efficiently convert absorbed photons into emitted light.
 Photostability: Quantum dots maintain brightness and colour over time, even under intense
light.
 Narrow Emission Peaks: Emit well-defined colours, improving displays.
 Biocompatibility: Some quantum dots are safe for biological applications.
 Electron Trapping: Can trap electrons for extended periods for quantum applications.

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SOME OF THE POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF QDS ARE:

• Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): QDs can be used to create LEDs with high brightness, pure
colours, low power consumption, and long lifetimes. QD-LEDs can be used for displays,
lighting, and signage.
• Photodetectors: QDs can be used to create photodetectors with high sensitivity, fast
response, and wide spectral range. QD-photodetectors can be used for machine vision,
surveillance, spectroscopy, and industrial inspection.
• Photovoltaics: QDs can be used to create solar cells with high efficiency, low cost, and
flexibility. QD-solar cells can be made by simple chemical reactions and can harvest light from
a wide range of wavelengths.
• Bioimaging: QDs can be used to label and track biological molecules, cells, and tissues
with high resolution, contrast, and specificity. QD-bioimaging can be used for diagnosis,
therapy, and research.
• Biosensors: QDs can be used to detect and quantify biological analytes, such as
proteins, DNA, and toxins, with high sensitivity, selectivity, and multiplexing. QD-biosensors
can be used for medical testing, environmental monitoring, and food safety.
• Quantum computing: QDs can be used to create quantum bits (qubits), which are the
basic units of quantum information processing.
• QD-qubits can store and manipulate quantum states with high fidelity and scalability.

 QUANTUM ENGINE
A ground breaking discovery has been done by researchers by developing a quantum
engine, referred to as the 'Pauli engine,' which can convert the energy difference
between two quantum states of a group of atoms into useful work.
This innovation has the potential to advance our understanding of quantum thermodynamics
and could have applications in the development of more efficient quantum computers.
QUANTUM STATE
• A Quantum state is a mathematical description of the physical properties of a quantum
system.
• In quantum mechanics, the fundamental theory that describes the behaviour of matter
and energy at the smallest scales, quantum states provide a complete specification of a
system's properties, including its position, momentum, energy, spin, and other
observable quantities.
• Quantum phenomena often defy our common sense and challenge our classical understanding
of the world. One of these phenomena is the difference between two types of quantum particles:
bosons and fermions.
• Fermions are the building blocks of matter, bosons are particles that carry the forces
acting between them.
• Bosons are particles that can share the same quantum state, while fermions are particles
that obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which forbids them from occupying the same
quantum state.
• At low temperatures, bosons can behave very differently than fermions because an
unlimited number of them can occupy the same lowest energy level, while fermions have to fill
up higher energy states.

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• This energy difference between bosons and fermions has inspired researchers to design and
build a novel quantum engine that can convert this difference into useful work.

• Pauli's Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have
identical values for all four of their quantum numbers.
• In other words, (1) no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital and (2) two
electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins

QUANTUM ENGINE
• The quantum engine or Pauli’s engine consists of a gas of lithium-6 atoms that are
trapped in a combined optical and magnetic trap.
• The gas can be tuned to behave like bosons or fermions by changing the magnetic field
around it.
• This is possible because the atoms can pair up into bosonic molecules or dissociate
into individual fermionic atoms depending on the strength of the magnetic field.
• The engine operates in a four-step cycle and it opens up new possibilities for studying quantum
thermodynamics and its implications for other fields of physics.
• While the quantum engine is still in the proof-of-concept stage.
• One application of the quantum engine could be in cooling the particles used in
quantum computers.
• Quantum computers require extremely low temperatures to operate effectively,
and the quantum engine could potentially serve as a cooling mechanism for these particles,
similar to how an air-conditioner cools a room.

 SUPERCOMPUTER
o A supercomputer can perform high-level processing at a faster rate when compared to a normal
computer.
o Supercomputing is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS).
o Supercomputers are made up of thousands of powerful machines which use better artificial
intelligence (AI) models to improve operations processing huge amounts of data in less time.
o They work together to perform complex operations that are not possible with normal
computing systems.
o AI supercomputers are built by combining multiple graphic processing units (GPUs)
into compute nodes, which are then connected by a high-performance network fabric to allow
fast communication between those GPUs.
WHAT IS THE RSC?
o RSC is a powerful supercomputer that can perform tasks like translating text between
languages and help identify potentially harmful content on Meta's platform.
o It can run computer vision workflows up to 20 times faster.
o It can train large-scale Natural Language Processing (NLP) models 3 times faster.
o It can help its researchers build better AI models that can work across different languages,
seamlessly analyse text, images and video together.

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o It also powers real-time voice translations to large groups of people speaking different
languages so that they can collaborate on a research project, and develop new augmented
reality tools.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF SUPERCOMPUTERS AND RSC IN THE METAVERSE?
o The AI supercomputers will help build the foundation of metaverse to create AI agents in that
environment for
▪ rich user interaction
▪ mimicking the real world
▪ provide high-performance computing to specific tasks
o Meta computes that RSC will pave the way toward building technologies for the metaverse
where AI-driven applications and products will play an important role.
o RSC can keep people safe in the metaverse through its training models that can detect harmful
content faster than earlier systems.

 DIGITAL COOKIES
In the digital world, cookies enhance online experiences but pose privacy and security
challenges. Their usage and regulation are evolving in the digital landscape.
• Cookies contain tiny amounts of data about users in text files that act like a website’s
memory.
• As soon as we use a server, tiny amounts of data start getting stored inside a cookie.
• The website uses it to identify users and their devices, which also stores these cookies.
• Whenever a user visits the same website, the cookies identify him/her and make it show
relevant information.
USES OF COOKIES
1. User Authentication: They keep you logged in on websites
2. Personalization: Customize your experience based on preferences
3. Shopping Carts: Maintain items in your cart across visits
4. Analytics: Help websites gather data for improvements
5. Targeted Advertising: Display ads matching your interests.

TYPES

• Temporary and disappear when you close your browser.

Session
cookies • They help websites remember your actions during a single visit.

• They are the digital equivalent of bookmarks. They stay on the device
after your browsing session ends.
Persistent
cookies – They remember the login information, language preferences, and even the
ads you have interacted with.
– They are handy for a more personalized web experience.
Secure • These are only sent over encrypted connections, making them safer
cookies from prying eyes.

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• Secure cookies are often used for sensitive data like login credentials.

Third • Come from domains other than the site you’re visiting and are used for
parties tracking and advertising.
cookies

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH COOKIES

1. Privacy Concerns: Privacy concerns arise as cookies could track your online behaviour,
which, while often harmless, can sometimes encroach upon your digital privacy.
2. Security Risks: Poorly secured cookies can lead to data theft.
3. User Consent: Regulations require websites to seek approval for certain cookies. For
instance, Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 necessitates websites to acquire explicit
consent from users prior to collecting or processing their personal data via cookies.
4. Third-Party Cookies: Controversial due to privacy concerns.
5. Data Overload: Too many cookies can slow down your browser.

 GENERATIVE AI
• Generative AI uses Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning algorithms to enable
machines to generate new content (machine generated).
• Systems use previously created content, such as text, audio, video, images, and code. The
term ‘Generative’ refers to the ability of the models to learn how to create new
data rather than simply recognising it.
• For example, a generative model may learn how to generate images that resemble faces
given a set of parameters (such as the eyes, hair, or skin colour etc.).
• The content (text, image etc.) generated by AI is so ‘authentic’, that it is difficult to distinguish
whether the content has been generated by human or computer.
APPLICATIONS OF GENERATIVE AI

• It can be utilised to alter the background/landscape according to the

need rather than wait for required conditions to exist.
Motion • Images or videos of Actors at various ages are also possible with
Picture Generative AI technology.
Industry
• By using face synthesis and voice cloning, artist’s/actor’s original voice
can be matched with a lip-sync. This will also help in archiving artefacts
after restoration for future references.
• It has the capability to take search engine services to the next level, e.g.,
Search Text to Image translation may be utilized to provide search results.
Engine
Service • It can also be used to produce realistic photographs from textual
descriptions of objects like birds and flowers.
• It can create front-on photos from photos taken at different angles and
Security vice versa for face verification or face identification systems.
Services • Such systems can be deployed at airports, international border checkpoints
etc.

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Healthcare • Semantic-Image-to-Photo Translation can convert inputs that are

semantic images or sketches to photo-realistic images e.g., if X-ray or any
CT scan images can be converted to real images, diagnosis can be much
more accurate.

Advertising • It can create new advertisements based on existing ones, making it

easier for companies to reach new audiences.
• This involves converting satellite images to map views.
Location
Services • This can be a huge step towards venturing into unexplored geographic
locations.
• The possible applications of Generative AI are still being explored and can
expand considerably as the technology evolves further.
Potential
• It can expand to fields like education, content creation, banking
among others.

CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH GENERATIVE AI

1. Accuracy: The Machine Learning Algorithms depend on the quality of the input data.
Erroneous or inaccurate data can generate inaccurate results.
2. Increase Biases: If the models are trained on biased, non-inclusive data, they will generate
biased outputs, such as offensive or discriminatory language, demeaning and degrading
imagery, and prejudicial content.
3. Malicious Purposes: Can create content for malicious purposes, such as deepfakes,
disinformation, and propaganda. It can also generate offensive or inappropriate content.
Nefarious actors may use AI-generated media to manipulate people and influence public
opinion.
4. Concern over Data Privacy: Data privacy issues can arise from using generative AI in
different industries, such as healthcare, since it involves collecting private information about
individuals.
5. Limitations in Creativity: AI uses past data as a template for future work. It means that the
output produced by Generative AI is usually based on something that has already happened
rather than anything genuinely creative. In short, AI systems lack creativity, originality and
human ingenuity.
6. Issues Related to Copyright: It can be challenging to determine who is responsible for the
content generated by a Generative AI system. The acquisition and consent model around the
training data and intellectual property issues make it difficult to hold anyone accountable for
any harm resulting from its use. In addition, there are concerns related to use of copyrighted
content to train AI systems.
7. Risk of Unemployment: Although it is too early to make certain judgements, there is a risk
that generative AI could contribute to unemployment in certain fields.
8. Environmental Concerns: AI systems require a lot of computing power. This has
implications for environments, in terms of energy consumed in operating AI systems.
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?

• To address bias and fairness, researchers can use techniques such as de-
First biasing and fair representation learning, which can help to remove
biases present in the training data.

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• Researchers can also use techniques such as counterfactual data

Second generation, which can help to generate more diverse and representative
training.
• There is need to add rigour and responsibility to developing AI technology,
Third develop and enforce ethical guidelines, conduct regular audits for
fairness, identify and address biases, and protect privacy and security.
• There is need to add adequate policy, regulation, awareness, and
Fourth education guardrails to develop and use Generative AI services ethically
and responsibly

Fifth • Intellectual property law must find a way to protect artists from
copies that erode the value of their original work.

 MULTIMODAL ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

(AI)
AI companies including OpenAI, Google, and Meta have begun to develop and release
multimodal AI services.
These services can process different types of data such as audio, video, image, etc.
MULTIMODAL AI

• Multimodal Artificial
Intelligence refers to
advanced AI models in
which multiple modes
of information or
sensory data are
integrated in order to
facilitate human-like
reasoning and
decision-making.
• While the traditional
AI models are focused
on processing
information from a
single modality, i.e., text, image, or speech, the multimodal model incorporates data from
multiple modalities.
• They are developed using sophisticated techniques such as feature extraction, machine
learning, and neural networks that can integrate and analyze data from multiple sources.
• Advantages: Enhanced accuracy, more effective AI systems.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN MULTIMODAL AI
• OpenAIs ChatGPT: OpenAI announced enhancements to its GPT-3.5 and GPT-4
models, allowing them to analyze images and engage in speech synthesis, enabling more
immersive interactions with users.

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• It is working on a project named "Gobi," which aims to create a multimodal AI system from
scratch, distinct from the GPT models.
GOOGLE'S GEMINI MODEL:
• Another major player in the field is Google’ new yet-to-be-released multimodal large language
model Gemini.
• Due to its huge collection of images and videos from its search engine and YouTube, Google
had a clear edge over its rivals in the multimodal domain.
• It puts immense pressure on other AI systems to rapidly advance their multimodal capabilities.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF MULTIMODAL AI OVER UNIMODAL AI?
• Multimodal AI, unlike unimodal AI, leverages diverse data types such as text, images, and
audio, offering a richer representation of information.
• This approach enhances contextual understanding, resulting in more accurate predictions and
informed decisions.
• By fusing data from multiple modalities, multimodal AI achieves better performance,
increased robustness, and the ability to handle ambiguity effectively.
• It broadens applicability across various domains and enables cross-modal learning.
• Multimodal AI provides a more holistic and human-like understanding of data, paving the way
for innovative applications and a deeper comprehension of complex real-world scenarios.
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMODAL AI

• It finds applications in diverse fields, including autonomous driving, robotics, and

medicine. For example, in medical field, the analysis of complex datasets from CT Scans
and identifying genetic variations, simplifying the communication of results to medical
professionals is very crucial.
• Speech translation models, such as Google Translate and Meta's SeamlessM4T, also
benefit from multimodality, offering translation services across various languages and
modalities.
• Recent developments include Meta's ImageBind, a multimodal system capable of
processing text, visual data, audio, temperature, and movement readings.
• The potential for integrating additional sensory data like touch, smell, speech, and brain MRI
signals is explored, enabling future AI systems to simulate complex environments.
CHALLENGES OF MULTIMODAL AI

Data • The diverse and voluminous data required for Multimodal AI poses
Volume challenges in terms of data quality, storage costs, and redundancy
and management, making it expensive and resource intensive.
Storage

Learning • Teaching AI to understand nuanced meanings from identical input, especially

Nuance in languages or expressions with context-dependent meanings, proves
and challenging without additional contextual cues like tone, facial expressions,
Context or gestures.
• Availability of complete and easily accessible data sets is a challenge.
Limited
and • Public data sets may be limited, costly, or suffer from aggregation issues,
affecting data integrity and bias in AI model training.

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Incomplete
Data
• Dependency on data from multiple sources can result in AI malfunctions or
Missing
misinterpretations if any of the data sources are missing or malfunctioning,
Data
causing uncertainty in AI response.
Handling

• Neural networks in Multimodal AI may be complex and challenging to

Decision- interpret, making it difficult to understand how AI evaluates data and makes
Making decisions.
Complexity
• This lack of transparency can hinder debugging and bias elimination efforts.

 AI SUMMIT 2023
The Artificial Intelligence (AI) Safety Summit 2023 was held in England has marked a
significant turning point in the global approach to tackling the challenges posed by frontier AI
technologies.
To tackle these challenges, 28 major countries, including the United States, China, India, and
the European Union, signed the Bletchley Park Declaration at this first-ever AI Safety
Summit.
BLETCHLEY PARK DECLARATION
• The Bletchley Park Declaration is the first global pact on tackling frontier AI risks, and
it reflects a high-level political consensus and commitment among the major AI players in the
world.
• It acknowledges the potential of AI to enhance human well-being but also recognizes the risks
posed by AI, especially frontier AI, which may cause serious harm, either deliberate or
unintentional, particularly in domains like cybersecurity, biotechnology, and disinformation.
• It emphasizes the need for international cooperation to address AI-related risks, as
they are inherently global, and calls for collaboration among all actors, including companies,
civil society, and academia.
• The declaration also announces the establishment of a regular AI Safety Summit, which
will provide a platform for dialogue and collaboration on frontier AI safety.
• The next summit will be hosted by France within a year.
INDIA'S STANCE AT THE SUMMIT
• India has shifted from a stance of not considering AI regulation to actively formulating
regulations based on a risk-based, user-harm approach.
• India called for a global framework for the expansion of "ethical" AI tools, signaling a
commitment to responsible AI usage.
• India has shown interest in establishing regulatory bodies at both domestic and
international levels to ensure the responsible use of AI.
• Digital India Act, 2023 which is yet to implemented, is expected to introduce issue-specific
regulations for online intermediaries, including AI-based platforms.

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 THERMAL DEPOLYMERIZATION
• Thermal depolymerization is an industrial process of breaking down various waste
materials into crude oil products.
• The materials are subjected to high temperatures and pressure in the presence of
water, thereby initiating hydrous pyrolysis.
• As a result, the long chain polymers of the materials are depolymerized into short chain
monomers.
• It is said to mimic the natural geological processes thought to be involved in fossil fuel
production.
• Thermal depolymerization occurs in nature when an accumulated biomass is heated and
pressurized in the earth's crust over millions of years.
• This biomass, also known as kerogen, is believed to react with clay mineral enzymes at
temperatures below 200 °C (392 °F), which produces oil.
• This method is rapidly gaining a lot of attention world-wide as an alternative source of energy.
• It is particularly helpful as solid wastes contain carbon, which can be chemically
transformed into liquid fuel.
THERMAL DEPOLYMERIZATION PROCESS
• During thermal depolymerization process, the feedstock material is ground into tiny
chunks and mixed with water.
• The mixture is then subjected to high pressure and heated at a constant volume to
250 °C (482 °F).
• As a result, crude hydrocarbons and solid minerals are produced, which are then
separated using fractional distillation and oil refining techniques.
• Some of commonly used feedstock materials include corn, soya, sugarcane, tires, sewage
sludge and medical wastes.
• Carthage plant products like aromatics, olefins, paraffins and naphthenes are also used.
APPLICATIONS

• Thermal depolymerization is a high heat process that involves physical and

chemical changes resulting in total destruction of waste bringing a
Waste significant reduction in the volume and mass of the waste.
Reduction
• It can treat a wide range of waste including biological, anatomical,
plastics, glass and needles, etc.
• Researchers have produced oil from agricultural plant wastes like hog
Oil manure, animal wastes, plastics using thermal depolymerization method
Production where the application of heat and pressure yields oil in addition to carbon
dioxide, methane and water.

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 KAVACH
• Kavach is a cab signaling train control system with anti-collision features developed by
the Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) in association with three
Indian vendors.
• It has been adopted as our National Automatic Train Protection (ATP) System.
• It adheres to Safety Integrity Level-4 (SIL-4) standards and acts as a vigilant watchdog
over the existing signaling system, alerting the loco pilot when approaching a 'red signal' and
applying automatic brakes if necessary to prevent overshooting the signal.
• The system also relays SoS messages during emergency situations.
• It features centralized live monitoring of train movements through the Network Monitor
System.
• The Indian Railways Institute of Signal Engineering & Telecommunications
(IRISET) in Secunderabad, Telangana hosts the 'Centre of Excellence' for Kavach.
COMPONENTS OF KAVACH
• Within the Kavach setup, designated railway stations along the intended route for deployment
consist of three essential components.
• First Component: The first component involves the incorporation of Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) technology into the tracks.
• RFID employs radio waves to identify objects or individuals and utilizes electromagnetic fields
to automatically read wireless device information from a distance without physical contact or
line of sight.
• Second Component: The locomotive, serving as the driver's cabin, is equipped with RFID
readers, a computer, and brake interface equipment, comprising the second component.
• Third Component: It encompasses radio infrastructure, such as towers and modems,
strategically installed at railway stations to support the system's functionality.

CHALLENGES IN DEPLOYMENT: COST

• Its deployment cost is ₹50 lakh per kilometer, with limited coverage of approximately 1,500
km currently, posing a challenge in comprehensive implementation across the 68,000 km rail
network.

 GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY
o India has a robust ecosystem in geospatial, with the Survey of India (SoI), the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO), remote sensing application centres (RSAC)s, and the
National Informatics Centre (NIC) in particular, and all ministries and departments, in
general, using geospatial technology.
o Geospatial definition: Any data that is indicated by or related to a geographic
location. Geospatial technology collects and analyzes the geospatial data.
o Among the most prominent hurdles is the absence of a sizeable geospatial market in India.
There is no demand for geospatial services and products on a scale linked to India’s potential
and size. This is mainly due to the lack of awareness among potential users in government

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and private. The other hurdle has been the lack of skilled manpower across the entire
pyramid.
GEOSPATIAL DATA
o Geospatial data, also
known as geodata, has
locational information
connected to a dataset
such as address, city or
ZIP code. Geospatial
data can also come from
Global Positioning
System (GPS) data,
geospatial satellite
imagery, telematics
devices, IoT and
geotagging.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF GEOSPATIAL DATA?
The two main types of geospatial data are vector data and raster data.
o Vector Data: Uses geometric shapes to show the location and shape of geographic
features. Points, lines and polygons can represent things like cities, roads and waterways.
Vector data is scalable, has small file sizes and ideal for depicting boundaries.
o Raster Data: Represents data through a digital image such a scanned map or
photograph. It also includes aerial and satellite imagery. Raster data uses a cell-based format
called stairsteping to record data as pixels or grids with an image. Spatial analysis depends
heavily on raster datasets.
WHAT IS GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY?
o Geospatial technology is
used to collect, analyse and
store geographic
information. It uses
software to map geographic
locations while analysing
the impact of human
activity.
o Geographic Information
System (GIS) uses digital
software to combine maps
and datasets about
environmental events and
socioeconomic trends.
o GIS creates layered maps to
better analyse complex
data. The layering is
possible because each data
point is connected to a
precise location on Earth.
Other forms of geospatial technology include GPS, remote sensing, and geofencing.
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES: Geospatial technologies provide data for a number of
industries that include the military, utility companies, urban planners and industrial engineers.

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The application of geospatial data is useful for biodiversity conservation, forest fire suppression,
agricultural monitoring, humanitarian relief and any field that could benefit from better
visualization and analysis of geographic data.
o REMOTE SENSING: Space or airborne camera and sensor platforms provide imagery and
data at great detail. Images that can zoom into less than one meter are available on some
commercial satellites.
o GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS): Offers software that can map a specific
geographic location anywhere on Earth and analyze geospatial data. GIS geospatial can also
detect patterns in the data.
o GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS): Provides coordinate locations for military and
civilian use.
o INTERNET MAPPING TECHNOLOGIES: Google Earth and Microsoft Virtual Earth are
examples of geospatial software and geospatial mapping tools that makes it easier for people
to view and share geospatial data.

FUTURE OF GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY:

The future of geospatial technology largely involves the further integration of machine learning
and AI. Mapping as a service, drones and autonomous vehicles are growth areas driving geospatial
technology adoption.
o Geospatial AI: Places a geographic component on machine learning. App users can provide
real-time information about traffic or other conditions in their surroundings. Myriads of
contributors improve the accuracy of geospatial data, allowing for better predictions when
managing things like traffic flow. Also known as Geo AI.
o Autonomous Vehicles: The eye of an autonomous vehicle is LiDAR (Light Detection
and Ranging), which is a sensing method that uses pulsed laser light to measure variable
distances. Geospatial technology make LiDAR possible and mapping companies will take it to
the next level to make autonomous driving safer and more accessible.
o Mapping as a Service: Not every map found online is high-resolution. But geospatial
mapping technology can make on-demand maps of any location desired. The maps can be
created based on customer needs and used for any number of industries, including
construction. Geospatial imagery and the Mapping as a Service market could reach $8 billion
by 2025.
o Drones: Drones used for aerial mapping will become more common. Combined with GIS and
high precision sensors, the drone-capture images can fly over acres of land to gather data to
influence everything from farming to urban planning.

 LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS

• LLMs (Large Language Models) like ChatGPT are useful tools which will impact learning,
working and exporting. The need is to devise mechanisms to harness their strengths and avoid
their pitfalls.
WHAT ARE THE PITFALLS OF LLMS?
• Firstly, LLMs are trained on the text available over the internet. But most of the text on the
Internet is problematic and this is going to get worse, as the Internet is about to grow a
hundred-fold with LLM-generated content.

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• Secondly, LLMs lack a critical sense in assembling the information from the internet, in
judging what is appropriate and what is not and in forming a coherent picture.
• Thirdly, LLMs can make things up and slip that into the output. (Hallucination)
HOW LLMS WILL IMPACT WORKER PRODUCTIVITY IN INDIA?
• A study “Generative AI at Work” on the impact of generative AI found 14 percent gains for
weak employees. However, it also found that it will not be beneficial to skilled employees.
• At best, these tools can close the productivity gap between Indian workers and those from
any first-world organization.
• India has a very large low-capability workforce. LLMs can increase the productivity of
these workers.
WHY IS A COMPLEX MANAGEMENT SYSTEM REQUIRED FOR LLMS?
• Mistakes made by LLMs are obvious to an expert, but a novice may not be able to point them
out.
• Therefore, a multi-layer management system for LLMs is required. In this system, first drafts
will be produced by juniors using LLMs, which will be reviewed by experts. So that any mistake
of the draft can be corrected by an expert.
• There are at least three situations where a multi-layer management system for LLMs will
yield great results:
1. Email-based customer support: With LLM support, the headcount of employees will go
down and their productivity will go up. The minimum bar for recruitment in the Indian labour
market might go down, thus permitting going down to workers with lower wages. This will
yield improved profit.
2. Computer programming: ChatGPT is useful for translating a programme from one
language into another, which Indian software companies do a lot. LLMs for programming can
help build code that is inexpensive to maintain and enhance.
3. English communication: A lot of the Indian workforce has poor English and writes bad text
in their communications. LLMs can help convert prompts into sound English, and thus
improving intra-organisation information flows.
• Experts are needed to spot the mistakes made by the LLM. Becoming an expert takes decades
of learning and practice. LLMs can disrupt this process as the beginners are not following the
conventional learning practices now.

 RADIATIVE COOLING TECHNOLOGY

• Radiative cooling technology is a method designed to dissipate heat from an object by
emitting thermal radiation into the atmosphere, allowing the object to become cooler.
• It leads to creation of cool surfaces by emitting thermal radiation directly into the
extremely cold universe (around 3 Kelvin), using the atmospheric transmission window (8 - 13
µm).
• Notably, this process occurs without any reliance on electricity.
NEED
• Increased global warming and urban heat island effects have accentuated the necessity for
effective cooling technologies.

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• Conventional active cooling devices like air-conditioners, fans, and refrigerators demand
substantial electrical energy, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and elevated
surface temperatures.
• Radiative cooling technology addresses these challenges by emitting thermal radiation
without electricity consumption, through the atmospheric transmission window.
RADIATIVE COOLING PAINT
• It is derived from a novel
magnesium oxide (MgO)-
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
polymer nanocomposite
prepared from materials that are
earth abundant, cheap, non-toxic,
and non-harmful.
• It showcases remarkable cooling
capabilities with high solar
reflectivity and infrared thermal
emissivity.
• The MgO-PVDF with dielectric
nanoparticles resulted in high
solar reflectance (96.3%) and
exceptional thermal emission
(98.5%).
• Tailored to counter escalating heat impact on buildings, this paint minimizes electricity
usage and provides crucial cooling during sweltering summer days.
• With outstanding optical features, it lowers surface temperatures by about 10°C in strong
sunlight, outperforming standard white paints.
• Its water-resistant, hydrophobic nature guarantees effortless application on
diverse surfaces, ensuring consistent coverage and strong adhesion.

 MICROBIAL FUEL CELL

o The concept behind
microbial fuel cells is
that these rely on bacteria
to generate an electrical
current.
o These fuel cells have broad
usage possibilities and are
one of the cleanest
known energy sources.
o Powered by living
microorganisms with clean
and sustainable features;
they can generate electricity
from broad range of organic
substrates under natural
conditions.

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o Microbial fuel production is probably the only technology, in which the electricity is being
generated from oxidation of organic compounds in room temperature.
o There is no need to burn anything, and the process is not depending on sunlight
o Application-MFC technology is unique because of its multifunctional application: for
example, wastewater and slime, collected in wastewater treatment plants can be also used as
food for bacteria.
o Although the idea that microorganisms can generate electricity was introduced in 1911, it
became more actively investigated in the 2000s. Groups of researchers around the world are
working with the MFC technology, attempting to improve the efficiency of the cells.
o What about the Future? It is envisaged that the microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology could
one day be used in the Developing World in areas lacking sanitation and installed in homes in
the Developed World to help clean waste before it flows into the municipal sewerage network,
reducing the burden on water companies to treat effluent.

 STEM CELL TRANSPLANT

o A U.S. patient with leukemia has become the first woman and the third person to
date to be cured of HIV after receiving a stem cell transplant from a donor who
was naturally resistant to the virus that causes AIDS.
o A bone marrow transplant is a medical treatment that replaces your bone
marrow with healthy cells. The replacement cells can either come from your own body
or from a donor.
o A bone marrow transplant is also called a stem cell transplant or, more specifically, a
hematopoietic stem cell transplant.
o Transplantation can be used to treat certain types of cancer, such as leukemia, myeloma, and
lymphoma, and other blood and immune system diseases that affect the bone marrow.
STEM CELLS
BONE MARROW
o Stem cells are special cells that can make copies of themselves and change into the
many different kinds of cells that your body needs. There are several kinds of stem cells and
they are found in different parts of the body at different times.
o Cancer and cancer treatment can damage your hematopoietic stem cells.
o Hematopoietic stem cells are stem cells that turn into blood cells.
o Bone marrow is soft, spongy tissue in the body that contains hematopoietic stem cells. It
is found in the centre of most bones.
o Hematopoietic stem cells are also found in the blood that is moving throughout your body.
o When hematopoietic stem cells are damaged, they may not become red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets. These blood cells are very important and each one has a different job:
▪ Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout your body. They also take carbon dioxide to your
lungs so that it can be exhaled.
▪ White blood cells are a part of your immune system. They fight pathogens, which are
the viruses and bacteria that can make you sick.
▪ Platelets form clots to stop bleeding.
o A bone marrow/stem cell transplant is a medical procedure by which healthy stem cells are
transplanted into your bone marrow or your blood. This restores your body's ability to create
the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets it needs.

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WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSPLANT?

o There are different types of bone marrow/stem cell transplants. The 2 main types are:
o AUTOLOGOUS TRANSPLANT. Stem cells for an autologous transplant come from your
own body. Sometimes, cancer is treated with a high-dose, intensive chemotherapy or
radiation therapy treatment. This type of treatment can damage your stem cells and your
immune system. That's why doctors remove, or rescue, your stem cells from your blood or bone
marrow before the cancer treatment begins.
o After chemotherapy, the stem cells are returned to your body, restoring your immune system
and your body's ability to produce blood cells and fight infection. This process is also called an
AUTO transplant or stem cell rescue.
o ALLOGENIC TRANSPLANT. Stem cells for an allogenic transplant come from another
person, called a donor. The donor's stem cells are given to the patient after the patient has
chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. This is also called an ALLO transplant.
o Many people have a “graft-versus-cancer cell effect” during an ALLO transplant. This is when
the new stem cells recognize and destroy cancer cells that are still in the body. This is the main
way ALLO transplants work to treat the cancer.
o Finding a “donor match” is a necessary step for an ALLO transplant. A match is a healthy donor
whose blood proteins, called human leukocyte antigens (HLA), closely match yours. This
process is called HLA typing.

 TISSUE CULTURE
o It is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium separate from the organism.
o This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth media, such
as broth or agar. Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with
the more specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants.
o Tissue culture means growing cells in vitro, from tissues taken from a multicellular
organism. The term tissue culture is often substituted with the word cell culture.
o After the cells are extracted from a donor organism, they are bathed in the culture medium,
which helps in the revival of the cells, as they contain energy sources and important nutrients.
WHAT IS GROWTH MEDIUM OR CULTURE MEDIUM OR NUTRIENT BROTH AND
WHAT DOES IT
CONTAIN?
o A growth medium or
culture medium or nutrient
broth is a solution which
is freed of all
microorganisms
through sterilization.
o Sterilization is achieved by
applying heat under
pressure for a specific time
period. However, the
solution contains all the
microorganisms required
for growth, such as algae,
fungi, bacteria and
protozoans.

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o When the Agar is added to the medium it solidifies.

o Some media are made up of inorganic salts and one or more inorganic compounds. This is a
chemical or synthetic defined media.
o Different types of living cells or tissue cultures can also be used as part of the media. There are
types of media which are made up of an assortment of ingredients like plant or animal tissue
extracts.
o Some of the examples are peptone, meat extract, yeast extract.
o There are special-purpose media like enriched media and selective media. Enriched media
consists of nutrients that help in growth and selective media consists of substances that help
in the growth of selective organisms and prevent the growth of other organisms.
CELLS CAN BE GROWN IN THREE WAYS
o Chemically defined synthetic medium using tissue extract.
o The culture medium of biological origin like blood serum.
o A mixture of the culture medium of biological origin and chemically defined synthetic medium.
o Some of the important prerequisites in a medium are it must have the essential nutrients for
the cells in the right proportions and it must be suitably acid or alkaline.

HOW ARE CULTURES GROWN?

o Usually grown as a single layer
o Usually grown either on glass or a plastic surface or as a suspension in a liquid or a semi-solid
medium.
HOW TO START A CULTURE?
o A small sample of the tissue is spread out on the medium or in the medium.
o Later the tube or plate or flask containing the culture is incubated.
o The temperature maintained should be approximately that of the tissue environment.
o Usually, at the start of the culture, single cells are used, this results in the growth of clones,
which are a set of uniform biological populations.
PRIMARY CULTURES
o Primary culture usually involves collecting normal cells, tissues, or organs which are collected
through biopsy from a living organism.
o In this type of culture, the cells, tissues and organs under study are functioning as per its
natural condition.
o There will be more mutations, change in chromosome structure and cell functions when the
samples are maintained in culture for a longer duration.
HAYFLICK LIMIT
o This discovery is named after American Biologist Leonard Hayflick. It is the point at which
cells will stop growing in primary culture.
HOW TO PROCESS THE CULTURED CELLS AND TISSUES?
o There are different ways of examining the live cultures.
o Directly through microscope
o Photographs and motion pictures were taken through the microscope.
o As per objectives of the experiment, cells, tissues and organs could either be preserved, killed
or stained for any additional examination.

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o Samples can also be embedded on materials like resin which can be cut into thin sections which
will help in discerning further details under light or electron microscope.
o Scientists try to understand the changes in the cells in the tissue culture when they are
subjected to numerous experiments by adding viruses, and any type of disease-causing
organisms. Even drugs, vitamins and hormones are added to understand how cells will react.
WHAT ARE THE DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES DUE TO RESEARCH
IN TISSUE CULTURE?
o Information on cells regarding their composition and form.
o The biochemical and genetic activity of cells.
o Metabolism, nutrition and specialized function of cells
o Differences between normal cells and abnormal cells
o The effects caused on cells by physical, chemical and biological agents.
o Assisted in identifying infections, enzyme deficiencies, chromosomal activities.
o Helped in formulating test drugs and vaccines.
o Tissue culture technique helped in developing vaccines for measles, influenza, mumps,
poliomyelitis and other infectious diseases. These vaccines played a crucial role in improving
the health of the population, especially with regards to the measles and rubella campaign.
o Tissue culture studies have clarified the genetic causes of certain hereditary diseases.

 ENZYMES
o Enzymes are proteins made from amino acids. It is made up of hundreds and thousands of
amino acids stringed together in a very specific and unique order.
o Any chemical reaction inside a cell or any work that goes on inside a cell is the handiwork of
enzymes inside the cell.
o The word enzyme was coined in 1878 by German Scientist Wilhelm Kuhne.
HOW DO ENZYMES FUNCTION?
o Enzymes act as
biological catalysts
(biocatalysts).
o Catalysts accelerate
chemical reactions.
o The molecules upon which
enzymes may act are
called substrates, and
the enzyme converts the
substrates into different
molecules known as
products.
o Almost all metabolic
processes in the cell need
enzyme catalysis in order
to occur at rates fast
enough to sustain life.
o Metabolic pathways
depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps.

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o Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by lowering its activation energy. Some
enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster.
An extreme example is orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that
would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENZYMES?
o Hydrolases – They break chemical bonds when water is added. There are more than 200
types of hydrolases.
o Oxidoreductases – They are involved in catalyzing oxidation and reduction reactions.
o Transferases – Involved in the transfer of functional groups from a donor molecule to an
acceptor molecule.
o Isomerases – There are 4 different sub-categories under this. They bring about structural
changes within the molecule.
o Ligases – An example is DNA ligase which catalyzes ligation or repair of breaks in DNA.
o Lyases – They are also called synthase enzymes.

5 EXAMPLES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

o Amylase – helps in breaking down large starch molecules, this enzyme is produced in the
mouth.
o Pepsin – helps in breaking down proteins, this is produced in the stomach.
o Trypsin – helps in breaking down proteins, this is produced in the pancreas.
o Pancreatic lipase – helps in breaking down fats, once again this enzyme is produced in the
pancreas.
o Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease – helps in breaking down DNA and RNA, this
enzyme is also produced in Pancreas.

 FACIAL RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY (FRT)

o Facial recognition is an algorithm-based technology which creates a digital map of the
face by identifying and mapping an individual’s facial features, which it then matches against
the database to which it has access.
o The captured face along with its features is stored into a database, which can be integrated with
any kind of software that may be used for security purposes, banking services, etc.
o In the Automated Facial Recognition System (AFRS), the large database (containing
photos and videos of peoples’ faces) is used to match and identify the person.
o Image of an unidentified person, taken from CCTV footage, is compared to the existing
database using Artificial Intelligence technology, for pattern-finding and matching.
USES:

o The facial map is obtained for the purpose of matching it against the
1:1 verification:
person’s photograph on a database to authenticate their identity.
o For example, 1:1 verification is used to unlock phones.
1: n o The facial map is obtained from a photograph or video and then
identification: matched against the entire database to identify the person in the
photograph or video.

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o Law enforcement agencies such as the Delhi Police usually procure

FRT for 1: n identification.

WHY IS THE USE OF FACIAL RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY HARMFUL?

o Issues related to “Misidentification” due to inaccuracy of the

Inaccuracy &
technology.
Misuse
o Issues related to “Mass Surveillance” due to misuse of the
technology.
o It has also been reported that its accuracy rates fall starkly based on
race and gender.
o This can result in a false positive, where a person is misidentified as
Race & Gender someone else, or a false negative where a person is not verified as
themselves.
o Cases of a false positive result can lead to bias against the individual
who has been misidentified.
o Cases of false negative results can also lead to exclusion of the
individual from accessing essential schemes which may use FRT as a
means of providing access.
Exclusion o For example, failure of the biometric based authentication under
Aadhaar which has led to many people being excluded from receiving
essential government services which in turn has led to starvation
deaths.
o Government although plans to address the question of privacy
Violation to through the legal framework like data privacy regime, but keeping in
Privacy mind the objectives it aims to achieve with the use of such technology,
it comes into conflict with one another.
o As the data collected may be used in the court of law during the course
Reliability & of a criminal trial, the reliability and the admissibility of the data along
Authenticity with the standards and procedure followed would be taken into
consideration.
o FRT systems in the absence of data protection laws that would
Absence of Data
mandate necessary safeguards in the collection and storage of user
Protection Law
data is also a point of concern.

WAY FORWARD
o In this digital age, data is a valuable resource that should not be left unregulated. In this
context, the time is right for India to have a robust data protection regime.
o The government would also have to respect the privacy of the citizens while strengthening the
right to information.
o Additionally, the technological leaps made in the last two to three years also need to be
addressed knowing that they have the capacity to make the law redundant.
o Given the size of India’s population and comparatively understaffed administration, the well-
planned use of such nascent technology is a probable solution, provided there are sufficient
safeguards to address its inherent concerns including the issue of privacy.

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 LK-99
• LK-99 has been claimed by South Korean scientists as a superconductor at room temperature
and atmospheric pressure. However, currently scientists have discarded their claims.
• What are the reasons behind discarding LK-99 as a superconductor?
• First, when superconductors get cold, they push away magnets, causing repulsion below their
transition temperature. The South Korean video showed LK-99 partly repelling a magnet.
However, independent researchers found that the material was an insulator whose
impurities could be magnetized.
• Second, the South Korean scientists saw less resistance in LK-99 around 104°C, which could
mean it’s a superconductor. However, researchers found that this drop occurred due
to the copper sulphide impurities present in the material.
• Hence, as per the scientists, no formal confirmation aligns with the initial
declaration that this material can conduct electricity without resistance in regular
conditions.

 CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing transforms IT infrastructure into a utility: It lets you ‘plug into' infrastructure
via the internet, and use computing resources without installing and maintaining them on-
premises.
WHAT IS CLOUD COMPUTING?
o Cloud computing is on-
demand access, via the
internet, to computing
resources—applications,
servers (physical servers
and virtual servers), data
storage, development
tools, networking
capabilities, and more—
hosted at a remote data
center managed by a
cloud services provider
(or CSP). The CSP makes
these resources available
for a monthly
subscription fee or bills
them according to usage.
Compared to traditional
on-premises IT, and
depending on the cloud
services you select, cloud computing helps do the following:
o Lower IT costs: Cloud lets you offload some or most of the costs and effort of purchasing,
installing, configuring, and managing your own on-premises infrastructure.

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o Improve agility and time-to-value: With cloud, your organization can start using
enterprise applications in minutes, instead of waiting weeks or months for IT to respond to a
request, purchase and configure supporting hardware, and install software.
Cloud also lets you empower certain users—specifically developers and data scientists—to help
themselves to software and support infrastructure.
o Scale more easily and cost-effectively: Cloud provides elasticity—instead of purchasing
excess capacity that sits unused during slow periods, you can scale capacity up and down in
response to spikes and dips in traffic. You can also take advantage of your cloud provider’s
global network to spread your applications closer to users around the world.
o The term ‘cloud computing’ also refers to the technology that makes cloud work. This includes
some form of virtualized IT infrastructure—servers, operating system software,
networking, and other infrastructure that’s abstracted, using special software, so
that it can be pooled and divided irrespective of physical hardware boundaries. For example, a
single hardware server can be divided into multiple virtual servers.
o Virtualization enables cloud providers to make maximum use of their data center
resources. Not surprisingly, many corporations have adopted the cloud delivery model for
their on-premises infrastructure so they can realize maximum utilization and cost savings vs.
traditional IT infrastructure and offer the same self-service and agility to their end-users.
o If you use a computer or mobile device at home or at work, you almost certainly use
some form of cloud computing every day, whether it’s a cloud application like Google
Gmail or Salesforce, streaming media like Netflix, or cloud file storage like
Dropbox.
o Services: IaaS (Infrastructure-as-a-Service), PaaS (Platform-as-a-Service) , and SaaS
(Software-as-a-Service) are the three most common models of cloud services.
TYPES OF CLOUD COMPUTING
PUBLIC CLOUD
o Public cloud is a type of cloud computing in which a cloud service provider makes computing
resources—anything from SaaS applications, to individual virtual machines (VMs), to bare
metal computing hardware, to complete enterprise-grade infrastructures and development
platforms—available to users over the public internet.
o These resources might be accessible for free, or access might be sold according to
subscription-based or pay-per-usage pricing models.
o The public cloud provider owns, manages, and assumes all responsibility for the data centers,
hardware, and infrastructure on which its customers’ workloads run, and it typically provides
high-bandwidth network connectivity to ensure high performance and rapid access to
applications and data.
PRIVATE CLOUD
o Private cloud is a cloud environment in which all cloud infrastructure and computing resources
are dedicated to, and accessible by, one customer only.
o Private cloud combines many of the benefits of cloud computing—including elasticity,
scalability, and ease of service delivery—with the access control, security, and resource
customization of on-premises infrastructure.
o A private cloud is typically hosted on-premises in the customer's data center. But a private
cloud can also be hosted on an independent cloud provider’s infrastructure or built on rented
infrastructure housed in an offsite data center.
o Many companies choose private cloud over public cloud because private cloud is an easier way
(or the only way) to meet their regulatory compliance requirements. Others choose private
cloud because their workloads deal with confidential documents, intellectual property,

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personally identifiable information (PII), medical records, financial data, or other sensitive
data.
HYBRID CLOUD
o Hybrid cloud is just what it sounds like—a combination of public and private cloud
environments. Specifically, and ideally, a hybrid cloud connects an organization's private
cloud services and public clouds into a single, flexible infrastructure for running the
organization’s applications and workloads.
o The goal of hybrid cloud is to establish a mix of public and private cloud resources—and
with a level of orchestration between them—that gives an organization the flexibility to choose
the optimal cloud for each application or workload and to move workloads freely between the
two clouds as circumstances change.
o This enables the organization to meet its technical and business objectives more effectively and
cost-efficiently than it could with public or private cloud alone.
WHO USES HYBRID CLOUD?
o Businesses across the spectrum of industries have moved toward hybrid solutions to
reduce costs and strain on local resources. From the financial sector to the health care industry,
hybrid cloud environments have proven to be effective at not only improving computing and
storage power, but also optimizing the scarce resource of physical space. Many organizations
simply don't have the room available to deploy servers on-site.
o In the health care space, data privacy is paramount, and privately held computation
resources are lacking. A hybrid cloud model is an ideal solution because it allows medical
groups to retain patient data in a secure, private server while simultaneously leveraging the
advanced computational power of a public IaaS model. Simply put, any industry that benefits
from public cloud applications can also benefit from the hybrid model.
HYBRID CLOUD BENEFITS
Hybrid cloud computing enables an enterprise to deploy its most sensitive workloads in an on-
premises cloud and to host less-critical resources on a third-party public cloud provider. This
approach allows organizations to get the best of both private and public cloud models.
The core benefits of hybrid cloud include the following:
o Flexibility. Users work with various types of data in disparate environments and adjust their
infrastructure. A company can build a hybrid cloud that works for its needs, using traditional
systems as well as the latest cloud technology, without a full commitment to a vendor.
Organizations savvy with a hybrid cloud setup can migrate workloads to and from their
traditional infrastructure and a vendor's public cloud whenever necessary.
o Cost management. With a private cloud, organizations own and operate the data center
infrastructure, which requires significant capital expense and fixed costs. Alternatively, the
public cloud offers resources and services that are accounted as variable and operational
expenses. Hybrid cloud users can choose to run workloads in whichever environment is more
cost effective.
o Agility and scalability. Hybrid cloud offers more resource options via a public cloud
provider vs. an organization's physical data center. This makes it easier to provision, deploy
and scale resources to meet demand spikes. When demand exceeds capacity of the local data
center, an organization can burst the application to the public cloud to access extra scale and
capacity.
o Resiliency and interoperability. To increase resiliency, a business can run workloads
redundantly in both private and public environments. Components of one workload can also
run in both environments and interoperate.

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o Compliance. Compliance restrictions on where data can reside mean organizations in highly
regulated industries cannot move all workloads to the public cloud. With hybrid cloud,
organizations can keep data in a private environment while operating workloads in the cloud,
or they can operate workloads in a private data center and move data to and from the public
cloud as needed. This allows companies to meet regulatory requirements and still benefit from
the elasticity of the cloud.
o Other hybrid cloud advantages include consistency and support for greater standardization in
IT management practices.
MULTICLOUD AND HYBRID MULTICLOUD
o Multicloud is the use of two or more clouds from two or more different cloud
providers. Having a multicloud environment can be as simple using email SaaS from one
vendor and image editing SaaS from another.
o But when enterprises talk about multicloud, they're typically talking about using multiple cloud
services—including SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS services—from two or more of the leading public
cloud providers.
o Hybrid multicloud is the use of two or more public clouds together with a private cloud
environment.
o Organizations choose multicloud to avoid vendor lock-in, to have more services to choose from,
and to access to more innovation. But the more clouds you use—each with its own set of
management tools, data transmission rates, and security protocols—the more difficult it can
be to manage your environment.
o Multicloud management platforms provide visibility across multiple provider clouds through
a central dashboard, where development teams can see their projects and deployments,
operations teams can keep an eye on clusters and nodes, and the cybersecurity staff can
monitor for threats.

 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV)

• A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) uses an conventional internal combustion engine (ICE)
(a petrol/diesel engine) and one or more electric motors to run.
• It is powered by the electric motor alone, which uses energy stored in batteries, by the ICE, or
both.
• The powertrain of the HEV is more complex than a regular ICE-powered car as it has EV
components and a conventional ICE.
That means a typical HEV will have: -
1. a low-voltage auxiliary battery,
2. a traction battery pack to store electricity for the electric motor,
3. an electric generator,
4. an AC/DC converter,
5. a power electronics controller,
6. a thermal system to maintain working temperature,
7. an ICE, a fuel tank, fuel filler, a transmission, and
8. an exhaust system.

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WORKING
• HEV powertrains are designed to power cars in a series, parallel or series-parallel (power
split) methods.
• A SERIES HEV uses only the electric motor to drive the wheels, while the ICE powers the
generator, which in turn recharges the battery.
• A parallel HEV, based on the driving condition, uses the best power source to power the
vehicle. It will alternate between the electric motor and the ICE to keep the car moving.
• A series-parallel HEV offers a combination of both models and allows split power, wherein
power is routed from the ICE alone or from the battery to the electric motor to drive the vehicle.
• In all three designs, the battery is charged through regenerative braking technology.
Different Types of EVs

• They combine a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with

HEVs an electric propulsion system, resulting in a hybrid drivetrain that
(Hybrid substantially lowers fuel usage.
EVs) • An ICE is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber.
PHEVs • They have a hybrid drivetrain that uses both an ICE and electric power for
(Plug-in motive power, backed by rechargeable batteries that can be plugged into a
hybrid power source.
vehicles)
BEVs/full • They have no ICE or fuel tank (no tailpipe emissions), and run on a fully
EVs electric drivetrain powered by rechargeable batteries.

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FCVs (Fuel • FCVs combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, which
cell runs the motor, and the only residue of the chemical process is water.
vehicles) Example, Toyota’s Mirai and Honda’s Clarity.

 BIOSECURITY
o Biosecurity is defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
as a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory
frameworks (including instruments and activities) for analysing and managing relevant risks
to human, animal and plant life and health, and associated risks to the environment.
o During these past years, biosecurity as a concept has evolved with its application and it has a
great variability in meaning in different countries when used in various national instruments
and primary laws. This, in the context of an increasing public awareness of the impact of
adverse health and environmental practices fuelled by technological advances in detection and
management of hazards to life and health, together with the often unresolved scientific debate
that surrounds the potential of very low levels of hazards to result in adverse health or
environmental impact.
o Biosecurity covers food safety, zoonoses, the introduction of animal and plant
diseases and pests, the introduction and release of living modified organisms
(LMOs) and their products (e.g. genetically modified organisms or GMOs), and
the introduction and management of invasive alien species.
o Thus, biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to the sustainability of agriculture,
and wide-ranging aspects of public health and protection of the environment, including
biological diversity.
WHY DEVELOPING BIOSECURITY TOOLS?
Interest in managing these risks through biosecurity has risen considerably over the last 20 years
with the rise of several trends:
o The increasing trade in food, plant and animal products, more international travel, new
outbreaks of transboundary disease affecting animals, plants and people;
o The awareness of biological diversity and greater attention to the environment and the impact
of agriculture on environmental sustainability;

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o Changes in the way food, plants and animals are produced, processed and distributed, and the
use of new technologies,
o The need to comply with global agreements governing the trade in agricultural and food
products.

During the past 20 years, some governments have moved towards such integrated approach to
biosecurity that harmonizes and rationalizes policy, legislation and core roles and responsibilities
as a means to better manage relevant risks in food and agriculture. However, most countries
continued to manage biosecurity along traditional, sector-oriented lines, resulting in a lack of
strategic focus, inefficient use of scarce resources and less than optimal results.
WHAT CONSTITUTES A BIOSECURITY HAZARD?
Depending on the sector involved and as illustrated in the figure, there are various descriptions
as to what constitutes a biosecurity hazard, All significant effects, positive and negative (hazards),
should be systematically identified and their relative magnitudes considered in decision-making.

WHAT IS THE RATIONALE FOR A HARMONIZED AND HOLISTIC APPROACH OF

BIOSECURITY?
o Human, animal and plant life, health and protection of the environment but also agriculture
and health are inextricably linked in many ways. Biosecurity hazards of various types exist in
each sector and have high potential to move between sectors. For example, many animal
pathogens readily infect humans; animal feed may be contaminated with mycotoxins and plant
toxins.
o Changes in the environment, such as the loss of biological diversity and contamination of food
and water sources, the size and scope of the global trade in animal feed and animal feed
ingredients are examples of the immense potential for biosecurity hazards to move between
and within countries.
o Further, international events may superimpose requirements for more integrated and
harmonized approaches. In particular, there is an increased recognition of the potential for

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wide-scale food-borne threats to public or animal health from acts of terrorism is a new
consideration in modern biosecurity systems.
o The merging of policies and values with science in biosecurity risk management presents
considerable challenges and has different expression in different countries. As underlined in
the FAO Toolkit, both risk assessment and risk management should thus be wrapped in a “sea
of communication” that includes all stakeholders as appropriate.
o Core decisions should involve the balancing of scientific findings against questions of life and
health expectations, likely economic and social impacts, but also the technical feasibility and
cost-effectiveness of controls. The increasing number and stringency of sanitary and
phytosanitary requirements, the recognition of the high cost of regulation and
acknowledgement of limited public resources are other drivers of these holistic changes. On
top of this, there are increasing demands from industry for better cost-effectiveness of
biosecurity systems and greater accommodation of new technologies.

 BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY
o It is a foundational technology or a platform that allows designing a secure way to record
transactions and circulate it among signatories, or any kind of target group with an
Internet connection. At its core it is an extremely democratic ledger that cannot be arbitrarily
manipulated and easily shareable.
o Blockchain’s appeal is that it achieves this without a central authority.
o Blockchain burst into public consciousness because of its association with Satoshi Nakamoto,
a mysterious individual or cabal that laid out a white paper on how blockchain could be applied
to bitcoin, a virtual currency wrought from the principles of blockchain. Having money free of
the fiat of Central governments raised utopian possibilities especially in a world where
democracies complain of being subverted and labour and capital continue to be entangled in
the elusive quest for equilibrium. Thereafter, it spawned its own hype-cycle, imitation
currencies, association with the sordid and Dark Net. While cryptocurrencies have a bad
reputation, Silicon Valley tech giants and investment banks are trying to salvage the underlying
promise of blockchain and use it for other collaborations.
o Every block in a blockchain is a record of transactions and the more of the latter, the longer
the chain. Just as worthless paper transforms into valuable currency with the signature of the
RBI governor, blocks are great because they provide an unalterable document of the history of
every transaction. In the context of currency, it stores the place, time, value (rupee,
for example) and location of a purchase. There is minimal identifying information and
every block is linked to a unique ‘digital signature’ of the transacting participants. Every block
is distinguished from another through a unique code which is a string of numbers. When you
use your debit or credit card to make a transaction, VISA or MasterCard employ their
technology to verify your bank account, connect with banks and process a transaction.
o In blockchain applications, this verifying role is outsourced to several computers on a
network — each has the exact same copy of the block. These computers verify the genuineness
of transaction by solving mathematical problems.
o In the case of bitcoin, the computers are rewarded with bitcoin. This is stored in digital wallets
and may be used like money provided there are sellers of real world goods who would accept
bitcoins. Nowadays, they are frequently traded as another speculative, volatile asset.
WHERE CAN IT BE USED?
o Facebook launched Libra, a kind of blockchain-backed digital currency. Bank of America,
JPMorgan, the New York Stock Exchange, Fidelity Investments, and Standard Chartered are
testing blockchain technology as a replacement for paper-based and manual transaction

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processing in such areas as trade finance, foreign exchange, cross-border settlement, and
securities settlement”
o Ethereum is another blockchain-based startup that looks to decentralise online information.
Its ambition is beyond overturning online banking and it claims that if it were to work as
envisioned, it will give users control over their data unlike the present where a lot of our privacy
is ceded to Google and Amazon’s servers. Some plan to apply blockchain to trace the origin of
food and where it is grown and yet others to journalism and ‘fact- checking’ applications.
Unlike blockchain’s distributed computing philosophy, all these applications ultimately store
information on a coalition of repositories.
o Future scenario Technology has always proved to be disruptive, creating new opportunities
and jobs and destroying old ones. If blockchain’s appeal lies in its appeal to destroy
intermediaries — banks, courts, lawyers — it is unlikely to be smooth sailing. Moreover, there
is already serious theorising by economists that shows how blockchain has its own
vulnerabilities and susceptibility to creating new hegemons, power networks, cartels and
challenges to global energy consumption.

 DARK NET
Instances of data leaks on the dark web/ dark net is on the rise. Dark web/ dark net is
increasingly being used for various nefarious activities including data leaks, identity theft,
illegal weapon sales, drug trafficking, cyber terrorism etc.
o Dark Net is a network of computers on the internet that are:- a) not accessible through the
normal search engines and b) provide anonymity to the source of web content.
o In order to access the content of the dark net we need special software to get into this network
of computers.
o In simple words web content on dark net is intentionally hidden in order to provide anonymity
to service provider.
UNDERSTANDING DARK NET
o SURFACE WEB: Whenever you search a webpage on a search engine like google the search
engine has the ability to 'look for' and extract the content and present it in the form of a
website/webpage. In order to do this the webpages are 'indexed' by the search engine. Only
about 10-15% of all the web content are present on the surface web accessible by common
searches.
o DEEP WEB: Deep Web on the other hand is a term used for all those web content or web
pages that are there on the internet but are not indexed by search engines and therefore not
discernible by conventional search engines. In other words these webpages on deepweb they
do not show up in conventional search engines like Google, Bing, Yahoo etc.
o About 75-85% of the web content/web pages are on the deep web. Common examples of web
content on deep web include financial data, bank account details, emails, personal data etc.
that are password protected and the only way to access these web pages is through login.
o DARK NET: Dark net is a part of deep web that is intentionally hidden in order to provide
anonymity. In order to do this, deep net uses a specialised network of computers called relays
through which the information passes. Commonly, information on dark net passes through at
least 3 relay computers between the source and destination. In addition, the dark net uses
network technology that hides the location of these relay computers (IP address) in order to
ensure anonymity of the users. Can be accessed through TOR (Anonymity Network)

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FEATURES
o While it is hidden from a search engine, the web pages on dark net can be accessed and
downloaded by anyone who has the exact address of the webpage
o Dark net does not provide any protection against malware, virus attack etc.
o Since the data is routed through a number of relay computers between source and destination
the communication is slower in dark net.
SCOPE OF DARK NET: Dark net is used for both legitimate and illegitimate activities.
Legitimate Activities
o By virtue of its ability to provide anonymity, dark net is used by human rights activists, free
internet activists, media personnel etc. in countries where there are severe restrictions,
censorship on internet usage like that in China, Iran, Saudi Arabia etc.
o Dark net is also used by whistle blowers in order to maintain anonymity. (Read about Edward
o Besides in the aftermath of glaring revelations on surveillance by USA's security agency NSA
the number of users using dark net has increased for the want of privacy.

2. Illegitimate Activities
o While use of dark net is not illegal per say it has increasingly turned into a platform for various
nefarious activities including illegal weapon sale, drug trafficking, child pornography, data
theft, data leaks, cyber terrorism, hacking, organised crime, money laundering etc.

 DEEPFAKES
• Deepfakes are synthetic media that use AI to manipulate or generate visual and
audio content, usually with the intention of deceiving or misleading someone.
DEEPFAKE CREATION
• Deepfakes are created using a technique called generative adversarial networks (GANs),
which involve two competing neural networks: a generator and a discriminator.

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• The generator tries to create fake images or videos that look realistic, while the
discriminator tries to distinguish between the real and the fake ones.
• The generator learns from the feedback of the discriminator and improves its output until it
can fool the discriminator.
• Deepfakes require a large amount of data, such as photos or videos, of the source and
the target person, which are often collected from the internet or social media without their
consent or knowledge.
• Deepfakes are a part of Deep Synthesis, which uses technologies, including deep learning
and augmented reality, to generate text, images, audio and video to create virtual scenes.

Positive Applications of Deep Concerns Regarding the Deepfakes

Learning
• Deep learning technology has enabled • Deepfakes are a problem because they can be
positive advancements, such as restoring used for various malicious purposes, such as
lost voices and recreating historical o Spreading propaganda, and fake news;
figures.
o Influencing elections and public opinion;
• Deep learning techniques have been o Blackmailing and extortion individuals or
applied in comedy, cinema, music, organizations;
and gaming to enhance artistic
expression. o Damaging the reputation and credibility of
celebrities, politicians, activists, and
• Synthetic avatars of people with physical or journalists; and
mental disabilities will help express o Creating non-consensual pornography and
themselves online. revenge porn.
• It enhances medical training and • Deepfakes can cause various harms, such as
simulation by generating diverse and eroding trust in institutions, media,
realistic medical images. and democracy, and undermining the rule
• It also creates virtual patients and of law and human rights.
scenarios for simulating medical • Deepfake technology can violate the
conditions and procedures, improving privacy, dignity, and reputation of
training efficiency. individuals, and harm the mental health and
• It can also be used to enhance the well-being of the victims, especially women,
interaction and immersion of who are often the targets of such malicious
augmented reality (AR) and gaming manipulation.
applications.

DETECTION
1. Look for visual and audio inconsistencies in the media.
2. Use reverse image search to find the original source or similar images.
3. Use AI-based tools to analyse the quality, consistency, and authenticity of the images or
videos.
4. Using digital watermarking or blockchain to verify the source and integrity of the media.
5. Educate oneself and others about deepfake technology and its implications.

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 OPTICAL FIBRES
o Optical fibres are made of ultra-thin cylindrical strands of glass. These fibres can carry
information, such as text, images, videos, telephone calls, and anything that can be encoded as
digital information, across large distances almost at the speed of light.
o When surrounded by protectives, they are strong, light, and flexible, and ideal to be buried
underground or underwater.
o A fiber-optic cable is similar to an electrical cable but containing one or more optical fibers
that are used to carry light.
o They allow a high data-transmission rate. They are also insensitive to external
disturbances such as lightning and bad weather.
HOW DO OPTICAL FIBRES WORK?
o Fiber optics work by using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR) to guide light
across long distances without a significant loss of optical power.
o When light moves from a medium with higher refractive index to one with a lower
refractive index, the light may
get completely reflected back
into the first medium. This
phenomenon, known as TIR,
happens when the angle of
incidence is greater than the
critical angle of incidence.
Due to TIR, light travels down a
fibre optic cable by bouncing off
the walls of the cable repeatedly
until it reaches the other end.
o Note – Critical angle is the angle of incidence where the angle of refraction is 90° and the
refracted ray travels along the boundary of the two media.
o This is how signals encoded as electromagnetic waves can be fed into one end of an optical
fibre, and they will reflect and bounce many times between the glass walls as they traverse large
distances bearing the information.

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WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM?
o A fibre optic communication system consists of three parts:
o A transmitter: It encodes information into optical signals (in the form of rapidly blinking
light pulses of zeros and ones).
o An optical fibre: It carries the signal to its destination.
o A receiver: It reproduces the information from the encoded signal.
HOW ARE FIBRE OPTICS MADE TODAY?
o Nowadays, glass fibres are manufactured using the fibre-drawing technique.
o First, a thick glass rod, called preform, of high purity and an engineered refractive index
profile is prepared using chemical vapour decomposition.
o Second, the preform is heated to about 1,600 degrees Celsius until it melts and is then drawn
into a thin, long fibre.
o The drawing process reduces the fibre’s diameter while maintaining its length. The drawn fibre
is coated with a protective layer to enhance strength and durability.
o What are the uses of Fibre optics technology?
o It has use cases in telecommunication, medical science (endoscopy), laser technology, and
sensing.
o Some other uses include in the Automotive industry, CCTV cameras, Television cables, etc.

 3D PRINTING
o 3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional
solid objects from a digital file.
o The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive
process an object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the
object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the
object.
o 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out /
hollowing out a piece of metal or plastic with for instance a milling machine.
o 3D printing enables you to produce complex shapes using less material than traditional
manufacturing methods.
o The first 3D printer was created by Charles W. Hull in the mid-1980s.
HOW DOES 3D PRINTING WORK?
1. Much like traditional printers, 3D printers use a variety of technologies. The most commonly
known is fused deposition modeling (FDM), also known as fused filament
fabrication (FFF). In it, a filament—composed of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
polylactic acid (PLA), or another thermoplastic—is melted and deposited through a heated
extrusion nozzle in layers.
2. Another technology used in 3D printing is stereolithography. In it, a UV laser is shined into
a vat of ultraviolet-sensitive photopolymer, tracing the object to be created on its surface. The
polymer solidifies wherever the beam touches it, and the beam "prints" the object layer by layer
per the instructions in the CAD or CAM file it's working from.
3. In a variation on that, you also have digital light projector (DLP) 3D printing. This
method exposes a liquid polymer to light from a digital light processing projector. This hardens

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the polymer layer by layer until the object is built, and the remaining liquid polymer is drained
off.
4. Multi-jet modeling is an inkjet-like 3D printing system that sprays a coloured, glue-like
binder onto successive layers of powder where the object is to be formed. This is among the
fastest methods, and one of the few that supports multicolour printing.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF 3D PRINTING?

o With 3D printing, designers have the ability to quickly turn concepts into 3D models or
prototypes (a.k.a. "rapid prototyping"), and implement rapid design changes.
o It lets manufacturers produce products on demand rather than in large runs, improving
inventory management and reducing warehouse space. People in remote locations can
fabricate objects that would otherwise be inaccessible to them.
o From a practical standpoint, 3D printing can save money and material versus subtractive
techniques, as very little raw material is wasted. And it promises to change the nature of
manufacturing, eventually letting consumers download files for printing even complex 3D
objects—including, for example, electronics devices—in their own homes.
THE BENEFITS OF 3D PRINTING FOR AUTOMOTIVE
o Faster product development: Prototyping has become a key part of the product
development process, offering a means to test and validate parts before they are manufactured.
3D printing offers a quick and cost-effective approach to designing and producing parts. Since
the need for tooling is eliminated, product teams can significantly accelerate product
development cycles.
o Greater design flexibility: The ability to produce designs quickly gives designers greater
flexibility when testing multiple design options. 3D printing enables designers to make quick
design changes and modifications in a fraction of the time.
o Customisation: 3D printing offers automakers a cost-effective and flexible way to produce
customised parts. Within the luxury and motorsports segment of the industry, companies are
already using the technology to produce personalised parts for both the interior and exterior
parts of a vehicle.
o Create complex geometries: With the majority of car components requiring complex
geometries like internal channels (for conformal cooling), thin walls and fine meshes, AM
enables highly complex parts to be produced that are still lightweight and durable.

 CLOUD SEEDING
• It is a kind of weather modification
technology that aims to artificially
stimulate rainfall by dispersing
substance chemicals (like silver iodide,
sodium chloride, potassium chloride or
dry ice) into the clouds that serves as ice
nuclei or condensation nuclei for moisture
to form rain droplets.
• Note: It works only when there are
pre-existing clouds in the atmosphere.
It uses planes (now even drones) to spray
clouds with chemicals to condense smaller
particles into larger rain droplets.

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• It is a cost-effective way to increase rainfall rates.

TYPES OF CLOUD SEEDING
It is a kind of weather modification technology that aims to artificially stimulate rainfall
by

• In this, salts are dispersed through flares or explosives in the

lower portions of clouds.
Hygroscopic
Cloud Seeding • It promotes the coalescence process using hygroscopic salt nuclei
to increase the precipitation efficiency of clouds.

• It involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide crystals into

clouds.
Static Cloud • The crystal provides hygroscopic salt around which moisture can
Seeding condense.
• The moisture already present in the clouds essentially makes rain
clouds more effective at dispensing their water.
• It boosts vertical air currents, which encourages more water to pass
through the clouds which translates into more rain.
Dynamic • It is more complex than static cloud seeding because it depends
Cloud Seeding on a sequence of events working properly.
• It uses 100 times more ice crystals than those used in the static method.

 INTERNET OF THINGS
o The Internet of things (IoT) is the extension of Internet connectivity into physical devices and
everyday objects.
o Embedded with electronics, Internet connectivity, and other hardware like sensors, these
devices can communicate and interact with others over the Internet, and they can be remotely
monitored and controlled by computers and smart phone.
APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET OF THINGS:
o Smart cities: Cellular communication enabled Smart municipal bins will send alerts to
municipal services when a bin needs to be emptied
o Agriculture: Sensing for soil moisture and nutrients, controlling water usage for plant growth
and determining custom fertilizer are some simple uses of IoT.
o Energy utilization: Smart Grids will be able to detect sources of power outages, can
automatically take inputs of solar panel, making possible distributed energy system
o Healthcare: Personalized analysis of an individual’s health and tailor-made strategies to
combat illness will be possible.
o Manufacturing: The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new products,
dynamic response to product demands, and real-time optimization of manufacturing
production and supply chain networks, by networking machinery, sensors and control systems
together.

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o Environmental monitoring: to assist in environmental protection by monitoring air

or water quality, atmospheric or soil conditions. It can even include areas like monitoring
the movements of wildlife and their habitats
o Supply chain: By placing RFID tags on individual products, the exact location of single items
in a large warehouse can be shared, thus saving search time, streamlining infrastructure, and
lowering labour costs.

 MACHINE LEARNING
o Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems
the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being
explicitly programmed. Machine learning focuses on the development of computer programs
that can access data and use it to learn for themselves.
o The process of learning begins with observations or data, such as examples, direct experience,
or instruction, in order to look for patterns in data and make better decisions in the future
based on the examples that we provide. The primary aim is to allow the computers learn
automatically without human intervention or assistance and adjust actions accordingly.
o But, using the classic algorithms of machine learning, text is considered as a sequence of
keywords; instead, an approach based on semantic analysis mimics the human ability to
understand the meaning of a text.
SOME MACHINE LEARNING METHODS
o Machine learning algorithms are often categorized as supervised or unsupervised.
o Supervised machine learning algorithms can apply what has been learned in the
past to new data using labelled examples to predict future events. Starting from the
analysis of a known training dataset, the learning algorithm produces an inferred function to
make predictions about the output values. The system is able to provide targets for any new
input after sufficient training. The learning algorithm can also compare its output with the
correct, intended output and find errors in order to modify the model accordingly.
o In contrast, unsupervised machine learning algorithms are used when the
information used to train is neither classified nor labelled. Unsupervised learning
studies how systems can infer a function to describe a hidden structure from unlabelled data.
The system doesn’t figure out the right output, but it explores the data and can draw inferences
from datasets to describe hidden structures from unlabelled data.
o Semi-supervised machine learning algorithms fall somewhere in between supervised
and unsupervised learning, since they use both labelled and unlabelled data for training –
typically a small amount of labelled data and a large amount of unlabelled data. The systems
that use this method are able to considerably improve learning accuracy. Usually, semi-
supervised learning is chosen when the acquired labelled data requires skilled and relevant
resources in order to train it / learn from it. Otherwise, acquiring unlabelled data generally
doesn’t require additional resources.
o Reinforcement machine learning algorithms is a learning method that interacts with its
environment by producing actions and discovers errors or rewards. Trial and error search and
delayed reward are the most relevant characteristics of reinforcement learning. This method
allows machines and software agents to automatically determine the ideal behaviour within a
specific context in order to maximize its performance. Simple reward feedback is required for
the agent to learn which action is best; this is known as the reinforcement signal.
o Machine learning enables analysis of massive quantities of data. While it generally delivers
faster, more accurate results in order to identify profitable opportunities or dangerous risks, it
may also require additional time and resources to train it properly. Combining machine

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learning with AI and cognitive technologies can make it even more effective in processing large
volumes of information.
USES
Financial services: Banks and other businesses in the financial industry use machine learning
technology for two key purposes: to identify important insights in data, and prevent fraud. The
insights can identify investment opportunities, or help investors know when to trade. Data mining
can also identify clients with high-risk profiles, or use cyber-surveillance to pinpoint warning
signs of fraud.
Health care: Machine learning is a fast-growing trend in the health care industry, thanks to the
advent of wearable devices and sensors that can use data to assess a patient's health in real time.
The technology can also help medical experts analyse data to identify trends or red flags that may
lead to improved diagnoses and treatment.
Oil and gas: Finding new energy sources. Analysing minerals in the ground. Predicting refinery
sensor failure. Streamlining oil distribution to make it more efficient and cost-effective. The
number of machine learning use cases for this industry is vast – and still expanding.
Government: Government agencies such as public safety and utilities have a particular need for
machine learning since they have multiple sources of data that can be mined for insights.
Analysing sensor data, for example, identifies ways to increase efficiency and save money.
Machine learning can also help detect fraud and minimize identity theft.
Retail: Websites recommending items you might like based on previous purchases are using
machine learning to analyse your buying history. Retailers rely on machine learning to capture
data, analyse it and use it to personalize a shopping experience, implement a marketing campaign,
price optimization, merchandise supply planning, and for customer insights.
Transportation: Analysing data to identify patterns and trends is key to the transportation
industry, which relies on making routes more efficient and predicting potential problems to
increase profitability. The data analysis and modelling aspects of machine learning are important
tools to delivery companies, public transportation and other transportation organizations.

 SAM ALTMAN’s BIOMETRIC PROJECT

OpenAI CEO Sam Altman recently reintroduced Worldcoin, a project that was previously
overshadowed by the popularity of ChatGPT.
WORLDCOIN
• The Worldcoin venture involves a unique model where individuals have their eyes
scanned to establish their human uniqueness.
• In return for the eye scan, participants receive cryptocurrency and a World ID,
forming the basis of the project.
• Worldcoin’s aim is to create the “world’s largest identity and financial public
network,” accessible to people globally.
WORKING
• Orb Operators: Worldcoin relies on volunteers called “Orb operators” who use a device
called “Orb” to scan people’s iris patterns and collect their biometric data.

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• World ID: Participants receive a World ID through the World app after getting their irises
scanned. This unique ID allows them to claim Worldcoin cryptocurrency and conduct
transactions.
• Proof of Personhood: Scanning irises ensures that people cannot sign up multiple times to
receive more crypto rewards.
• Cryptocurrency and Transactions: Users can collect WLD at regular intervals or use it for
transactions, similar to a standard digital currency.
• WLD Token: WLD is a cryptocurrency based on the Ethereum blockchain and can be
bought, sold, or traded on major exchanges.
• Regulatory Compliance: Worldcoin ensures compliance with Europe’s GDPR and
uses zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) to maintain user privacy. User data is encrypted and
not sold, though it may be shared with necessary third parties.
CRITICISM AND CONTROVERSIES
• Privacy Concerns: Worldcoin faced criticism over privacy concerns about the use of
biometrics for verification.
• Scanning in Emerging Economies: Reports indicated that Worldcoin scanned
underprivileged people’s irises in emerging economies during the COVID-19 pandemic, raising
ethical questions about informed consent and rewards for scans.

 CELL BROADCAST TECHNOLOGY

• Cell broadcast technology is a method of sending messages to multiple mobile users in a
defined area at the same time.
• It is a type of emergency warning system that enables government agencies and
authorised organisations to broadcast critical messages to a large number of people in a specific
place, such as during catastrophes or disasters.
• The cell broadcast technology is under development in India.
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has begun testing the emergency cell
broadcast technology created by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to
inform people during emergency situations.
• The NDMA will use it to deliver alerts straight to mobile phone displays in the event of an
emergency. It is currently being tested on Jio and BSNL networks.
• Message received by subscribers is - "This is a SAMPLE TESTING MESSAGE sent by the
Department of Telecommunication, Government of India, via Cell Broadcasting System. Please
disregard this message as no action is necessary on your part“.
• Its goal is to improve public safety and deliver timely warnings during emergencies.
• The technology is only accessible from a foreign provider, but C-DOT is developing it in-house.
• This method is now in use in developed countries. For example, the United States has an
Emergency Alert System (EAS), which allows authorised officials to broadcast emergency
alerts and warning messages to the public through cable, satellite, television, AM/FM, and
satellite radio.

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 ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY
o Researchers from IIT Madras and IISER Kolkata have developed a method to detect minute
quantities of chemicals in solution. They use a variation of absorption spectroscopy.
o With this technique, they can, in principle, illuminate the insides of cells and detect minuscule
quantities of substances present there.
SCIENCE OF ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY
o Absorption spectroscopy is a tool to detect the presence of elements in a medium.
o Light is shone on
the sample, and
after it passes
through the
sample is
examined using a
spectroscope.
o Dark lines are
seen in the
observed
spectrum of the
light passed
through the
substance, which
correspond to the
wavelengths of
light absorbed by
the intervening
substance and are
characteristic of
the elements
present in it.
o In usual methods, about a cubic centimetre of the sample is needed to do this experiment. In
the method developed here, minute amounts of dissolved substances can be detected easily.
o Usually in absorption spectroscopy, the principle used is that light because of its wavelike
nature, shows diffraction patterns, that is, dark and light fringes, when it scatters
off any object. A related concept called the Abbe criterion sets a natural limit on the size
of the object being studied. According to this criterion, the size of the observed object has to be
at least of the order of the wavelength of the light being shone on it.
o In the method used by the researchers here, tiny, nano-sized particles that can absorb light
being shone on them and re-emit red, blue and green light were employed.
o The absorption leaves a gap in the reflected light, which is what is observed and used to analyse
the nature of the absorbing material.
INSIDE LIVING CELLS
o There are many potential applications. To study particles inside living cells, and the emission
can be used as a tiny flash lamp to look for absorption from individual molecules in the close
proximity to the particle.
o The future is to use it to measure individual molecules, see an absorption spectroscopy of a
single DNA or protein molecule.

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 CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE

TECHNOLOGY
o Carbon capture and storage technology (CCS) has been hailed as a key component in the
world’s shift towards renewable energy.
o With global CO2 emissions hitting a historic high, growing by more than 1.3% to a record of
more than 33 billion tonnes, the need for tools that can help limit pollution has never been
greater.
o The Global CCS Institute claims CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in the energy sector
contribute roughly 30% to the amount of the pollutant present in the EU, specifically.
o Renewable energy presents a possible solution to this, but its ability to cater the world’s power
demand, which is expected to rise by 50% by 2030, according to the UK’s Carbon Capture and
Storage Association (CCSA), is up for debate – this is where CCS comes in.
o The International Energy Agency recently concluded that, to meet the goals of the Paris
Agreement, CCS will need to contribute 32% of the extra effort to move from a 2C scenario to
well below 2C.
o The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that without CCS, the
cost of trying to meet global climate change goals will increase by almost 140%.
Here we take a closer look at CCS and how it works.
WHAT IS CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE TECHNOLOGY?
o CCS is a technology reportedly
capable of capturing up to
90% of the CO2 emissions
produced by the burning of
fossil fuels to generate
electricity, as well as those used
in industrial processes, and
prevent it from polluting the
atmosphere.
o Fossil fuel power plants can be
built with the technology
already integrated or it can
also be combined with
renewable biomass to
create a “carbon-negative”
mode the goes one step further
by actually removing CO2 from
the planet.
o The Global CCS Institute says
there are 18 large-scale CCS
facilities currently in operation,
with an additional five under
construction.
o Some carbon storage facilities date back multiple decades, such as the Sleipner project in the
North Sea, while others remain under construction, like the Gorgon project in Western
Australia.
o First, CCS involves capturing CO2, before transporting it to be stored in geological rock
formations thousands of metres below the Earth’s surface.

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o The initial part of the process involves separating CO2 from the gasses produced in power
generation and industrial processes, such as manufacturing cement or steel, by pre-
combustion capture, post-combustion capture or oxy-fuel combustion.
o The pollutant is then transporting using either a pipeline or a ship in much the same way the
millions of tonnes of CO2 are transported each year for various commercial purposes, chiefly
by countries such as the US.
o It is then stored in depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifer formations, which the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says can retain 99% of the pollutant over
a 1000-year period.
o At every point in the CCS chain, from production to storage, industry has at its disposal a
number of process technologies that are well understood and have excellent health and safety
records
o The commercial deployment of CCS will involve the widespread adoption of these techniques,
combined with robust monitoring techniques and government regulation.
CAPTURING CO2
PRE-COMBUSTION CAPTURE
o Pre-combustion systems, as provided by manufacturing companies such as British engineering
firm Costain, convert solid, liquid or gaseous fuel into a blend of hydrogen and CO2 using
processes like “gasification” or “reforming”.
o This can then be used to fuel electricity production, and the CCSA claims it will be able to power
vehicles and provide heating, with extremely low emissions, in the future.
POST-COMBUSTION CAPTURE
o Post-combustion capture involves capturing the CO2 from the exhaust of a combustion system
and absorbing it into a solvent, before removing and compressing the pollutant elements.
o CO2 can also be separated using high-pressure membrane filtration, as well as cryogenic
separation processes.
OXY-FUEL
COMBUSTION
o Using oxy-fuel
combustion,
oxygen is separated
from the air before
combustion, with
the fuel then being
combusted in
oxygen using
recycled flue-gas.
o This creates an
atmosphere full of
oxygen and
nitrogen with flue-
gases comprising
CO2 and water, allowing for easier purification of the former.
TRANSPORTING CO2
o Transporting captured CO2 involves many of the same techniques as used for oil and natural
gas, including road tankers, ships and pipelines.

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o Many of the networks in use today have been operational for more than 30 years, providing
safe and regulation-consistent methods of getting the pollutant from A to B.
o The CCSA says: “There is significant potential for the development of local and regional CCS
pipeline infrastructure, leading to CCS ‘clusters’ where CO2-intensive industries could locate”.
o Developing clusters, where infrastructure can be shared by a number of industrial sources of
carbon dioxide emissions, will result in the most cost-effective way to deliver CCS
infrastructure development and ultimately lower costs to consumers.
STORING CO2
o Storage sites for captured CO2 range from defunct oil and gas fields to underground
saline formations, porous rocks filled with salt water, while it can also injected
into depleting oil fields to increase their output.
o After being injected into such a formation, the CO2 is trapped by a layer of impermeable rock,
known as the cap rock, preventing it from entering and polluting the atmosphere above in a
process referred to as “structural storage.”
o Deep saline aquifers offer the greatest storage capacity over the long term, according to the
CCSA, but remain a relative unknown in many areas.

 BIOROCK TECHNOLOGY
o A biorock structure was installed one nautical mile off the Mithapur coast in the Gulf of
Kachchh. The location for installing the biorock had been chosen keeping in mind the high
tidal amplitude in the Gulf of Kachchh. The low tide depth where the biorock has been
installed is four metres, and at high tide it is about eight metres.
o Need: Coral reefs were the most diverse ecosystem on the earth. They are getting degraded
across the world and also in India by threats posed both by climate change induced

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acidification as well as by anthropogenic factors. India has four major coral reefs areas:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar and the Gulf of Kachchh.
WHAT IS BIOROCK?
o It is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals
dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are
connected to a power source, in this case solar panels that float on the surface.
WHAT IS BIOROCK TECHNOLOGY?
o Biorock Technology, or mineral accretion technology is a method that applies safe, low
voltage electrical currents through seawater, causing dissolved minerals to
crystallize on structures, growing into a white limestone similar to that which
naturally makes up coral reefs and tropical white sand beaches. This material has a strength
similar to concrete. It can be used to make robust artificial reefs on which corals grow at very
rapid rates.
o The change in the environment produced by electrical currents accelerates formation
and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other
shell-bearing organisms.
o Biorock methods speed up coral growth in damaged areas and restore authentic coral reef
habitat and species. Biorock structures become rapidly colonized by a full range of coral reef
organisms, including fish, crabs, clams, octopus, lobster, sea urchins.
o Species typically found in healthy reef environments are given an electrical advantage over the
weedy organisms which often overgrow them in reefs stressed by humans. The advantages
corals gain from mineral accretion are cancelled if they no longer receive current, at which
point weeds will overgrow the corals. If the current is maintained, coral reefs can often be
restored even in areas where water quality would prevent their recovery by any other method.
Future: Ongoing initiative of coral restoration using biorock technology could potentially help
to sustain faster revival of corals. The technology helps corals, including the highly sensitive
branching corals, to counter the threats posed by global warming.

 DRS TECHNOLOGY
o The Decision Review System(DRS) is a technology based system in cricket to assist the match
officials with their decision making.
o Using UDRS (Umpire’s Review) the on-field umpire can take help of Third Umpire and players
may request the Third Umpire to consider a decision of the on field umpires using DRS
(Player’s Review).
o The technologies used in Decision Review System are Television Replays, The Ball Tracking
technology used to track the path of the ball, Microphones, Snickometer, Infra-Red imaging to
detect temperature changes as the ball hits the pad or the bat. The Technologies Used in
Decision Review System are:
1. TELEVISION REPLAYS: including Slow Motion which is mainly used to check whether the
catch is cleanly taken or not.
2. HAWK EYE: Ball Tracking technology that plots the trajectory of a bowling delivery that
has been interrupted by the batsmen/batswomen often by the pad and predict whether it would
have hit the stumps or not. This technology is mainly used for Leg Before Wicket(LBW)
decisions where the umpire can check whether the impact of the ball is in line to the stumps,
whether the ball is hitting the stumps, and whether the ball is pitching outside the leg stump
or not. These three conditions are mandatory for LBW decision which is reviewed using Hawk
Eye Technology.

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3. SNICKOMETER: Directional microphones to detect small sounds made as the ball passes
the bat or the pad. It is mainly used for caught behind and LBW decisions. If the Snickometer
shows spikes while passing the bat then it indicates that the ball has hit the bat which can be
used for both caught behind and LBW decisions.
4. HOTSPOT: Infra-Red imaging system that shows where the ball has been in contact with the
pad or the bat. It mainly shows the point of contact between the ball, bat and pad. It is
mandatorily used to check whether the ball has hit the pad or the bat first in case of LBW and
checks whether the ball has hit the bat or not in case of caught behind. It can be said as a
substitute to Snickometer.

SALINITY GRADIENT ENERGY

Salinity gradient power is the energy created from the difference in salt concentration
between two fluids, commonly fresh and salt water, e.g., when a river flows into the sea.
There are two technologies for which demonstration projects are running and both use
membranes.

1. PRESSURE RETARDED OSMOSIS (PRO) uses a membrane to separate a concentrated

salt solution (like sea water) from freshwater. The freshwater flows through a semipermeable
membrane towards the sea water, which increases the pressure within the seawater chamber.
A turbine is spun as the pressure is compensated and electricity is generated.
2. REVERSED ELECTRO DIALYSIS (RED) uses the transport of (salt) ions through
membranes. RED consists of a stack of alternating cathode and anode exchanging perm
selective membranes. The compartments between the membranes are alternately filled with
sea water and freshwater. The salinity gradient difference is the driving force in transporting
ions that results in an electric potential, which is then converted to electricity.
• Two main applications exist: as standalone plants in estuaries where freshwater rivers run
into the sea; and as hybrid energy generation processes recovering energy from high salinity
waste streams. his could be for example, brine from desalination or salt mining, as well as waste
water treatment plants. A possible third application is salinity gradient technologies applied to
land based saltwater lakes or other types of salt water reserves.

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 PULSE OXIMETER
o A pulse oximeter is a small, lightweight device used to monitor the amount of oxygen carried
in the body.
o This non-invasive tool attaches painlessly to your fingertip.
o Once the oximeter finishes its assessment, its screen will display the percent of oxygen in your
blood coming from your heart—as well as your current pulse rate.
BLOOD OXYGEN SATURATION (SPO2)
o Your SpO2 reading is an estimation of the amount of oxygen in your blood.
o An SpO2 reading of 95% or greater is generally considered to be a normal oxygen level.
o However, an SpO2 reading of 92% or less (at sea level) suggests that your blood
is poorly saturated.
o Insufficient saturation can cause a range of adverse health conditions—including chest pain,
shortness of breath and increased heart rate.
ACCEPTABLE RANGE OF OXYGEN IN THE BLOOD:
o Acceptable normal ranges for patients without pulmonary pathology are from 95 to 99 percent.
o For a patient breathing room air at or near sea level, an estimate of arterial pO2 can be made
from the blood-oxygen monitor "saturation of peripheral oxygen" (SpO2) reading.
HOW PULSE OXIMETER WORKS?
o A blood-oxygen monitor displays the percentage of blood that is loaded with oxygen.
o More specifically, it measures what percentage of haemoglobin, the protein in blood that
carries oxygen, is loaded.
ACTUAL MECHANISM
o A typical pulse oximeter uses an electronic processor and a pair of small light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) facing a photodiode through a translucent part of the patient's body, usually a fingertip
or an earlobe.
o One LED is red, with wavelength of 660 nm, and the other is infrared with a wavelength of 940
nm.
o Small beams of light pass through the blood in the finger, measuring the amount of oxygen. It
does this by measuring changes of light absorption in oxygenated or deoxygenated blood. This
is a painless process. The pulse oximeter will thus be able to tell you your oxygen saturation
levels along with your heart rate.
In general, a lower heart rate at rest implies more efficient heart function and better
cardiovascular fitness. For some people, a pulse rate below 60 bpm indicates abnormally slow
heart action, also known as bradycardia. Bradycardia can cause a number of problematic
symptoms—including fainting, fatigue, chest pains and memory problems.

 NANO UREA FERTILISER

o Nano urea is a liquid fertilizer developed by IFFCO. It is an alternative to conventional
urea.
o It is essentially urea in the form of a nanoparticle.

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o Urea is a chemical nitrogen fertilizer, white in colour, which artificially provides nitrogen, a
major nutrient required by plants.
o Aim: It aims to reduce farmers’ dependence on packaged urea.
o Fertiliser Control Order (FCO) 1985: It is based on existing rules that provisionally allow
fertilizers to be used based on data from only two cropping seasons.
o The usual practice for recommending or rejecting a new fertilizer for commercial use required
three seasons of independent assessment by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), but in the case of nano urea this was reduced to two.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS

o It has a shelf life of a year and farmers need not be worried about “caking”
Shelf life
when it comes in contact with moisture.
o It comes in a half-litre bottle priced at Rs 240, and carries no burden of
subsidy currently.
Pricing
o By contrast, a farmer pays around Rs 300 for a 50-kg bag of heavily
subsidised urea.
o The conventional urea has an efficiency of about 25 percent; the efficiency
Efficiency
of liquid nano urea can be as high as 85-90 per cent.
o Liquid nano urea is sprayed directly on the leaves and gets absorbed by
the plant.
Absorption
o Fertilisers in nano form provide a targeted supply of nutrients to crops, as
they are absorbed by the stomata, pores found on the epidermis of leaves.
Lower o It will reduce the country’s subsidy bill and it is aimed at reducing the
subsidy Bill unbalanced and indiscriminate use of conventional urea.
o Application of Nano Urea results in better crop productivity.
o This is regarded as an excellent alternative to chemical fertilisers because
Other it promotes growth and reduces environmental pollution.
benefits o Nano-fertilisers also reduce the crop cycle period and increase crop yield.
o The unique properties of nanoparticles, such as high absorption capacity,
the increased surface to volume ratio, and controlled-release kinetics to
targeted sites, make them a potential plant growth enhancer.

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LIMITATIONS OF NANO-FERTILISERS
o Lack of a nano-fertiliser risk management system
o Lack of production and availability of nano fertilisers in required quantities. This limits the
wider scale adoption of nano-fertilisers as a source of plant nutrients.
o The high cost of nano fertilisers.
o Lack of standardisation in the formulation process. This brings about different results of the
same nanomaterial under various pedoclimatic conditions.

 IRON FORTIFICATION
o Food Fortification is a scientifically proven, cost-effective, scalable and sustainable global
intervention that addresses the issue of micronutrient deficiencies.
o In 2016, FSSAI operationalized the Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of
Foods) Regulations, 2016 for fortifying staples namely Wheat Flour and Rice (with Iron,
Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid), Milk and Edible Oil (with Vitamins A and D) and Double Fortified
Salt (with Iodine and Iron) to reduce the high burden of micronutrient malnutrition in India.
o The ‘+F’ logo has been notified to identify fortified foods. Food Safety and Standards
(Fortification of Foods) Regulations, 2018 were notified in the Gazette of India on 09.08.2018.
WHAT IS THE PROGRAM?
o Iron deficiency involves an insufficient supply of iron to cells, which can affect their growth
and development.
o Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anaemia and may lead to a range of adverse
physical and cognitive effects.
o Iron deficiency is most commonly tackled by iron supplementation or iron fortification
programs.
o Iron supplementation can be administered orally, intravenously or intramuscularly, although
daily oral iron supplementation is by far the most common method.
o Iron fortification programs usually involve mandatory, centralized mass fortification of
staple foods, such as wheat flour. This report focuses on iron fortification programs but draws
heavily on evidence from iron supplementation programs as well.

 GPS TRACKER ANKLETS

• GPS anklets are small, wearable devices that are attached to the ankles of individuals who are
under some form of legal supervision, such as parole, probation, house arrest, or bail.
• The tracker can be put on the ankle or arm of a person. Thus, there are GPS anklets and GPS
bracelets.
• GPS anklets are tamper-proof, and any attempt to remove or damage them triggers an alarm.
• They also have a battery life of several days and can be recharged by the wearer.
• GPS anklets can also be used to enforce curfews, travel restrictions, or other conditions
imposed by the court or the supervising agency.

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WORKING PROCEDURE
• GPS anklets use the GPS technology to provide the exact location of the wearer at all times
and allow law enforcement and security agencies to monitor their movements in real-time.
GPS ANKLETS USAGE ON PRISONERS
• GPS anklets alleviate criminal justice costs, easing prison overcrowding and
directing resources to serious offenses.
• They balance public safety and rehabilitation by deterring crime, ensuring law
compliance, and fostering offender well-being through family ties, education, and support
services.
LEGAL POSITION ON THE USE OF GPS ANKLETS GLOBALLY
• GPS trackers are a precondition for bail in several countries including the United States, the
United Kingdom, and Malaysia.
CONCERNS REGARDING THE GPS ANKLETS IN INDIA
• Rights activists argue that tracking individuals with GPS is a violation of their
fundamental right to privacy and dignity of the offenders.
• The Supreme Court of India in ‘Maneka Gandhi vs Union of India’ (1978) ruled that the
right to life includes the right to human dignity.
• GPS anklets raise some legal and ethical issues, such as the lack of clear and specific laws and
regulations governing their usage in India.

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SPACE AND TECHNOLOGY

 STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS

o The standard model identifies elementary particles into Quarks, Leptons and Bosons.
o ANTIMATTER: Every known matter has an antimatter which has the same mass and
volume; only difference being the inherent charge. Antimatter has an opposite charge when
compared to its matter. While the Anti-matter of a proton is called Anti-Proton, the
Antimatter of an electron is called Positron.
QUARKS

▪ Quarks are elementary particles propounded in the standard model.

▪ They join to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons, which are components of the nuclei
of atoms.
▪ The antiparticle of a quark is the antiquark.
▪ There are 6 principal quarks and hence 6 anti quarks.
▪ Quarks and antiquarks are the only two fundamental particles that interact through all four
fundamental forces of physics: gravitation, electromagnetism, and the strong
interaction and weak interactions.
▪ A quark exhibits confinement, which means that the quarks are not observed independently
but always in combination with other quarks.
▪ This makes determining the properties (mass, spin, and parity) impossible to measure directly.

LEPTONS
▪ Like quarks, Leptons too are of 6 kinds. However, they do not have any fractional charge. The
leptons are: ELECTRON, MUON, TAU and 3 Types OF NEUTRINOS
▪ Electron being a Lepton is a fundamental elementary particle.
FERMION

▪ Fermions are particles which have half-integer spin and therefore are constrained by the Pauli
exclusion principle.
▪ Particles with integer spin are called bosons. Fermions include electrons, protons, neutrons.
▪ Fermions include all quarks and leptons.
▪ The fact that electrons are fermions is foundational to the buildup of the periodic table of the
elements since there can be only one electron for each state in an atom (only one electron for
each possible set of quantum numbers).
▪ The fermion nature of electrons also governs the behavior of electrons in a metal where at low
temperatures all the low energy states are filled up to a level called the Fermi energy.
o BOSON: Boson is a collective name given to particles that carry forces. It has been named
after Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose. Gravity as a force of nature is yet not accepted by
the Standard Model due to the failure to discover its Boson. Strong Nuclear Force is the
strongest known force while gravity is the weakest.

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 NEUTRINOS
o They are produced by the decay of radioactive elements. After Photons(light carriers) they
are the most abundant particles in the cosmos. They propagate over large distances even
through solid matter.
o They have mass, but it is exceedingly small, a tiny fraction of the mass of a proton.
o There are 3 types of neutrinos, called flavors.
▪ One related to the electron, one related to muon and the third type is related to tau.
▪ The main difference between the neutrinos and their "relatives" is that neutrinos are
electrically neutral, while the electron, muon, and tau are electrically charged.
o Neutrinos are difficult to detect, because they do not readily interact with other forms of
matter. But using special equipment located in deep underground laboratories where no
other cosmic particles can penetrate, scientists have detected neutrinos and discovered some
of their properties.
NEUTRINOS OSCILLATION
o The earth receives majority of the neutrinos from the sun itself. For years’ scientists were
trying to figure out an anomaly between the observed and the theoretical data of the neutrinos
observed.
o The studies held by the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan showed that up to two thirds of
number of neutrinos were missing in measurements performed on Earth.
o This was explained by the “metamorphosis” of the 3 neutrinos into one another called
neutrino oscillation. This oscillation implies that Neutrinos have mass, however very small.

 DARK MATTER & DARK ENERGY

DARK MATTER
o It was in 1930s when Fritz Zwicky observed that many galaxies were moving faster than
theoretical calculations. This implied that there was some mysterious gravitational pull
towards the centre of those galaxies. The quantity of matter needed to exert such a pull far
exceed the observed matter. This extra matter which invisible and undetected has been termed
as Dark Matter.
o Gradually many astronomers started researching on dark matter. It was when the Andromeda
Galaxy was observed to be moving faster than expected that dark matter took the centre stage
of astronomical research.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DARK MATTER
o It has not yet been observed yet directly. It doesn't interact with matter and is completely
invisible to light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation making it impossible to detect.
o Scientists are confident it exists because of the gravitational effects it has on galaxies and galaxy
clusters.
o The light from distant galaxies gets distorted and magnified by massive, invisible clouds of dark
matter in the phenomenon known as Gravitational Lensing.
o There are 2 schools of thoughts on the existence of Dark Matter. While one school supports the
idea of MACHOS ( MAssive Compact Halo ObjectS) the other advocated WIMPS( Weakly
Interacting Massive ParticleS).

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o MACHOS are made up of Baryons(protons and neutrons) while WIMPS consists of Exotic
particles which in turn are non-baryonic
o Dark matter responds to 2 of the Fundamental Forces: Weak Nuclear Force and
Gravitational Force.
DARK ENERGY: Roughly 68% of the universe is dark energy. it is a property of space so does
not get diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more of this energy-of-
space appears. As a result, dark energy causes the universe to expand faster and faster.
IMPACTS OF DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY ON UNIVERSE
o While Dark matter exerts a “pull” on the universe, Dark Energy has a contrasting expansionary
effect. As is it evident, our universe is expanding, indicating that Dark Energy has a greater
abundance than dark matter. By the laws of cosmology, the total amount of mass in the
universe cannot increase. Hence while the amount of Dark matter remains constant, Dark
Energy which is a property of space itself is bound to increase exponentially. Eventually, Dark
energy would overcome the influence of dark matter and lead to further expansion of the
universe.

 GOD PARTICLE
o Peter Higgs suggested that particles did not have mass just after Big Bang. As the universe
cooled and temperature fell below the critical point, an invisible force field got formed which
has been termed the Higgs Field.
o The associated particles with the Higgs field have been termed the Higgs Boson. It has been
theorized that any particle that interacted with these Higgs Boson got mass and those particles
that were left out of the Higgs field remained massless.
o As these Higgs Bosons have the capability to grant mass, the primary condition for the
existence of matter, they were termed as the God particle.
o The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began. It talks about
the universe as we know it starting with a small singularity, then inflating over the next 13.8
billion years to the cosmos that we know today.

 BLACK HOLE
o Astronomical observations suggest that a significant part of the universe is made up
of dark matter which interacts with the rest of the universe only through the
gravitational pull. Many large lab experiments have tried to detect elementary particles
that could be candidates for dark matter.
o However, such dark matter particles have not been detected until now.
o So, the question arises – could dark matter be composed, at least partly, of compact objects
such as black holes?
o Several astronomical observations suggest that all galaxies are embedded in a “halo” of dark
matter.
o The “visible” galaxy is like a disc embedded in a dark matter halo that is much
larger in size.
o One hypothesis is that dark matter comprises a large number of compact objects such as
primordial black holes.

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PRIMORDIAL BLACK HOLES

When the universe was very young, hot and dense – soon after the Big Bang, it must have had
quantum fluctuations of its density. This, in turn, would have caused some regions to become
extremely dense, and therefore, to collapse under their own gravity to form the primordial
black holes.
o A black hole is anything but empty space. Rather, it is a great amount of matter packed
into a very small area - think of a star ten times more massive than the Sun squeezed into
a sphere approximately the diameter of a city. The result is a gravitational field so strong that
nothing, not even light, can escape.
o A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light cannot get out. The
gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen when
a star is dying.
o Because no light can get out, people can't see black holes. They are invisible. Space telescopes
with special tools can help find black holes. The special tools can see how stars that are very
close to black holes act differently than other stars.
o The idea of an object in space so massive and dense that light could not escape it has been
around for centuries. Most famously, black holes were predicted by Einstein's theory of
general relativity, which showed that when a massive star dies, it leaves behind a small,
dense remnant core. If the core's mass is more than about three times the mass of the Sun, the
equations showed, the force of gravity overwhelms all other forces and produces a black hole.
HOW BIG ARE BLACK HOLES?
o Black holes can be big or small. Scientists think the smallest black holes are as small as just one
atom. These black holes are very tiny but have the mass of a large mountain. Mass is the
amount of matter, or "stuff," in an object.
o Another kind of black hole is called "stellar." Its mass can be up to 20 times more than the
mass of the sun. There may be many, many stellar mass black holes in Earth's galaxy. Earth's
galaxy is called the Milky Way.
o The largest black holes are called "supermassive." These black holes have masses that are
more than 1 million suns together. Scientists have found proof that every large galaxy contains
a supermassive black hole at its center. The supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky
Way galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It has a mass equal to about 4 million suns and would fit
inside a very large ball that could hold a few million Earths.

HOW DO BLACK HOLES FORM?

o Scientists think the smallest black holes formed when the universe began.
o Stellar black holes are made when the center of a very big star falls in upon itself,
or collapses. When this happens, it causes a supernova. A supernova is an exploding star
that blasts part of the star into space.
o Scientists think supermassive black holes were made at the same time as the galaxy they are
in.
IF BLACK HOLES ARE "BLACK," HOW DO SCIENTISTS KNOW THEY ARE THERE?
o A black hole cannot be seen because strong gravity pulls all of the light into the
middle of the black hole. But scientists can see how the strong gravity affects the stars and
gas around the black hole. Scientists can study stars to find out if they are flying around, or
orbiting, a black hole.
o When a black hole and a star are close together, high-energy light is made. This kind of light
cannot be seen with human eyes. Scientists use satellites and telescopes in space to see the
high-energy light.

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COULD A BLACK HOLE DESTROY EARTH?

o Black holes do not go around in space eating stars, moons and planets. Earth will not fall into
a black hole because no black hole is close enough to the solar system for Earth to do that.
o Even if a black hole the same mass as the sun were to take the place of the sun, Earth still would
not fall in. The black hole would have the same gravity as the sun. Earth and the other planets
would orbit the black hole as they orbit the sun now.
o The sun will never turn into a black hole. The sun is not a big enough star to make a black hole.

 EINSTEIN CROSS
• Astronomers have discovered a stunning, rare example of an “Einstein cross” splitting and
magnifying light from the far depths of the universe.
ABOUT THE DISCOVERY
• A foreground elliptical galaxy located about 6 billion light-years away from Earth has warped
and quadrisected a bright beam of light from a background galaxy approximately 11 billion
light-years away.
• The resulting pattern was first predicted by Albert Einstein in 1915.
• It is a rare arrangement that astronomers will study to get a better understanding of the
universe.
• The background light emitted by a quasar, which is a young galaxy with a supermassive
black hole at its center.
• It consumes immense amounts of matter and blasts out enough radiation to shine more than
a trillion times more brightly than the brightest stars.
WHAT DOES EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF GENERAL RELATIVITY EXPLAIN?
• Einstein’s theory of general relativity describes the way massive objects warp the
fabric of the universe, called space-time.
• Einstein discovered that gravity is not an unseen force but rather a consequence of space-time
curving and distorting in the presence of matter and energy.
• Light, though usually traveling in a straight line, bends when passing through highly curved
regions of space-time creating a halo-like effect.
• In this case, Earth, the lensing galaxy and the quasar have aligned to perfectly
duplicate the quasar’s light, arranging them along a so-called Einstein ring.
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS DISCOVERY?
• First, these rings magnify and reconstruct light, allowing astronomers to observe distant
galaxies with enhanced details.
• Second, the degree of light bending in Einstein rings provides a valuable tool for estimating
the masses of galaxies and black holes on a cosmic scale.
• Third, studying the distant light warping around these rings can help scientists to look at
objects that would otherwise be too dark to be seen on their own, such as black holes or
wandering exoplanets.

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 WEIRD GALAXY
Astronomers led by researchers from the Netherlands have found no trace of dark matter
in the galaxy AGC 114905.
o A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar
gas, dust, and dark matter.
o Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or
irregular. Many are thought to have supermassive black holes at their centers.
o The space between galaxies is filled with a tenuous gas (the intergalactic medium) with
an average density of less than one atom per cubic meter. Most galaxies are gravitationally
organized into groups, clusters and superclusters.

 SOLAR ECLIPSE
o A solar eclipse occurs when the moon gets between Earth and the sun, and the moon
casts a shadow over Earth. A solar eclipse can only take place at the phase of new moon, when
the moon passes directly between the sun and Earth and its shadows fall upon Earth’s surface.
o There are four types of solar eclipses: total, annular, partial and hybrid.
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSES
o The sun's 864,000-mile diameter is fully 400 times greater than that of our moon, which
measures just about 2,160 miles. But the moon also happens to be about 400 times closer to
Earth than the sun (the ratio varies as both orbits are elliptical), and as a result, when the
orbital planes intersect and the distances align favorably, the new moon can appear to
completely blot out the disk of the sun.
o On the average a total eclipse occurs somewhere on Earth about every 18 months.
o There are actually two types of shadows: the umbra is that part of the shadow where all
sunlight is blocked out. The umbra takes the shape of a dark, slender cone. It is surrounded by
the penumbra, a lighter, funnel-shaped shadow from which sunlight is partially obscured.
o During a total solar eclipse, the moon casts its umbra upon Earth's surface; that shadow can
sweep a third of the way around the planet in just a few hours. Those who are fortunate enough
to be positioned in the direct path of the umbra will see the sun's disk diminish into a crescent
as the moon's dark shadow rushes toward them across the landscape.
o During the brief period of totality, when the sun is completely covered, the beautiful corona —
the tenuous outer atmosphere of the sun — is revealed. Totality may last as long as 7 minutes
31 seconds, though most total eclipses are usually much shorter.
PARTIAL SOLAR ECLIPSES
o A partial solar eclipse occurs when only the penumbra (the partial shadow)
passes over you. In these cases, a part of the sun always remains in view during the eclipse.
How much of the sun remains in view depends on the specific circumstances.
o Usually the penumbra gives just a glancing blow to our planet over the polar regions; in such
cases, places far away from the poles but still within the zone of the penumbra might not see
much more than a small scallop of the sun hidden by the moon. In a different scenario, those
who are positioned within a couple of thousand miles of the path of a total eclipse will see a
partial eclipse.

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o The closer you are to the path of totality, the greater the solar obscuration. If, for instance, you
are positioned just outside of the path of the total eclipse, you will see the sun wane to a narrow
crescent, then thicken up again as the shadow passes by.
ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSES
o An annular eclipse, though a rare and amazing sight, is far different from a total one.
o The sky will darken ... somewhat; a sort of weird twilight since so much of the sun still shows.
The annular eclipse is a subspecies of a partial eclipse, not total. The maximum duration for an
annular eclipse is 12 minutes 30 seconds.
o However, an annular solar eclipse is similar to a total eclipse in that the moon appears to pass
centrally across the sun. The difference is, the moon is too small to cover the disk of the sun
completely. Because the moon circles Earth in an elliptical orbit, its distance from Earth can
vary from 221,457 miles to 252,712 miles. But the dark shadow cone of the moon's umbra can
extend out for no longer than 235,700 miles; that's less than the moon's average distance from
Earth.
o So if the moon is at some greater distance, the tip of the umbra does not reach Earth. During
such an eclipse, the antumbra, a theoretical continuation of the umbra, reaches the ground,
and anyone situated within it can look up past either side of the umbra and see an annulus,
or "ring of fire" around the moon.
HYBRID SOLAR ECLIPSES
o These are also called annular-total ("A-T") eclipses. This special type of eclipse occurs
when the moon's distance is near its limit for the umbra to reach Earth. In most cases, an A-T
eclipse starts as an annular eclipse because the tip of the umbra falls just short of making
contact with Earth; then it becomes total, because the roundness of the planet reaches up and
intercepts the shadow tip near the middle of the path, then finally it returns to annular toward
the end of the path.
o Because the moon appears to pass directly in front of the sun, total, annular and hybrid eclipses
are also called "central" eclipses to distinguish them from eclipses that are merely partial.
o Of all solar eclipses, about 28% are total; 35% are partial; 32% annular; and just 5% are
hybrids.

 GALACTIC TIDES
• Galactic tides are a gravitational phenomenon that occurs within galaxies, including
our Milky Way.
• They are similar to Earth’s ocean tides but on a much larger scale.
• They are caused by gravitational forces within a galaxy arising in the interactions
between celestial objects like stars and gas clouds.
Galactic Tides influence various aspects of a galaxy’s evolution
• Firstly, they can reshape a galaxy structure by creating tidal tails and bridges, promoting star
formation, and disrupting smaller star systems.
• Secondly, they can disrupt the orbits of stars, leading to gradual and long-term changes in a
galaxy’s structure.
• Thirdly, galactic tides also have a say in the ways in which proximate galaxies interact.
• Fourthly, they also affect the supermassive black holes at galaxy centers, leading to
events that change the ways in which these cosmic beasts interact with nearby stars.

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 MOON TERMINOLOGIES
• The orbit of the moon around the earth is not circular; it is elliptical, that is, an elongated or
stretched-out circle. It takes the moon 27.3 days to orbit the earth.
• The point closest to Earth in the moon’s elliptical orbit is called perigee, and the point
that is farthest is called apogee.

• A full moon occurs when the moon is directly opposite the sun (as
seen from earth), and therefore, has its entire dayside lit up.
Full moon • The full moon appears as a brilliant circle in the sky that rises around
sunset and sets around sunrise.

Super moon • A super moon happens when the moon is passing through or is
close to its perigee, and is also a full moon.
• The smoke or dust in the air can scatter red wavelengths of
light, as a result of which the moon may, in certain places, appear more
Blue moon blue than usual.
• A blue moon is the second full moon in a month.

• A super blue moon combines a supermoon and a blue moon.

• A supermoon occurs when the moon aligns closely with Earth
during its orbit, making it appear larger and brighter.
Super Blue • This alignment, called perigee, contrasts with apogee, when the moon
moon is farthest in its elliptical orbit around earth. While the difference is
subtle, near the horizon, an optical illusion can make it seem larger.
• The term "supermoon" was coined in 1979 by astrologer
Richard Nolle.

 SUN TERMINOLOGIES
• The Sun’s corona is the outermost part of
the Sun’s atmosphere.
• The corona is usually hidden by the bright
light of the Sun's surface.
• That makes it difficult to see without using
special instruments.
Solar Corona
• However, the corona can be viewed during
a total solar eclipse.
• During a total solar eclipse, the moon passes between Earth and the Sun.
When this happens, the moon blocks out the bright light of the Sun. The
glowing white corona can then be seen surrounding the eclipsed Sun.

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• The surface of the Sun is called the photosphere, a term which

means “sphere of light.”
Photosphere • The glowing ball of light that you see in the sky is the photosphere. The
surface of the Sun is the only part that we can see from Earth on a typical
day, without use of specialized equipment.
• The lower region of the Sun's atmosphere is called the
chromosphere.
• It was named after the Greek root chroma (meaning color).
Chromosphere
• The chromosphere appears bright red because the hydrogen in the
Sun emits a reddish-colored light at high temperatures..

• The solar wind is a continual stream of protons and electrons

from the sun's outermost atmosphere — the corona.
• These charged particles breeze through the solar system at speeds
ranging from around 250 miles (400 kilometers) per second to 500 miles
(800 km) per second, in a plasma state.
Solar Wind
• When the solar wind reaches Earth it sends a flurry of charged
particles into the magnetosphere and along Earth's magnetic
field lines, towards the poles.
• The interaction of these particles with Earth's atmosphere can produce
glowing aurora displays above polar regions.

 LAGRANGE POINTS
• Lagrange points are special positions in space where the gravitational forces of two
large orbiting bodies, such as the Sun and the Earth, balance each other out.
• This means that a small object, such as a spacecraft, can stay at these points without
using much fuel to maintain its orbit.
• There are five Lagrange Points, each with distinct characteristics. These points enable a
small mass to orbit in a stable pattern amid two larger masses.

• L1 is considered the most significant of the Lagrange points for solar

observations.
• A satellite placed in the halo orbit around the L1 has the major
advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation/
L1
eclipses.
• It is currently home to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Satellite (SOHO).

• Positioned directly 'behind' Earth as viewed from the Sun, L2 is

excellent for observing the larger Universe without Earth's shadow
L2 interference.
• The James Webb Space Telescope orbits the Sun near L2.

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• Positioned behind the Sun, opposite Earth, and just beyond Earth's
L3 orbit, it offers potential observations of the far side of the Sun.

• Objects at L4 and L5 maintain stable positions, forming an equilateral

triangle with the two larger bodies.
L4 and L5
• They are often used for space observatories, such as those studying
asteroids.

 OSIRIS-REx Mission
o The NASA OSIRIS-REx mission has achieved a significant milestone by successfully returning
to Earth with an estimated 250 grams (8.8 ounces) of material gathered from the surface of an
asteroid.
o These precious samples hold the potential to provide critical insights into differentiating
authentic asteroid-origin materials from potential terrestrial contaminants or alterations
across various meteorite types.
MISSION LAUNCH AND JOURNEY:
o OSIRIS-REx embarked on its journey when it was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, in
2016.
o Over a span of two years, it traversed space to reach Bennu, a carbon-rich asteroid nestled
between Earth and Mars.
ORBITING BENNU:
o The spacecraft reached its destination, Bennu, in December 2018.
o It spent two years in orbit around the asteroid, conducting a comprehensive suite of
measurements.
o These measurements encompassed critical aspects such as Bennu’s mass, density, albedo,
surface composition, and particle environment.
o The landing site chosen on Bennu was named “Nightingale.”
NOTABLE DISCOVERIES:
o During the reconnaissance phase, the OSIRIS-REx mission uncovered several intriguing
findings:
o Bennu is classified as an active asteroid, periodically ejecting material from its surface.
o The surface of Bennu exhibited a considerably rougher terrain than initially expected, featuring
numerous boulders exceeding ten meters in diameter.
o Bennu’s bulk density was found to be lower than anticipated, suggesting the presence of
substantial empty space within the asteroid’s structure.
o Surface features on Bennu indicated signs of past aqueous activity, and the asteroid’s rotation
was observed to be accelerating due to the YORP effect.
o Previous such missions
o Previous space missions like Japan’s Hayabusa and Hayabusa2, as well as China’s Chang’e 5,
have made substantial contributions to our understanding of celestial bodies and their
compositions.

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o The return of asteroid samples by OSIRIS-REx marks NASA’s first sample return mission since
Stardust in 2006 and Genesis in 2004.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SAMPLE RETURN
o The return of material directly from celestial sources, such as asteroids, comets, the solar wind,
and the Moon, holds immense scientific significance.
o It provides the means to answer questions that lie beyond the scope of remote observations,
landers, rovers, or even meteorites.
o Collecting samples directly from the source ensures the preservation of intricate details that
may otherwise be lost during a meteorite’s passage through Earth’s atmosphere and
subsequent impact.

 NVS-01 SATELLITE
The NVS-01 satellite was successfully launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) using the GSLV-F12, and it was accurately placed into a Geosynchronous Transfer
Orbit.
• This satellite is the first of the second-generation satellites of ISRO’s NVS (Navigational
Satellite) series of payloads.
• Its purpose is to provide continuity for the NavIC (Navigation in Indian Constellation)
services, which is an Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (similar to GPS) that offers
accurate and real-time navigation within India and up to a 1,500 km region around the
country.
• In the First generation, there are seven satellites in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite
System (IRNSS) constellation, operationally named NavIC, weighing much less — around
1,425 kg — at liftoff.
FEATURES OF NVS-01
o It weighs 2,232 kg, making it the heaviest in the constellation.
o The NVS-01 carried navigation payloads L1, L5 and S bands.
o Atomic Clock: The satellite will have a Rubidium atomic clock onboard, a significant
technology developed by India. Some of the existing satellites in the navigation constellation
lost their ability to provide accurate location data due to failed atomic clocks.
o L1 signals for better use in wearable devices: It will send signals in a third frequency,
L1, besides the L5 and S frequency signals that the existing satellites provide, increasing
interoperability with other satellite-based navigation systems.
o The L1 frequency is among the most commonly used in the Global Positioning System (GPS)
and will increase the use of the regional navigation system in wearable devices and personal
trackers that use low-power, single-frequency chips.
o Life: It will have a longer mission life of more than 12 years. The existing satellites have a
mission life of 10 years.

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NAVIC

• NavIC or the IRNSS is designed with a constellation of 7 satellites and a network of ground
stations operating 24×7. There are a total of eight satellites however only seven remain active.
• Three satellites in geostationary orbit and four satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
• The constellations' first satellite (IRNSS-1A) was launched on 1st July 2013 and the eighth
satellite IRNSS-1I was launched in April 2018.
• With the seventh launch of the constellation's satellite (IRNSS-1G), IRNSS was renamed
NavIC by India’s Prime Minister in 2016.
• It was recognised by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as a part of the
World-Wide Radio Navigation System (WWRNS) for operation in the Indian Ocean Region.

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 ADITYA L1
Aditya L1 shall be the first space based Indian mission to study the Sun. The spacecraft shall be
placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system, which is about
1.5 million km from the Earth.
SCIENCE OBJECTIVES:
The major science objectives of Aditya-L1 mission are:
• Study of Solar upper atmospheric (chromosphere and corona) dynamics.
• Study of chromospheric and coronal heating, physics of the partially ionized plasma, initiation
of the coronal mass ejections, and flares
• Observe the in-situ particle and plasma environment providing data for the study of particle
dynamics from the Sun.
• Physics of solar corona and its heating mechanism.
• Diagnostics of the coronal and coronal loops plasma: Temperature, velocity and density.
• Development, dynamics and origin of CMEs.
• Identify the sequence of processes that occur at multiple layers (chromosphere, base and
extended corona) which eventually leads to solar eruptive events.
• Magnetic field topology and magnetic field measurements in the solar corona .
• Drivers for space weather (origin, composition and dynamics of solar wind .
ADITYA-L1 PAYLOADS:
• The instruments of Aditya-L1 are tuned to observe the solar atmosphere mainly the
chromosphere and corona. In-situ instruments will observe the local environment at L1. There
are total seven payloads on-board with four of them carrying out remote sensing of the Sun
and three of them carrying in-situ observation.
• Payloads along with their major capability of scientific investigation.

Type Sl. No. Payload Capability

Visible Emission Line Corona/Imaging &
1
Coronagraph(VELC) Spectroscopy
Photosphere and
Solar Ultraviolet Imaging
Remote 2 Chromosphere Imaging-
Telescope (SUIT)
Sensing Narrow & Broadband
Payloads Solar Low Energy X-ray Soft X-ray spectrometer: Sun-
3
Spectrometer (SoLEXS) as-a-star observation
High Energy L1 Orbiting X- Hard X-ray spectrometer: Sun-
4
ray Spectrometer(HEL1OS) as-a-star observation
Solar wind/Particle Analyzer
Aditya Solar wind Particle
5 Protons & Heavier Ions with
Experiment(ASPEX)
In-situ directions
Payloads Solar wind/Particle Analyzer
Plasma Analyser Package
6 Electrons & Heavier Ions with
For Aditya (PAPA)
directions

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Type Sl. No. Payload Capability

Advanced Tri-axial High
In-situ magnetic field (Bx, By
7 Resolution Digital
and Bz).
Magnetometers

HOW DID THE ADITYA L-1 GO INTO SPACE?

• The solar probe was carried into space by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in ‘XL’
configuration. PSLV is one of the most reliable and versatile workhorse rockets of ISRO.
• Previous missions like Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mangalyaan in 2013 were also launched
using PSLV. The rocket is most powerful in the ‘XL’ configuration as it is equipped with six
extended strap-on boosters — they are larger than the boosters of other configurations and,
therefore, can carry heavier payloads.

• The PSLV will initially place the Aditya L-1 in a lower Earth orbit. Subsequently, the
spacecraft’s orbit around the Earth will be raised multiple times before it is put on a path to a
halo orbit around the L1 Lagrange point.
• The spacecraft will finally be stationed in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) of the
Sun-Earth system (more on this later), which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth. Named
after the rising Sun, the Aditya L-1 will cover its journey to the L1 point in about four months.
The spacecraft will carry seven payloads to observe solar activities for five years.
WHY WILL THE PROBE GO AROUND L1?
• It’s because L1 gets a continuous and unhindered view of the Sun. L2 is located behind the
Earth, and thus obstructs the view of the Sun, while L3 is behind the Sun which is not a great
position to communicate with Earth. L4 and L5 are good and stable locations but are much
farther from Earth compared to L1, which is directly between the Sun and the Earth.
• The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Solar and Heliospheric Observatory spacecraft (SOHO) is
also stationed at a halo orbit around the L1 point of the Earth-Sun system. The spacecraft has
been operational since 1996 and has discovered more than 400 comets, studied the outer layers
of the Sun and examined solar winds.
WHY STUDY THE SUN FROM SPACE?
• According to ISRO, the Sun “emits radiation/light in nearly all wavelengths along with various
energetic particles and magnetic fields. The atmosphere of the Earth as well as its magnetic

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field acts as a protective shield and blocks a number of harmful wavelength radiations
including particles and fields.”

 MISSION MERCURY
• Ariane 5 rocket, launched from French Guyana, lifted an unmanned
spacecraft, BepiColombo
• The spacecraft which is carrying the two probes went into orbit for the 7-year trip to Mercury.

ABOUT MISSION:
• It is the first European mission to Mercury.
• First mission to send two spacecraft to make complementary measurements of the planet and
its environment at the same time.
• The orbiters are ESA’s Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and JAXA’s Mercury Magnetosphere
Orbiter (MMO, or ‘Mio’).
• The two will always be in the same orbit plane, making it easy to do simultaneous observations
of the behavior of the magnetic field and particles in different locations near Mercury
• The ESA-built Mercury Transfer Module (MTM) will carry the orbiters to Mercury using a
combination of solar electric propulsion and gravity assist flybys.
• Bepi Colombo’s journey will return to Earth, passing Venus twice, and Mercury six times before
finally settling in to orbit on December 5th, 2025.

SIGNIFICANCE:
• Probe will help in finding composition of Mercury’s crust and the nature of its volcanic activity.
• To provide information about Mercury’s skewed magnetic field.
• To find Reason for its overstuffed iron core.
• To Know about lake like depressions perhaps carved by escaping volatile elements.

CHALLENGES:
• The Sun’s enormous gravity makes it difficult to place a spacecraft into a stable orbit around
Mercury though the spacecraft has been specially designed to sustain extreme temperatures.

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 MAGNETAR
An international group of researchers has succeeded in measuring for the first time the
characteristics of a flare on a distant magnetar.
o Magnetars are the most magnetic stars in the universe.
o It is a rare compact type of neutron star teeming with energy and magnetism.
o It is an exotic type of neutron star, its defining feature that it has an ultra-powerful
magnetic field.
o The field is about 1,000 times stronger than a normal neutron star and about a trillion
times stronger than the Earth’s.
o Magnetars are relatively rare objects, with only about thirty having been spotted within the
Milky Way so far.
WHAT IS THE RECENT STUDY?
o The studied magnetar is about 13 million light years away, in the direction of the NGC
253, a prominent galaxy in the Sculptor group of galaxies.
o Its flare spewed within a few tenths of a second as much energy as the Sun would shed in
100,000 years.
o It was captured accidentally on April 15, 2020, by the Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor
instrument (ASIM) of the International Space Station.
o This is the first study to characterize such a flare from so distant a magnetar.
HOW DO MAGNETARS FORM?
o During the course of their evolution, massive stars – with masses around 10-25 times the mass
of the Sun – eventually collapse and shrink to form very compact objects called neutron stars.
o A subset of these neutron stars is the so-called magnetars which possess intense magnetic
fields.
o These are highly dense and have breathtakingly high rotation speeds – they have rotational
periods that can be just 0.3 to 12.0 seconds.
WHAT CHARACTERIZES MAGNETARS?
o Violent flares: The observed giant flare lasted approximately 160 milliseconds and during
this time 1039 joules of energy was released. The flare spewed as much energy in a tenth of a
second that our Sun will radiate in 100,000 years.
o Starquakes: Eruptions in magnetars are believed to be due to instabilities in their
magnetosphere, or “starquakes” produced in their crust – a rigid, elastic layer about one
kilometer thick.
o This causes waves in the magnetosphere, and interaction between these waves causes
dissipation of energy.

 EXOPLANET
o An exoplanet is any planet beyond our solar system.
o Most orbit other stars, but free-floating exoplanets, called rogue planets, orbit the galactic
center and are untethered to any star.

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o Most of the exoplanets discovered so far are in a relatively small region of our galaxy, the Milky
Way. We know from NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope that there are more planets than stars in
the galaxy.
o By measuring exoplanets’ sizes (diameters) and masses (weights), we can see
compositions ranging from very rocky (like Earth and Venus) to very gas-rich (like Jupiter and
Saturn).
o Exoplanets are made up of elements similar to those of the planets in our solar system, but
their mixes of those elements may differ. Some planets may be dominated by water or ice, while
others are dominated by iron or carbon. We’ve identified lava worlds covered in molten seas,
puffy planets the density of Styrofoam and dense cores of planets still orbiting their stars.
o The first exoplanets were discovered in the 1990s and since then we’ve identified
thousands using a variety of detection methods. It’s pretty rare for astronomers to see an
exoplanet through their telescopes the way you might see Saturn through a telescope from
Earth. That’s called direct imaging, and only a handful of exoplanets have been found this
way (and these tend to be young gas giant planets orbiting very far from their stars).
o Now we live in a universe of exoplanets. The count of confirmed planets is in the thousands
and rising. That’s from only a small sampling of the galaxy as a whole. The count could rise to
the tens of thousands within a decade, as we increase the number, and observing power, of
robotic telescopes lofted into space.
o Most exoplanets are found through indirect methods: measuring the dimming of a star
that happens to have a planet pass in front of it, called the transit method, or monitoring
the spectrum of a star for the tell-tale signs of a planet pulling on its star and causing its
light to subtly Doppler shift. Space telescopes have found thousands of planets by observing
“transits,” the slight dimming of light from a star when its tiny planet passes between it and
our telescopes. Other detection methods include gravitational lensing, the so-called “wobble
method.”
o But when multiple methods are used together, we can learn the vital statistics of whole
planetary systems – without ever directly imaging the planets themselves. The best example so
far is the TRAPPIST-1 system about 40 light-years away, where seven roughly Earth-sized
planets orbit a small, red star.
o The TRAPPIST-1 planets have been examined with ground and space telescopes. The space-
based studies revealed not only their diameters, but the subtle gravitational influence these
seven closely packed planets have upon each other; from this, scientists determined each
planet’s mass.
o So now we know their masses and their diameters. We also know how much of the energy
radiated by their star strikes these planets’ surfaces, allowing scientists to estimate their
temperatures.
PLANET TYPES
o Exoplanets come in a wide variety of sizes, from gas giants larger than Jupiter to small, rocky
planets about as big around as Earth or Mars. They can be hot enough to boil metal or locked
in deep freeze. They can orbit their stars so tightly that a “year” lasts only a few days; they can
orbit two suns at once. Some exoplanets are sunless rogues, wandering through the galaxy in
permanent darkness.
HD 110067
o HD 110067 is the brightest star known to host more than four transiting exoplanets.
o Potential for More Discoveries: There is a possibility of additional planets within or beyond the
star’s temperate zone, though such observations have not yet been made.
o Learning Opportunity: The HD 110067 system presents a unique opportunity to study sub-
Neptunes and understand how such planetary systems form and evolve.

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 ISRO AND SVALBARD

The Norwegian Ambassador has paid a visit to the ISRO Chairman. The meeting concluded with
a mutual agreement on the importance of maintaining a continued partnership and fostering
increased engagements between India and Norway in the field of space exploration and
technology.
This visit offers an occasion to recall the challenging Svalbard mission which took place in 1997
at Ny-Alesund, Svalbard.
INDIA-NORWAY SVALBARD MISSION IN 1997
• In 1997, Scientists from Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) travelled to the Svalbard
Rocket Range.
• Antrix had signed an agreement with the Norwegian Space Centre for the sale of a Rohini RH-
300 Mk II Sounding Rocket.
• The RH-300 Mk-II was given a new name by the Norwegian Space Centre as
Isbjorn-1, which translates literally as ‘Polar Bear-I.’
• On the technical side, the Norway mission presented unique challenges for ISRO.
• The Rohini rockets had till then flown only in the tropical hot and humid conditions in India.
On the other hand, the Svalbard archipelago sits in the Arctic Ocean and temperatures
were on the extremely low side.
• ISRO had shipped the RH-300 Mk-II to Norway after qualifying it for arctic weather
conditions.
• However, the rocket, unfortunately, did not achieve the predicted height, rising only up to 71
km.
• The reason was a strange one. To keep the ambient temperature at 18 degrees Celsius, it was
kept covered with a velostat shroud. The idea was that it would pierce through the cover during
launch. Instead, the rocket dragged it along, and the increased drag resulted in a lower altitude.
• Velostat, also known as Linqstat, is a packaging material made of a polymeric foil
(polyolefins) impregnated with carbon black to make it somewhat electrically conductive. It is
used for the protection of items or devices that are susceptible to damage from
electrostatic discharge.
• Velostat is piezoresistive; its resistance changes with flexing or pressure.
• Nevertheless, the Norwegian scientists seemed quite happy with the launch for the data
collected during the flight led to some new findings.
Related information: Svalbard Seed Vault
• The vault — in the island of Spitsbergen, midway between Norway and the North
Pole — opened in 2008 and preserves seeds for several food varieties.
• The aim of the vault is to preserve a vast variety of crop seeds in the case of a
doomsday event, calamity, climate change or national emergency.
• The vault is artificially cooled at temperatures of minus 18 degrees Celsius.
• The low temperature and limited access to oxygen will ensure low metabolic activity and delay
seed ageing.
• The permafrost surrounding the facility will help maintain the low temperature of the seeds if
the electricity supply fails.

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 BETELGEUSE
Researchers from Japan and Switzerland have recently reported that Betelgeuse is in its late
carbon-burning stage.
In massive stars like Betelgeuse, the carbon-burning stage lasts only up to a few hundred
years, after which the star ‘dies’ and collapses into a supernova within a few months.
• Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star with a distinctive orange-red hue. Stars in this class
are nearing the end of their lives. It is easily spotted in the constellation Orion.
• A red giant forms after a star has run out of hydrogen fuel for nuclear fusion and has
begun the process of dying.
• Betelgeuse undergoes periodic expansion and contraction (similar to a boiling pot
releasing steam), causing variations in its brightness. By analyzing these pulsations,
researchers can infer the star’s current state.
• In Indian astronomy, Betelgeuse is called ‘Thiruvathirai’ or ‘Ardra’.
• Betelgeuse is about 640 light-years away.
• Betelgeuse is particularly easy to spot because of its brightness. It is often the tenth-brightest
star in the sky. (It can be much brighter or much dimmer at times).
• Betelgeuse is about 7,500 to 14,000 times brighter than the Sun.
LIFE CYCLE OF RED SUPERGIANT STAR
1. Massive stars like Betelgeuse run out of hydrogen fuel in only a few crore years, when they
switch to using helium to make carbon.
2. The energy released in the fusion of helium is less than that of hydrogen, so the star
burns more helium to stay stable and not collapse. The helium runs out in about ten lakh
years.
3. At this time, red giants like Betelgeuse burn carbon, then silicon, and briskly consume
one by one the elements of the periodic table, until finally their core brims with
iron– whose fusion requires more energy than it releases – and some cobalt and nickel.
4. Once the core is rich in iron, the temperature and pressure within the star drop. With nothing
to stop it, gravity compresses the core and turns it into a neutron star or a black hole.

 GRAVITATIONAL WAVES
o Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in space-time caused by some of the most violent and
energetic processes in the Universe.
o Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general
theory of relativity. Einstein's mathematics showed that massive accelerating objects (such
as neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other) would disrupt space-time in such a way
that 'waves' of undulating space-time would propagate in all directions away from the source.
These cosmic ripples would travel at the speed of light, carrying with them information about
their origins, as well as clues to the nature of gravity itself.
o The strongest gravitational waves are produced by cataclysmic events such as colliding black
holes, supernovae (massive stars exploding at the end of their lifetimes), and
colliding neutron stars. Other waves are predicted to be caused by the rotation of neutron
stars that are not perfect spheres, and possibly even the remnants of gravitational radiation
created by the Big Bang.

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o Though Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916, the first proof of their
existence didn't arrive until 1974, 20 years after his death. In that year, two astronomers using
the Arecibo Radio Observatory in Puerto Rico discovered a binary pulsar, exactly the type of
system that general relativity predicted should radiate gravitational waves. Knowing that this
discovery could be used to test Einstein's audacious prediction, astronomers began measuring
how the stars' orbits changed over time. After eight years of observations, they determined that
the stars were getting closer to each other at precisely the rate predicted by general relativity if
they were emitting gravitational waves. For a more detailed discussion of this discovery and
work, see Look Deeper.
o Since then, many astronomers have studied pulsar radio-emissions (pulsars are neutron
stars that emit beams of radio waves) and found similar effects, further confirming the
existence of gravitational waves. But these confirmations had always come indirectly or
mathematically and not through direct contact.
o All of this changed on September 14, 2015, when LIGO physically sensed the undulations in
spacetime caused by gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes 1.3 billion
light-years away. LIGO's discovery will go down in history as one of humanity's greatest
scientific achievements.
o While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely violent and destructive,
by the time the waves reach Earth they are thousands of billions of times smaller! In fact, by
the time gravitational waves from LIGO's first detection reached us, the amount of space-time
wobbling they generated was a 1000 times smaller than the nucleus of an atom! Such
inconceivably small measurements are what LIGO was designed to make.

 TYPES OF EARTH ORBITS

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 GEOSTATIONARY EARTH ORBIT

o It is also called Geosynchronous
Equatorial Orbit.
o It is a low inclination orbit.
o It makes satellites placed in it
appear ‘Stationary’. [Reason –
They have an orbital period that is
the same as the earth’s rotation
period. Hence, the
satellite/spacecraft returns to the
same point in the sky at the same
time each day.]
o Communication satellites are often placed in GEO. [Reason – This makes it easy for
Earth Antennas to track them without rotation]
o The GEO satellites are directly overhead at the Earth’s equator. [To an observer who
is near to the pole, these will appear lower in the sky.]
o ISRO’s Indian National Satellite System [INSAT] is placed in GEO. [It is one of the largest
domestic communication satellite systems in the Asia-Pacific region.]

 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)

o It is relatively closer to the Earth’s surface
than other orbits.
o The altitude from the earth’s surface
could be between 160 Km to 1000 Km.
o The satellites placed in LEO can have a
tilted plane.
o It is one of the commonly used orbits.
[Reason – The satellites placed in it have
more available routes as they don’t have to
follow a particular path around the Earth as the GEO]
o It is used for satellite imaging. [The images are of high resolution as the orbit is closer to
the surface of the earth.]
o The International Space Station (ISS) uses LEO [It makes travel of astronauts easier]
o It is used by remote sensing satellites.

 MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO)

o The orbit, altitude of which is between LEO and GEO, is known as Medium Earth
Orbit.
o It is also known as Intermediate Circular Orbit.
o It shares the similarity with LEO as the MEO satellites too do not have to track the path along
the earth’s equator.
o Navigation satellites and a number of artificial satellites are placed in MEO.

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o Global Positioning System (GPS) is placed in MEO (20200 Km)

o Communication satellites too can be placed here. (Example – O3b MEO Satellite Constellation)

 POLAR ORBIT AND SUN-SYNCHRONOUS

ORBIT (SSO)
o The SSO satellites travel past earth from north to south instead of west to east.
o These pass roughly over the earth’s poles.
o The altitude can go as low as 200 K however, mostly the satellites are placed
between 600-800 km.
o As the name suggests, the SSO satellites are in synchrony with the sun. [Meaning – The
position is ‘fixed’ relative to the sun.]
o SSO satellites always visit the same spot at the same local time as they are sun-
synchronous.
o It is used for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.

 GEOSTATIONARY TRANSFER ORBIT (GTO)

o The orbits are used by the satellites to travel from one orbit to another.
o It is a Hohmann Transfer Orbit between LEO and GSO.
o GTO provides satellites a halt [intermediate step] before they can be placed in their
destination orbit. This way, it uses relatively less energy from built-in motors.
o The launchers do not have to directly place a satellite into GEO. Instead, it can first make use
of GTO.
o It is a highly eccentric orbit. [Meaning – The path is elliptical]

 EARTH OBSERVING SATELLITE (EOS-01)

o It is an Earth observing satellite and shall play a crucial part in applications under
agriculture, disaster management, and forestry support
o The EOS-01 satellite is ISRO’s first space mission during the COVID-19 pandemic.
WHAT IS AN EARTH OBSERVING SATELLITE?
o A satellite which through space sends signals to Earth and monitors the changes
which occur on the Earth’s surface is called an Earth Observing Satellite (EOS).
o These satellites can only be used for non-military purposes and mainly for
environmental benefits
o The first EOS which was launched by ISRO was in the year 1988 and was named IRS-1A
o Currently, there are seventeen such remote sensing Indian satellites present in the orbit.
Thirteen of which are in Sun-synchronous orbit and the rest four are in Geostationary orbit
o Few of the important Earth Observing Satellites include: RISAT-2BR1, Cartosat Series,
SCATSAT-1, INSAT-3D, IMS, Bhaskara-I, and Bhaskara-II

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 DEPARTMENT OF SPACE
o With the setting up of Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962,
the space activities in the country were initiated.
o In the same year, the work on Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
near Thiruvananthapuram was also started.
o Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was established in August 1969.
o The Government of India constituted the Space Commission and established the
Department of Space (DOS) in June 1972 and brought ISRO under DOS in September
1972.
o The Department of Space (DOS) has the primary objective of promoting development and
application of space science and technology to assist in all-round development of the nation.
TOWARDS THIS, DOS HAS EVOLVED THE FOLLOWING PROGRAMMES:
o Launch Vehicle programme having indigenous capability for launching spacecrafts
o INSAT Programme for telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, development of
education etc.
o Remote Sensing Programme for application of satellite imagery for various developmental
purposes
o Research and Development in Space Sciences and Technology for serving the end of
applying them for national development
o The Space Commission formulates the policies and oversees the implementation
of the Indian space programme to promote the development and application of space science
and technology for the socio-economic benefit of the country.
DOS IMPLEMENTS THESE PROGRAMMES MAINLY THROUGH:

▪ Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

▪ Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)
▪ National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL)
▪ North Eastern-Space Applications Centre (NESAC)
▪ Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL)
▪ The Antrix Corporation, established in 1992 as a government owned company, markets the
space products and services.
The establishment of space systems and their applications are coordinated by the
national level committees, namely:
o INSAT Coordination Committee (ICC)
o Planning Committee on National Natural Resources Management System (PC-NNRMS)
o Advisory Committee of on Space Sciences (ADCOS)
ATTACHED AND SUBORDINATE OFFICES OF DOS
o U. R. Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bengaluru
o Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Bengaluru
AUTONOMOUS / APEX INSTITUTIONS

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NATIONAL ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH LABORATORY (NARL), TIRUPATI

o National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) is an autonomous research laboratory
fully funded by the Department of Space, Government of India and involved in carrying out
fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences.
o It had its humble beginning in 1992 as the National Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere
(MST) Radar Facility.
o Over the years several complementary techniques such as Rayleigh/Mie lidars, wind profilers
have been added.
NORTH EASTERN SPACE APPLICATIONS CENTRE (NESAC), SHILLONG
o The North Eastern Space Applications Centre (NESAC), a joint initiative of Department of
Space (DOS) and the North Eastern Council (NEC) is a society registered under the Meghalaya
Societies Registration Act, 1983.
o The Centre has provided more than 20 years of dedicated service to the eight states of North
Eastern Region (NER) of India using space science and technology.
SEMI-CONDUCTOR LABORATORY (SCL), MOHALI
o Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), an autonomous body under Department of Space,
Government of India, is engaged in Research & Development in the area of Microelectronics
to meet the strategic needs of the country.
o Formerly known as Semiconductor Complex Limited, a Government of India Enterprise,
which was converted into Semi-Conductor Laboratory under Department of Space,
Government of India w.e.f. September 1, 2006.
o SCL has integrated facilities / supporting infrastructure all under one roof and undertakes
activities focused on Design, Development, Fabrication, Assembly & Packaging, Testing and
Quality Assurance of CMOS and MEMS Devices for various applications.
o SCL is also engaged in Fabrication of Hi-Rel Boards, Radio Sonde Systems and indigenisation
of electronic sub systems.
SPACE PHYSICS LABORATORY (SPL), MOHALI
o The Space Physics Laboratory (SPL) at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) carries out
research and studies in atmospheric science and other related space science activities.
o Ammonium Perchlorate Experimental Plant (APEP) at Aluva in Kerala and the ISRO Inertial
Systems Unit (IISU) at Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala also form part of VSSC.
ACADEMIES / INSTITUTIONS (GRANT IN AID)
INDIAN CENTRE FOR SPACE PHYSICS (ICSP), KOLKATA
o Indian Centre for Space Physics (ICSP) is a premiere Research Institute dedicated to carry out
research in various challenging branches of Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science.
o It is a Government aided institution, but majority of the research fund comes from projects
from National and International funding agencies.
o Major projects are from ISRO and DST.
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING (IIRS), DEHRADUN
o Formerly known as Indian Photo-interpretation Institute (IPI), the Institute was founded on
21st April 1966 under the aegis of Survey of India (SOI).
o It was established with the collaboration of the Government of The Netherlands on the pattern
of Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC) of the University of

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Twente, formerly known as International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences,
The Netherlands.
o The original idea of setting the Institute came from India's first Prime Minister Pandit Jawahar
Lal Nehru during his visit to The Netherlands in 1957.
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (IIST),
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
o Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), situated at Thiruvananthapuram is a
Deemed to be University under Section 3 of the UGC Act 1956.
o IIST functions as an autonomous body under the Department of Space, Government of
India.
o The idea of such an institute was mooted keeping in mind the need for high quality manpower
for the Indian Space Research Organization, one of world’s leading scientific organizations
engaged in space research and space applications.
o The institute is the first of its kind in the country, to offer high quality education at the
undergraduate, graduate, doctoral and post-doctoral levels on areas with special focus to space
sciences, space technology and space applications.
PHYSICAL RESEARCH LABORATORY (PRL), AHMEDABAD
o Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), founded in 1947 by Dr. Vikram A. Sarabhai, is a premier
scientific institution under the Department of Space, Government of India.
o The laboratory started with its focus on research areas of Astronomy and Cosmic Rays. In
course of time, several new disciplines were added to its research theme.
o The current research activities of PRL are truly of multi-disciplinary nature at the cutting edge
of science. These include Astronomy and Astrophysics, Space and Atmospheric Sciences, Solar
Physics, Geosciences, Planetary Science, Atomic, Molecular & Optical Physics, Theoretical
Physics & Cosmology.
o PRL currently has four campuses: the main campus at Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, with several
world-class experimental and computing facilities; many leading laboratories in Thaltej
campus, Ahmedabad; Optical and Infrared Observatory at Mount Abu, and Udaipur Solar
Observatory at Udaipur.

 KESSLER SYNDROME
o In 1978, the NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler proposed that a chain reaction of
exploding space debris can end up making space activities and the use of satellites impossible
for generations.
o He predicted that the number of objects that we keep launching into Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
can create such a dense environment above the planet that inevitable collisions could cause a
cascading effect. The space junk and shrapnel generated by one collision could make further
collisions much more possible. And if you have enough collisions, the amount of space debris
could overwhelm the orbital space entirely.
o What makes that situation possible is the fact that there are millions of micrometeoroids as
well as man-made debris that is already orbiting Earth. The danger posed by even a small
fragment that’s traveling at high speeds is easy to see. As calculated by NASA, a 1-centimeter
“paint fleck” traveling at 10km/s (22,000 mph) can cause the same damage as a 550-pound
object traveling 60 miles per hour on Earth. If the size of the shard was increased to 10
centimeters, such a projectile would have the force of 7 kilograms of TNT. Now imagine
thousands of such objects flying around at breakneck speeds and crashing into each other.

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o If a chain reaction of exploding space junk did occur, filling the orbital area with such
dangerous debris, the space program would indeed be in jeopardy. Travel that goes beyond the
LEO, like the planned mission to Mars, would be made more challenging but still conceivably
possible.
o What would, of course, be affected if the Kessler Syndrome’s worst predictions came to pass,
are all the services that rely on satellites. Core aspects of our modern life—GPS, television,
military and scientific research—all of that would be under threat.
o NASA experienced a small-scale Kessler Syndrome incident in the 1970s when Delta rockets
that were left in orbit started to explode into shrapnel clouds. This inspired Kessler, an
astrophysicist, to show that there is a point when the amount of debris in an orbit gets to critical
mass. At that point, the collision cascading would start even if no more things are launched
into space. And once the chain of explosions begins, it can keep going until the orbital space
can no longer be used.
o NASA says that its experts caution that we are already at critical mass in the low-Earth orbit,
which is about 560-620 miles (900 to 1,000 kilometers) out.
o According to NASA estimates, the Earth’s orbit currently has 500,000 pieces of space debris
up to 10cm long, over 21,000 pieces of debris longer than 10cm, and more than 100 million
pieces of space debris smaller than 1cm.

 SPACE SUSTAINABILITY
WHAT DOES SUSTAINABILITY IN OUTER SPACE MEAN?
o The earth’s orbital environment has more than tripled in the past decade. As the cost
of missions reduce and the number of players increase, the complexity of missions and slot
allotment issues also increase.
o With the emergence of large constellations and complex satellites, there is a risk of collisions
and interference with radio frequencies.
o As the outer space is considered a shared natural resource, the United Nations Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 2019 adopted a set of 21 voluntary,
non-binding guidelines to ensure the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.
o One of the hot issues when it comes to space sustainability is orbital crowding.
o It poses a direct threat to the operations and safety of a mission and is likely to cause legal and
insurance-related conflicts. Space debris is another prominent issue.
o After the completion of a mission, an ‘end-of-life protocol’ requires space objects to be
moved to the graveyard orbit or to a low altitude. Neither of the options are sustainable in the
long run.
o Other causes of concern are solar and magnetic storms which potentially damage
communication systems. Such space weather threats need to be addressed along with the
efforts to identify the terrestrial carbon footprint of outer space missions.
o Long-term sustainability looks toward space research and development of
technology to ensure the reuse and recycling of satellites at every stage. The U.K. plan
proposes active debris removal and in-orbit servicing.
U.K. PLAN FOR SPACE SUSTAINABILITY
o The U.K. calls for an “Astro Carta” for space sustainability, based on the Artemis Accords
model for sustainable space exploration.
o The U.K. Space Sustainability plan mentions four primary elements:
▪ to review the regulatory framework of the U.K.’s orbital activity;

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▪ to work with organisations such as the G-7 and the UN to emphasise international engagement
on space sustainability;
▪ to try and develop safety and quality-related metrics that quantify the sustainability of
activities; and,
▪ to induce additional funding of $6.1 million on active debris removal.
o The U.K. also confirmed investments in its National Space Surveillance and Tracking
Programme, which works on collision assessment services for U.K.-licenced satellite operators.
o Post-Brexit, the U.K. space programme has been transformed. It now hopes to drive the
sustainability factor internationally and provide an opportunity for the private sector to
develop models that enhance operations' safety and reduce debris footprint.
o The U.K. aims to draw investments not only from government investors but also from
others.
WHERE DOES INDIA STAND ON SPACE SUSTAINABILITY?
o The headquarters of the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre
(In-SPACe) was formally inaugurated.
o One can expect an increased role of the private sector in India’s space activities.
o India hosts promising start-ups like Agnikul and Skyroot, which are developing launch
vehicles for small payloads and Dhruva Space, which works on high-tech solar panels for
satellites and satellite deployers.
o India is well on its way to create a subsystem that addresses global sustainability questions.
o The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has initiated ‘Project NETRA’ to monitor
space debris. The domestic surveillance system would provide first-hand information on the
status of debris, which would aid further planning on protecting space assets.
o In April 2022, India and the U.S. signed a new pact for monitoring space objects at the
2+2 dialogue. The controlled anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) tests and the risk of
collisions must be collectively addressed.
o To provide in-orbit servicing, ISRO is developing a docking experiment called ‘SPADEX’. It
looks at docking a satellite on an existing satellite, offering support in re-fuelling and other in-
orbit services while enhancing the capability of a satellite.
WAY FORWARD
o Outer space in the 2020s can no longer be considered a ‘space race’ because of the cost, when
compared to the beginning of this century.
o Today, any entity (government or private) with the necessary access to resources and
technology can invest in outer space. Sustainable practices in outer space would directly help
reduce orbital crowding and collision risk while nurturing future technologies.
o As the natural course of evolution, the Plan for Space Sustainability, which includes private
industries, is a timely move. This would serve as a model for other space programmes.
o However, the broad question of sustainability cannot be driven by one country/entity alone.
While most National Space Programs set sustainability standards, a collective effort by all
space players, with the active role of the UN COPUOS or the United Nations Office for
Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), is needed to set equitable standards for the ease of
activities. Many of the measures for sustainability are resource-consuming and expensive for
medium-and-small space programs. In this case, private initiatives of sustainability standards
would make accessibility more challenging, giving undue advantage to programs with stable
investments.
o The UK’s Astro Carta idea throws light on the need for addressing the principles and rules
that guide the activities of entities in outer space.

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o More clarity is required to know the exact framework and guiding principles of the Astro Carta
to determine the path it intends to take.
o India has always emphasised cost-effective and efficient missions with problem-solving
applications.
o Its debris footprint is minuscule; it has 114 debris among the 25,182 pieces, of sizes larger than
10 cm, in the lower earth orbits. The emerging private sector could be encouraged with a set of
sustainability guidelines to ensure optimum utilisation of resources and increase the safety and
productivity of missions.

 ASTEROID 16 PSYCHE
o A recent study has found that asteroid 16 Psyche, which orbits between Mars and
Jupiter, could be made entirely of metal and is worth an estimated $10,000 quadrillion —
more than the entire economy of Earth.
o Scientists believe that the asteroid may be the leftover core of an earlier planet that lost its crust
and mantle after multiple collisions during the creation of our solar system.
WHAT IS ASTEROID 16 PSYCHE?
o Located around 370 million kilometres away from Earth, asteroid 16 Psyche is one of the most
massive objects in the asteroid belt in our solar system. The somewhat potato-shaped asteroid
has a diameter of around 140 miles, according to NASA.
o It was first discovered on March 17, 1853, by the Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis and
was named after the ancient Greek goddess of the soul, Psyche.
o Unlike most asteroids that are made up of rocks or ice, scientists believe that Psyche is a dense
and largely metallic object thought to be the core of an earlier planet that failed in formation.
o Metal asteroids are not commonly found in the solar system, and scientists believe that
studying 16 Psyche may offer a rare glimpse of what the inside of a planet really looks like.
WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT NASA’S PSYCHE MISSION?
o Scientists will only learn about the true composition of asteroid 16 Psyche if it is studied up
close. NASA plans to do just that two years from now, when it will launch a SpaceX Falcon
Heavy rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida to orbit the asteroid for around
21 months.
o The unmanned spacecraft will reach the asteroid in January, 2026. The first objective of the
mission is to capture a photograph of the metallic asteroid, after which the spacecraft will study
and map it from a distance.
o Another objective of the mission is to determine whether the asteroid is, in fact, the core of an
earlier planet or if it is merely made up of unmelted material. Based on the data collected,
scientists will also ascertain the age and origins of the mammoth metallic asteroid.
o The mission was originally slated to take place in 2023, but was later moved up to 2022.

 CHANDRAYAAN 3
• Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 to demonstrate end-to-end
capability in safe landing and roving on the lunar surface.

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• Chandrayaan-3 consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module

(PM) and a Rover with an objective of developing and demonstrating new technologies
required for Inter planetary missions.
• The Lander will have the capability to soft land at a specified lunar site and deploy
the Rover which will carry out in-situ chemical analysis of the lunar surface during the
course of its mobility.
• The Lander and the Rover have scientific payloads to carry out experiments on the
lunar surface.
• The main function of PM is to carry the LM from launch vehicle injection till final lunar 100
km circular polar orbit and separate the LM from PM.
• Apart from this, the Propulsion Module also has one scientific payload as a value addition
which will be operated post separation of Lander Module.
• The propulsion module has Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE)
payload to study the spectral and Polari metric measurements of Earth from the lunar orbit.
• Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to
measure the thermal conductivity and temperature;
• Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) for measuring the
Lander seismicity around the landing site;
payloads • Langmuir Probe (LP) to estimate the plasma density and its
variations.
• A passive Laser Retroreflector Array from NASA is accommodated for
lunar laser ranging studies.

Rover • Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) and Laser Induced

payloads Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS) for deriving the elemental
composition in the vicinity of landing site.
• Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3) (previously known as GSLV-MK III) is a three-stage
launch vehicle consisting of two solid propellants strap-ons on its sides and a core
stage comprising L110 liquid stage and C25 cryogenic stage.

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INDIA AND SPACE SCIENCE

 LAUNCH VEHICLES
o Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
o India has two operational launchers: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
o GSLV with indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage has enabled the launching up to 2 tonne class
of communication satellites. The next variant of GSLV is GSLV Mk III, with indigenous
high thrust cryogenic engine and stage, having the capability of launching 4 tonne class
of communication satellites.
o In order to achieve high accuracy in placing satellites into their orbits, a combination of
accuracy, efficiency, power and immaculate planning are required.
o ISRO's Launch Vehicle Programme spans numerous centres.
o Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, located in Thiruvananthapuram, is responsible for the
design and development of launch vehicles.
o Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre and ISRO Propulsion Complex, located at
Valiamala and Mahendragiri respectively, develop the liquid and cryogenic stages for these
launch vehicles.
o Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR, is the space port of India and is responsible for
integration of launchers. It houses two operational launch pads from where all GSLV and PSLV
flights take place.

 SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE-3 (SLV-3)

o SLV-3 was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle, which was an all solid,
four stage vehicle weighing 17 tonnes with a height of 22m and capable of placing 40 kg
class payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
o SLV-3 was successfully launched on July 18, 1980 from Sriharikota Range (SHAR), when
Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit, thereby making India the sixth member of an
exclusive club of space-faring nations.
o SLV-3 employed an open loop guidance (with stored pitch programme) to steer the vehicle
in flight along a pre-determined trajectory. The first experimental flight of SLV-3, in August
1979, was only partially successful. Apart from the July 1980 launch, there were two more
launches held in May 1981 and April 1983, orbiting Rohini satellites carrying remote sensing
sensors.
o The successful culmination of the SLV-3 project showed the way to advanced launch vehicle
projects such as the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

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 AUGMENTED SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE

(ASLV)
o With a lift off weight of 40 tonnes, the 24 m tall ASLV was configured as a five stage, all-
solid propellant vehicle, with a mission of orbiting 150 kg class satellites into 400 km
circular orbits.
o The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Programme was designed to augment the
payload capacity to 150 kg, thrice that of SLV-3, for Low Earth Orbits (LEO). While
building upon the experience gained from the SLV-3 missions, ASLV proved to be a low cost
intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and validate critical technologies, that would be needed
for the future launch vehicles like strap-on technology, inertial navigation, bulbous heat shield,
vertical integration and closed loop guidance.
o Under the ASLV programme four developmental flights were conducted. The first
developmental flight took place on March 24, 1987 and the second on July 13, 1988. The third
developmental flight, ASLV-D3 was successfully launched on May 20, 1992, when SROSS-C
(106 kg) was put into an orbit of 255 x 430 km.
o ASLV-D4, launched on May 4, 1994, orbited SROSS-C2 weighing 106 kg. It had two payloads,
Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) Experiment and Retarding Potentio Analyser (RPA) and
functioned for seven years.

 POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (PSLV)

o Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of India.
o It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages. After its first
successful launch in October 1994, PSLV emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse
launch vehicle of India with 39 consecutively successful missions by June 2017. During 1994-
2017 period, the vehicle has launched 48 Indian satellites and 209 satellites for customers from
abroad.
o Besides, the vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft – Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and
Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013 – that later traveled to Moon and Mars respectively.
o PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various
satellites to Low Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS series of satellites. It can take up to 1,750
kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km altitude.
o Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS constellation.
o Fourth Stage: PS4- The PS4 is the uppermost stage of PSLV, comprising of two Earth storable
liquid engines.
o Third Stage: PS3- The third stage of PSLV is a solid rocket motor that provides the upper
stages high thrust after the atmospheric phase of the launch.
o Second Stage: PS2- PSLV uses an Earth storable liquid rocket engine for its second stage,
known as the Vikas engine, developed by Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
o First Stage: PS1-PSLV uses the S139 solid rocket motor that is augmented by 6 solid strap-
on boosters.
o Strap-on Motors: PSLV uses 6 solid rocket strap-on motors to augment the thrust provided
by the first stage in its PSLV-G and PSLV-XL variants. However, strap-ons are not used in the
core alone version (PSLV-CA).

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 GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH

VEHICLE (GSLV)
o Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the largest launch
vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
o This fourth generation launch vehicle is a three stage vehicle with four liquid
strap-ons. The indigenously developed cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), which is flight proven,
forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
o Payload to GTO: 2,500 kg- GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication
satellites that operate from Geostationary orbits and hence are placed in
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
o Payload to LEO: 5,000 kg-Further, GSLV's capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in Low Earth
Orbits broadens the scope of payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
o Third Stage: CUS- Developed under the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP), the CE-7.5
is India's first cryogenic engine, developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre. CE-7.5
has a staged combustion operating cycle.
o Second Stage: GS2-One Vikas engine is used in the second stage of GSLV. The stage was
derived from the PS2 of PSLV where the Vikas engine has proved its reliability.
o First Stage: GS1-The first stage of GSLV was also derived from the PSLV's PS1. The 138 tonne
solid rocket motor is augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons.
o Strap-on Motors: The four liquid engine strap-ons used in GSLV are heavier derivatives of
PSLV's PS2, and use one Vikas engine each.

 GSLV Mk III
o GSLV MkIII, chosen to launch Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft, is a three-stage heavy lift
launch vehicle developed by ISRO. The vehicle has two solid strap-ons, a core liquid
booster and a cryogenic upper stage.
o GSLV Mk III is designed to carry 4 ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the
capability of the GSLV Mk II.
o The two strap-on motors of GSLV Mk III are located on either side of its core liquid booster.
Designated as ‘S200’, each carries 205 tons of composite solid propellant and their ignition
results in vehicle lift-off. S200s function for 140 seconds.
o During strap-ons functioning phase, the two clustered Vikas liquid Engines of L110 liquid core
booster will ignite 114 sec after lift -off to further augment the thrust of the vehicle. These two
engines continue to function after the separation of the strap-ons at about 140 seconds after
lift -off.
o The first experimental flight of LVM3, the LVM3-X/CARE mission lifted off from Sriharikota
on December 18, 2014 and successfully tested the atmospheric phase of flight. Crew module
Atmospheric Reentry Experiment was also carried out in this flight. The module reentered,
deployed its parachutes as planned and splashed down in the Bay of Bengal.
o The first developmental flight of GSLV Mk III, the GSLV-Mk III-D1 successfully placed
GSAT-19 satellite to a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) on June 05, 2017 from
SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.

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o GSLV MkIII-D2, the second developmental flight of GSLV MkIII successfully launched GSAT-
29, a high throughput communication satellite on November 14, 2018 from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota
o GSLV MkIII-M1, successfully injected Chandrayaan-2, India’s second Lunar Mission, in to
Earth Parking Orbit on July 22, 2019 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
o Payload to GTO: 4,000 kg- GSLV Mk III will be capable of placing the 4 tonne class satellites
of the GSAT series into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.
o Payload to LEO: 8,000 kg- The powerful cryogenic stage of GSLV Mk III enables it to place
heavy payloads into Low Earth Orbits of 600 km altitude.
o Cryogenic Upper Stage : C25- The C25 is powered by CE-20, India's largest cryogenic
engine, designed and developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
o Solid Rocket Boosters : S200- GSLV Mk III uses two S200 solid rocket boosters to provide
the huge amount of thrust required for lift off. The S200 was developed at Vikram Sarabhai
Space Centre.
o Core Stage : L110 Liquid Stage- The L110 liquid stage is powered by two Vikas engines
designed and developed at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.

 SOUNDING ROCKETS
o Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the
upper atmospheric regions and for space research.
o They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new
components or subsystems intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.
o With the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
in 1963 at Thumba, a location close to the magnetic equator, there was a quantum jump in
the scope for aeronomy and atmospheric sciences in India.
o The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala on 21 November 1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme .
Sounding rockets made it possible to probe the atmosphere in situ using rocket-borne
instrumentation.
o The first rockets were two-stage rockets imported from Russia (M-100) and France (Centaure).
While the M-100 could carry a payload of 70 kg to an altitude of 85 km, the Centaure was
capable of reaching 150 km with a payload of approximately 30 kg.
o ISRO started launching indigenously made sounding rockets from 1965 and experience gained
was of immense value in the mastering of solid propellant technology. In 1975, all sounding
rocket activities were consolidated under the Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) Programme. RH-
75, with a diameter of 75mm was the first truly Indian sounding rocket, which was followed by
RH-100 and RH-125 rockets. The sounding rocket programme was the bedrock on which the
edifice of launch vehicle technology in ISRO could be built. It is possible to conduct coordinated
campaigns by simultaneously launching sounding rockets from different locations. It is also
possible to launch several sounding rockets in a single day.

 REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE –

TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATOR (RLV-TD)
o RLV-TD is one of the most technologically challenging endeavours of ISRO towards developing
essential technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low cost access to space.

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o The configuration of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the

complexity of both launch vehicles and aircraft. The winged RLV-TD has been
configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely, hypersonic flight,
autonomous landing and powered cruise flight. In future, this vehicle will be scaled up to
become the first stage of India’s reusable two stage orbital launch vehicle.
o RLV-TD consists of a fuselage (body), a nose cap, double delta wings and twin
vertical tails. It also features symmetrically placed active control surfaces called Elevons
and Rudder.
o This technology demonstrator was boosted to Mach no: 5 by a conventional solid booster (HS9)
designed for low burn rate.
o The selection of materials like special alloys, composites and insulation materials for
developing an RLV-TD and the crafting of its parts is very complex and demands highly skilled
manpower. Many high technology machinery and test equipment were utilised for building
this vehicle.
OBJECTIVES OF RLV-TD:

▪ Hypersonic aero thermodynamic characterisation of wing body

▪ Evaluation of autonomous Navigation, Guidance and Control (NGC) schemes
▪ Integrated flight management
▪ Thermal Protection System Evaluation
RLV-TD was successfully flight tested in 2016 from SDSC SHAR Sriharikota validating the
critical technologies such as autonomous navigation, guidance & control, reusable thermal
protection system and re-entry mission management.

 SCRAMJET ENGINE - TD
o The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine towards the realisation of an Air
Breathing Propulsion System was successfully conducted in 2016 from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota.
o After a flight of about 300 seconds, the vehicle touched down in the Bay of Bengal,
approximately 320 km from Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully tracked during its flight
from the ground stations at Sriharikota. With this flight, critical technologies such as ignition
of air breathing engines at supersonic speed, holding the flame at supersonic speed, air intake
mechanism and fuel injection systems have been successfully demonstrated.
o The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from
the atmospheric air as the oxidiser. This test was the maiden short duration experimental
test of ISRO’s Scramjet engine with a hypersonic flight at Mach 6.
o ISRO’s Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), which is an advanced sounding rocket, was the
solid rocket booster used for the test of Scramjet engines at supersonic conditions. ATV
carrying Scramjet engines weighed 3277 kg at lift-off.

 COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
o The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic
communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication
satellites placed in Geo-stationary orbit.

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o Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution

in India’s communications sector and sustained the same later.
o GSAT-17 joins the constellation of INSAT System consisting 15 operational satellites, namely
- INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR and GSAT-6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18.
o The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands
provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering,
societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.

 EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES

o Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing
satellites. Today, India has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in
operation.
o Currently, *thirteen* operational satellites are in Sun-synchronous orbit –
RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-
Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1, and *four* in Geostationary orbit- INSAT-3D, Kalpana
& INSAT 3A, INSAT -3DR.
o Varieties of instruments have been flown onboard these satellites to provide necessary data in
a diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to different user requirements
in the country and for global usage.
o The data from these satellites are used for several applications covering agriculture, water
resources, urban planning, rural development, mineral prospecting,
environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster management.

 ASTROSAT
o AstroSat is the first dedicated Indian astronomy mission aimed at studying celestial
sources in X-ray, optical and UV spectral bands simultaneously.
o The payloads cover the energy bands of Ultraviolet (Near and For), limited optical and X-ray
regime (0.3 keV to 100keV).
o One of the unique features of AstroSat mission is that it enables the simultaneous multi-
wavelength observations of various astronomical objects with a single satellite.
o AstroSat with a lift-off mass of 1515 kg was launched on September 28, 2015 into a 650 km
orbit inclined at an angle of 6 deg to the equator by PSLV-C30 from Satish Dhawan Space
Centre, Sriharikota.
o The minimum useful life of the AstroSat mission is expected to be 5 years.

 MARS ORBITER MISSION

o Mars Orbiter Mission is ISRO’s first interplanetary mission to planet Mars with an
orbiter craft designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical orbit of 372 km by 80,000 km.
o Mars Orbiter mission can be termed as a challenging technological mission and a science
mission considering the critical mission operations and stringent requirements on propulsion,
communications and other bus systems of the spacecraft.
o The primary driving technological objective of the mission is to design and realize a spacecraft
with a capability to perform Earth Bound Manoeuvre (EBM), Martian Transfer

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Trajectory (MTT) and Mars Orbit Insertion (MOI) phases and the related deep space
mission planning and communication management at a distance of nearly 400 million Km.
Autonomous fault detection and recovery also becomes vital for the mission.

 SATELLITE NAVIGATION
o Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial and
strategic applications.
o ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based Navigation services to meet the emerging
demands of the Civil Aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the
positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system.
o To meet the Civil Aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority
of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
system.
o To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the
indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
GPS AIDED GEO AUGMENTED NAVIGATION (GAGAN):
o This is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with Airport
Authority of India (AAI).
o The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy
and integrity required for civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic
Management over Indian Airspace.
o The system will be interoperable with other international SBAS systems and provide seamless
navigation across regional boundaries.
o The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.
INDIAN REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (IRNSS) : NAVIC
o This is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning system for critical National
applications.
o The main objective is to provide Reliable Position, Navigation and Timing services over India
and its neighbourhood, to provide fairly good accuracy to the user.
o The IRNSS will provide basically two types of services
▪ Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
▪ Restricted Service (RS)
o To date, ISRO has built a total of nine satellites in the IRNSS series; of which eight are currently
in orbit.
o Three of these satellites are in geostationary orbit (GEO) while the remaining in
geosynchronous orbits (GSO) that maintain an inclination of 29° to the equatorial plane.
o The IRNSS constellation was named as “NavIC” (Navigation with Indian Constellation)
and it was dedicated to the nation on the occasion of the successful launch of the IRNSS-1G
satellite.
o The eight operational satellites in the IRNSS series, namely IRNSS-1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 1G
and 1I were launched on Jul 02, 2013; Apr 04, 2014; Oct 16, 2014; Mar 28, 2015; Jan 20,
2016; Mar 10, 2016, Apr 28, 2016; and Apr 12, 2018 respectively.

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 SMALL SATELLITES
The small satellite project is envisaged to provide platform for stand-alone payloads for earth
imaging and science missions within a quick turn around time. For making the versatile platform
for different kinds of payloads, two kinds of buses have been configured and developed.
INDIAN MINI SATELLITE -1 (IMS-1)
o IMS-1 bus has been developed as a versatile bus of 100 kg class which includes a payload
capability of around 30 kg. The bus has been developed using various miniaturization
techniques.
o The first mission of the IMS-1 series was launched successfully on April 28th 2008 as a co-
passenger along with Cartosat 2A. Youthsat is second mission in this series and was launched
successfully along with Resourcesat 2 in 2011.
INDIAN MINI SATELLITE -2 (IMS-2) BUS
o IMS-2 Bus is evolved as a standard bus of 400 kg class which includes a payload capability of
around 200kg.
o IMS-2 development is an important milestone as it is envisaged to be a work horse for different
types of remote sensing applications.
o The first mission of IMS-2 is SARAL.
o SARAL is a co-operative mission between ISRO and CNES with payloads from CNES and
spacecraft bus from ISRO.

 GAGANYAAN
o The Gaganyaan Programme envisages undertaking the demonstration of human spaceflight to
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) in the short-term and will lay the foundation for a sustained Indian
human space exploration programme in the long run.
o The objective of Gaganyaan programme is to demonstrate indigenous capability to undertake
human space flight mission to LEO.
o As part of this programme, two unmanned missions and one manned mission are approved by
Government of India (GoI).
LIKELY BENEFITS
The Human spaceflight programme has both tangible and intangible benefits for the nation,
which includes:
1. Progress towards a sustained and affordable human and robotic programme to explore the
solar system and beyond.
2. Advanced technology capability for undertaking human space exploration, sample return
missions and scientific exploration.
3. Future capability to actively collaborate in global space station development & to carry out
scientific experiments of interest to the nation.
4. Create a broad frame work for wider Academia – Industry partnership in taking up
development activities for national development.
5. Ample scope for employment generation and human resource development in advanced
science and R&D activities.

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6. Unique opportunity to inspire and excite Indian youth and steer many students toward careers
in science and technology towards challenging jobs that encourage knowledge, innovation and
creativity.
7. The programme will strengthen international partnerships and global security through the
sharing of challenging and peaceful goals. Having a vibrant human spaceflight programme can
be leveraged as a potent foreign policy tool.
The major new technologies required for Gaganyaan programme are as follows:
o Human rated launch vehicle
o Crew escape systems
o Habitable orbital module
o Life support system
o Crew selection and training and associated crew management activities

 GSLV F10 and EOS-03

o A technical anomaly preventing the ignition of the GSLV-F10 rocket’s cryogenic upper
stage and ISRO could not accomplish the mission to launch earth observation satellite EOS-
03 into the intended orbit.
o GSLV-F10 was ISRO’s eighth flight with indigenous cryo, 14th GSLV flight and 79th
launch from Sriharikota.
o EOS-03, intended to be positioned in the geostationary transfer orbit initially, was supposed
to reach the final geostationary orbit.
o It was expected to provide near real-time imaging of a large area of interest at frequent
intervals, which could be used for quick monitoring of natural disasters, episodic events and
any short-term events. The mission life of the satellite was 10 years.
KNOW ABOUT GSLV
o Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the largest launch
vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
o This fourth generation launch vehicle is a three stage vehicle with four liquid
strap-ons. The indigenously developed cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), which is flight proven,
forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
o Payload to GTO: 2,500 kg- GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication
satellites that operate from Geostationary orbits and hence are placed in
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
o Payload to LEO: 5,000 kg-Further, GSLV's capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in Low Earth
Orbits broadens the scope of payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
o Third Stage: CUS- Developed under the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP), the CE-7.5
is India's first cryogenic engine, developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre. CE-7.5
has a staged combustion operating cycle.
o Second Stage: GS2-One Vikas engine is used in the second stage of GSLV. The stage was
derived from the PS2 of PSLV where the Vikas engine has proved its reliability.
o First Stage: GS1-The first stage of GSLV was also derived from the PSLV's PS1. The 138 tonne
solid rocket motor is augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons.
o Strap-on Motors: The four liquid engine strap-ons used in GSLV are heavier derivatives of
PSLV's PS2, and use one Vikas engine each.

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 INDIAN SPACE ASSOCIATION (ISpA)

Indian Space Association (ISpA) is an industry body consisting of various stakeholders of
the Indian space domain.
The members of the organisation include government bodies such as Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and private telecom companies such as Bharti Airtel’s One Web, Tata
Group’s Nelcom, L&T, MapMyIndia, and others.
WHY IS THE FORMATION OF ISPA SIGNIFICANT?
o Ever since the race to reach the space and then land on the Moon began between the US and
the erstwhile USSR, governments across the world have poured millions of dollars to push the
envelope in term of exploring the edges of the space. With time, governments and government
agencies collaborated to explore newer planets and galaxies in search of life forms that exist
outside Earth.
o In the recent past, private sector companies such as Elon Musk’s SpaceX, Richard
Branson’s Virgin Galactic, and Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin have taken the lead in
spaceflight, promising to start tourist flights to space.
o Though India too has made significant strides in space exploration over time, state-run ISRO
has been at the centre and front of this progress. Several private sector companies, however,
have shown an interest in India’s space domain, with space-based communication networks
coming to the fore.
WHAT DOES ISPA AIM TO ACHIEVE?
o One of the main goals of the organisation is to supplement the government’s efforts
towards making India a global leader in commercial space-based excursions. Of
late, ISRO’s rockets have been carrying the payload and communication satellites of various
countries; now, private players will also look to broach this space with the new organisation.
o ISpA said it would engage with stakeholders across the ecosystem for the
formulation of an enabling policy framework which fulfils the government vision of
leading commercial space exploration.
o ISpA will also work towards building global linkages for the Indian space industry
to bring in critical technology and investments into the country to create more high skill jobs.
WHO ARE THE STAKEHOLDERS IN THIS ORGANISATION? HOW WILL THEY
CONTRIBUTE?
o ISpA will be represented by leading domestic and global corporations that have advanced
capabilities in space and satellite technologies.
o The founding members include telecom service providers such as Bharti Airtel, engineering
firm Larson & Toubro, and other companies such as Nelco of Tata Group, OneWeb,
Mapmyindia, Walchandnagar Industries and Alpha Design Technologies.
o Other core members include Godrej, Hughes India, Ananth Technology Limited, Azista-BST
Aerospace Private Limited, BEL, Centum Electronics, and Maxar India.
o In India, the space-based communications network has taken off with several Indian and
international companies betting on it as the next frontier to provide high-speed and affordable
Internet connectivity to inaccessible areas as well. This includes SpaceX’s StarLink, Sunil
Bharti Mittal’s OneWeb, Amazon’s Project Kuiper, US satellite maker Hughes
Communications, etc.

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o OneWeb, for example, is building its initial constellation of 648 low-earth orbit satellites and
has already put 322 satellites into orbit. Its services are expected to begin this year to the Arctic
region including Alaska, Canada, and the UK. By late 2022, OneWeb will offer its high-speed,
low latency connectivity services in India and the rest of the world.
o In addition, StarLink and Amazon are also in discussion with the Indian government for a
licence to offer satellite-based Internet services. SpaceX has a plan to create a network of
12,000 satellites of which over 1,300 are already sky-borne.
WHY IS SATELLITE-BASED INTERNET IMPORTANT IN INDIA?
o The expansion of the Internet in India is crucial to the government’s dream of a digital India
where a majority of government services are delivered directly to the customer. Although the
government aims to connect all villages and gram panchayats with high-speed Internet over
the next 1000 days through BharatNet, internet connectivity in hilly areas and far-flung places
of Northeast India are still a challenge.
o To overcome this, industry experts suggest that satellite Internet will be essential for
broadband inclusion in remote areas and sparsely populated locations where terrestrial
networks have not reached. As of now, however, satellite communications remains limited to
use by corporates and institutions that use it for emergency use, critical trans-continental
communications and for connecting to remote areas with no connectivity.
o As of August this year, India had only 3 lakh satellite communications customers, compared
with 45 lakh in the US and 21 lakh in the European Union.

 NASA TO DECOMMISSION ISS

o The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has announced plans to retire
and decommission the International Space Station (ISS) by 2031.
o NASA plans to remove the ISS from its orbit around the earth and eventually plunge it into
the ocean at a point farthest from human civilisation.
ABOUT ISS
o The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite)
in low Earth orbit.
o It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies: NASA
(United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA
(Canada).
o Originally called Freedom in the 1980s by U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan, who authorized the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to build it within 10 years, it was
redesigned in the 1990s to reduce costs and expand international involvement, at which time
it was renamed.
o In 1993, the United States and Russia agreed to merge their separate space station plans into
a single facility, integrating their respective modules and incorporating contributions from the
European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan.
o Assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) began with the launches of the Russian
control module Zarya on November 20, 1998, and the U.S.-built Unity connecting
node the following month, which were linked in orbit by U.S. space shuttle astronauts.
o In mid-2000 the Russian-built module Zvezda, a habitat and control centre, was added, and in
November of that year the ISS received its first resident crew, comprising Russian cosmonauts
Sergey Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko and American astronaut William Shepherd, who flew up in
a Soyuz spacecraft.

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o A NASA microgravity laboratory called Destiny and other elements were subsequently joined
to the station, with the overall plan calling for the assembly, over a period of several years, of a
complex of laboratories and habitats crossed by a long truss supporting four units that held
large solar-power arrays and thermal radiators.
o Much of the early research work by ISS astronauts was to focus on long-term life-sciences and
material-sciences investigations in the weightless environment.
o The ISS became fully operational in May 2009 when it began hosting a six-person crew;
this required two Soyuz lifeboats to be docked with the ISS at all times. The six-person crew
typically consisted of three Russians, two Americans, and one astronaut from either Japan,
Canada, or the ESA.
o After completion of the ISS, the shuttle was retired from service in 2011. Thereafter the ISS
was serviced by Russia’s Progress, Europe’s ATV, Japan’s H-II Transfer Vehicle, and two
commercial cargo vehicles, SpaceX’s Dragon and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Cygnus.
o The station serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in
which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and
other fields.
o The ISS is suited for testing the spacecraft systems and equipment required for possible future
long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.

 1967 OUTER SPACE TREATY

o The United States and its Western allies submitted proposals in 1957 on reserving space
exclusively for "peaceful and scientific purposes," but the Soviet Union rejected these efforts
because it was preparing to launch the world's first satellite and test its first intercontinental
ballistic missile.
o In 1963, the UN General Assembly approved two resolutions on outer space that
subsequently became the basis for the Outer Space Treaty. UN Resolution 1884 called on
countries to refrain from stationing WMD in outer space. UN Resolution 1962 set out legal
principles on outer space exploration, which stipulated that all countries have the right to freely
explore and use space.
o The United States and Soviet Union submitted separate draft outer space treaties to the UN
General Assembly in June 1966. A mutually agreed treaty text was worked out over the next
six months, and the UN General Assembly gave its approval of the treaty on December 19,
1966. The treaty opened for signature in Washington, Moscow, and London on January 27,
1967 and entered into force October 10, 1967.
o The 1967 Outer Space Treaty bans the stationing of weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
in outer space, prohibits military activities on celestial bodies, and details legally binding rules
governing the peaceful exploration and use of space.
o The treaty entered into force Oct. 10, 1967, and has 110 states-parties, with another 89
countries that have signed it but have not yet completed ratification.
TREATY TERMS
o The treaty forbids countries from deploying "nuclear weapons or any other kinds of
weapons of mass destruction" in outer space.
o The term "weapons of mass destruction" is not defined, but it is commonly understood to
include nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons.
o The treaty, however, does not prohibit the launching of ballistic missiles, which could
be armed with WMD warheads, through space.

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o The treaty repeatedly emphasizes that space is to be used for peaceful purposes, leading some
analysts to conclude that the treaty could broadly be interpreted as prohibiting all types of
weapons systems, not just WMD, in outer space.

The treaty's key arms control provisions are in Article IV. States-parties commit not to:
o Place in orbit around the Earth or other celestial bodies any nuclear weapons or objects
carrying WMD.
o Install WMD on celestial bodies or station WMD in outer space in any other manner.
o Establish military bases or installations, test "any type of weapons," or conduct military
exercises on the moon and other celestial bodies.
Other treaty provisions underscore that space is no single country's domain and that all countries
have a right to explore it. These provisions state that:
o Space should be accessible to all countries and can be freely and scientifically investigated.
o Space and celestial bodies are exempt from national claims of ownership.
o Countries are to avoid contaminating and harming space or celestial bodies.
o Countries exploring space are responsible and liable for any damage their activities
may cause.
o Space exploration is to be guided by "principles of cooperation and mutual
assistance," such as obliging astronauts to provide aid to one another if needed.
o Like other treaties, the Outer Space Treaty allows for amendments or member withdrawal.
o Article XV permits countries to propose amendments.
o An amendment can only enter into force if accepted by a majority of states-parties, and it will
only be binding on those countries that approve the amendment.
o Article XVI states a country's withdrawal from the treaty will take effect a year after it has
submitted a written notification of its intentions to the depositary states: the United States,
Russia, and the United Kingdom.

 JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE

ABOUT THE TELESCOPE
o NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JSWT) is an infrared space observatory was launched
from ESA's launch site at Kourou in French Guiana, on board an Arianespace Ariane
5 rocket.
o The James Webb Space Telescope is the product of an impressive international collaboration
between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space
Agency.
o The $10 billion James Webb Space Telescope — NASA's largest and most powerful space
science telescope — will probe the cosmos to uncover the history of the universe from
the Big Bang to alien planet formation and beyond.
o It is one of NASA's Great Observatories, huge space instruments that include the likes of the
Hubble Space Telescope to peer deep into the cosmos.
o It will take about 30 days for the James Webb Space Telescope to travel nearly a million miles
(1.5 million kilometers) to its permanent home: a Lagrange point — a gravitationally
stable location in space.

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o The James Webb Space Telescope will orbit the sun at the second Lagrange point (L2).
L2 is a spot in space near Earth that lies opposite from the sun; this orbit will allow
the telescope to stay in line with Earth as it orbits the sun. It has been a popular spot for several
other space telescopes, including the Herschel Space Telescope and the Planck Space
Observatory.
o According to NASA, the James Webb Space Telescope will focus on four main areas: first
light in the universe, assembly of galaxies in the early universe, birth of stars and
protoplanetary systems, and planets (including the origins of life.)
o The powerful James Webb Space Telescope is also expected to take amazing photos of celestial
objects like its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope.
The telescope’s science mandate is principally divided among four areas:
FIRST LIGHT AND REIONIZATION
o This refers to the early stages of the universe after the Big Bang started the universe as we know
it today.
o In the first stages after the Big Bang, the universe was a sea of particles (such as electrons,
protons and neutrons), and light was not visible until the universe cooled enough for these
particles to begin combining.
o Another thing the telescope will study is what happened after the first stars formed; this era
is called "the epoch of reionization" because it refers to when neutral hydrogen was
reionized (made to have an electric charge again) by radiation from these first stars.
ASSEMBLY OF GALAXIES
o Looking at galaxies is a useful way to see how matter is organized on gigantic scales, which in
turn gives us hints as to how the universe evolved.
o The spiral and elliptical galaxies we see today actually evolved from different shapes over
billions of years, and one of telescope’s goals is to look back at the earliest galaxies to better
understand that evolution.
o Scientists are also trying to figure out how we got the variety of galaxies that are visible today,
and the current ways that galaxies form and assemble.
BIRTH OF STARS AND PROTOPLANETARY SYSTEMS
o The Eagle Nebula's "Pillars of Creation" are some of the most famous birthplaces for stars.
Stars come to be in clouds of gas, and as the stars grow, the radiation pressure they exert blows
away the cocooning gas (which could be used again for other stars, if not too widely dispersed.)
o However, it's difficult to see inside the gas, the telescope’s infrared eyes will be able to look at
sources of heat, including stars that are being born in these cocoons.
PLANETS AND ORIGINS OF LIFE
o The last decade has seen vast numbers of exoplanets discovered, including with NASA's planet-
seeking Kepler Space Telescope. James powerful sensors will be able to peer at these planets
in more depth, including (in some cases) imaging their atmospheres.
o Understanding the atmospheres and the formation conditions for planets could help scientists
better predict if certain planets are habitable or not.

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 SpaceX
SpaceX launched 4 astronauts to ISS on recycled rocket and capsule as part of NASA's
SpaceX Crew-2 mission.
o Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (SpaceX) is an American aerospace
manufacturer, space transportation services and communications company headquartered in
Hawthorne, California.
o SpaceX was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation
costs to enable the colonization of Mars.
o SpaceX manufactures the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles, several rocket
engines, Dragon cargo, crew spacecraft and Starlink communications satellites.
SPACEX'S ACHIEVEMENTS
o first privately funded liquid-propellant rocket to reach orbit (Falcon 1 in 2008),
o the first private company to successfully launch, orbit, and recover a spacecraft (Dragon in
2010),
o the first private company to send a spacecraft to the International Space Station (Dragon in
2012),
o the first vertical take-off and vertical propulsive landing for an orbital rocket (Falcon 9 in
2015),
o the first reuse of an orbital rocket (Falcon 9 in 2017),
o the first private company to send astronauts to orbit and to the International Space Station
(SpaceX Crew Dragon Demo-2 in 2020).
o SpaceX has flown and reflown the Falcon 9 series of rockets over one hundred times.

NEW DEVELOPMENTS
o SpaceX is developing a satellite megaconstellation named Starlink to provide commercial
internet service. In 2020 the Starlink constellation became the largest satellite constellation in
the world.
o SpaceX is also developing Starship, a privately funded, fully reusable, super heavy-lift launch
system for interplanetary spaceflight. Starship is intended to become the primary SpaceX
orbital vehicle once operational, supplanting the existing Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy and Dragon
fleet.

 ARTEMIS MISSION
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) rolled out its Artemis I moon
mission to the launchpad for testing at the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, United States.
WHAT IS ARTEMIS MISSION?
o NASA’s Artemis mission is touted as the next generation of lunar exploration, and is
named after the twin sister of Apollo from Greek mythology.
o Artemis is also the goddess of the moon.
o It is the first in a series of increasingly complex missions that will enable human exploration to
the Moon and Mars.
o With the Artemis programme, NASA aims to land humans on the moon by 2024, and
it also plans to land the first woman and first person of colour on the moon.

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o NASA will establish an Artemis Base Camp on the surface and a gateway (the lunar
outpost around the Moon) in lunar orbit to aid exploration by robots and astronauts.
o The gateway is a critical component of NASA’s sustainable lunar operations and will serve as a
multi-purpose outpost orbiting the moon.
o Other space agencies are also involved in the Artemis programme.
▪ Canadian Space Agency has committed to providing advanced robotics for the gateway,
▪ The European Space Agency will provide the International Habitat and the ESPRIT module,
which will deliver additional communications capabilities among other things.
▪ The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency plans to contribute habitation components and
logistics resupply.

WHAT ARE KEY POINTS OF ARTEMIS I MISSION?

o Artemis I, formerly Exploration Mission-1, will be the first integrated flight test of NASA’s
Deep Space Exploration Systems:
▪ Orion spacecraft: Orion spacecraft is going to remain in space without docking to a space
station, longer than any ship for astronauts has ever done before.
▪ Space Launch System (SLS) rocket: It is the most powerful rocket in the world — and
travels 2,80,000 miles from the earth for over four to six weeks during the course of the
mission.
▪ Newly upgraded Exploration Ground Systems at Kennedy Space Centre in Cape
Canaveral, Florida.
▪ It is an uncrewed space mission where the spacecraft will launch on an SLS rocket.
o The primary operating goal of the mission is to assure a safe crew module entry, descent,
splashdown, and recovery.
o SLS and Orion under Artemis I will be launched from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida,
U.S. in the summer of 2022.
o The mission will end with the Orion spacecraft’s ability to return safely to the earth.
WHAT ARE THE FUTURE MISSIONS IN THE ARTEMIS PROGRAMME?
o The second flight under the programme will have crew on board and will test Orion’s critical
systems with humans onboard.
o Eventually, the learnings from the Artemis programme will be utilised to send the first
astronauts to Mars.
o NASA plans on using the lunar orbit to gain the necessary experience to extend human
exploration of space farther into the solar system.

 PSLV- C56
ISRO successfully completed the launch of the PSLV-C56 whose payload consisted of seven
satellites including the DS-SAR from Singapore.
The mission was conducted for New Space India Limited (NSIL), the commercial arm of
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is India’s third generation launch vehicle.
It was the first Indian launch vehicle equipped with liquid stages and was first launched in
October 1994.

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DS-SAR SATELLITE
• It is developed under a partnership between DSTA (representing the Government of
Singapore) and ST Engineering.
• It will be used to support the satellite imagery requirements of various agencies within
the Government of Singapore.
• ST Engineering will use it for multi-modal and higher responsiveness imagery and
geospatial services for their commercial customers.
• It carries a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) payload developed by Israel Aerospace
Industries (IAI).
• This allows the DS-SAR to provide for all-weather day and night coverage and is
capable of imaging at 1m resolution at full polarimetry.

OTHER SIX SATELLITES

1. VELOX-AM: A 23 kg technology demonstration microsatellite.
2. ARCADE: Atmospheric Coupling and Dynamics Explorer (ARCADE), an experimental
satellite.
3. SCOOB-II: A 3U Nanosatellite flying a technology demonstrator payload;
4. NuLIoN: An advanced 3U Nanosatellite enabling seamless IoT connectivity in both urban and
remote locations;
5. Galassia-2: A 3U Nanosatellite that will be orbiting at low earth orbit.
6. ORB-12 STRIDER: Satellite is developed under an International collaboration.

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MISCELLANEOUS

 AERV
o The first batch of next-generation Armoured Engineer Reconnaissance Vehicles
(AERV), indigenously designed and developed by DRDO, and manufactured by the Pune unit
of Bharat Electronics Limited, was formally inducted into the Indian Army.
o It is a versatile BMP-IIK amphibious Infantry Combat Vehicle (ICV) fitted with
instruments for water reconnaissance, land reconnaissance, navigation and data
backup.
o AERV is capable of measuring soil bearing capacity on riverbanks to determine if
they are motorable for military vehicles on Go-No Go basis (critical parameters for bridge
laying), dry and wet gaps in day and night conditions, slopes and height of river banks or
canals.
o AERVs can navigate terrain using Military Grid Co-ordinate System, measure and
plot underwater beds and water currents of rivers or canals, store data from various
instruments on Control Console for further analysis and decision-making.

 AGNI-P MISSILE
o Agni-P is a two-stage canisterised solid propellant missile with dual redundant
navigation and guidance system.
o It has been termed as a new generation advanced variant of Agni class of missiles with
improved parameters, including manoeuvring and accuracy.
o Canisterisation of missiles reduces the time required to launch the missile while
improving the storage and ease of handling.
o The surface-to-surface ballistic missile has a range of 1,000 to 2,000 km.
AGNI CLASS OF MISSILES
o Agni class of missiles are the mainstay of India’s nuclear launch capability, which also includes
the Prithvi short-range ballistic missiles, submarine launched ballistic missiles and fighter
aircraft.
o Agni-V, an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km, had been
tested several times and validated for induction.
o The Agni-P and Agni-5 ballistic missiles trace their origins back to the Integrated Guided
Missile Development Programme (IGMDP), which was spearheaded by former DRDO chief
and ex-Indian president Dr APJ Abdul Kalam in the early 1980s.

 PINAKA
o The Pinaka, a Multi-Barrel Rocket-Launcher (MBRL) system named after Shiva’s bow, can fire
a salvo of 12 rockets over a period of 44 seconds.
o The new version is equipped with advanced technology to enhance its strength. The metal
weight is lesser compared to the earlier version.

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o The newly tested system can achieve a range of up to 45km which is a big feat for the Indian
Army.
o The existing Pinaka system, which is already in the Army, has a range of up to 35-37km.

Significance: The new incarnation of Pinaka represents one of the few examples of an
evolutionary process being followed with an indigenous Indian weapon system.
BACKGROUND
o The development of the Pinaka multi-barrel rocket systems was started by the DRDO in the
late 1980s, as an alternative to the Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher systems of Russian
make called the ‘Grad’, which are still used by some regiments.
o After successful tests of Pinaka Mark-1 in the late 1990, it was first used successfully in the
battlefield during the 1999 Kargil War. Subsequently, multiple regiments of the system came
up over the 2000s.
Variants
o DRDO has also developed and successfully tested the Mk-II and guided variants of the
Pinaka, which has a range of around 60 km, while the Guided Pinaka system has a range of
75 km and has integrated navigation, control and guidance system to improve the end accuracy
and enhance the range.
o The navigation system of the Guided Pinaka missile is also aided by the Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
o In 2020, an enhanced version of the Pinaka Mark (Mk)-1 missile was successfully flight-tested
from the Integrated Test Range in Chandipur, off the coast of Odisha.

 ASTRA MISSILE
Indigenously developed Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas successfully test-fired an
indigenously developed ASTRA beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile off the coast of
Goa.
• Astra is a family of all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile, developed by
the Defence Research and Development Organisation.
• Different missiles of this family are capable of engaging targets at varying distances of 500 m
up to 340 km.
• Astra Mk-1 has been integrated with Indian Air Force's Sukhoi Su-30MKI.
Astra Mark 1
• Limited series production of Astra Mk-1 missiles began in 2017.
• The Astra Mark 1, has a maximum head-on launch range of 100 Kms, a speed of 4.5
Mach, and launch clearance up to 20 Kms in height (66,000 ft).
• The Astra-1 is meant to carry a 15-kilogram pre-fragmented high explosive
warhead that is ignited by a radio proximity fuse.
• The missile’s Electronic Counter-Countermeasure (ECCM) capabilities allow for
unrestricted operation in an Electronic Counter-Countermeasure (ECM) environment.
• Astra MK-1 already in service is better than the Chinese PL-12 used by Pakistan and China.

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ASTRA MARK 2
• Astra MK-2 is the new version of Astra MK-1 with better range and launched from an
ejector.
• The Astra MK-2 has conventional dual-pulse rocket motor with improved grain quality
and with solid fuel.
• It is longer in length as a result of which more quantity of fuel can be loaded resulting in
better range. It has been tested to 180 km.
• Astra MK-2 shares most of the key features of its predecessor Astra MK-1 such as
aerodynamics, design, smokeless propulsion, Ku band AESA seeker, etc. so its development
process has been very fast.
• Astra MK-2 is likely to be inducted into IAF service by end of 2023 or Q1 2024.
• It will also come with improved high-angle off boresight capability, improved ECCM
system.

 CHAFF TECHNOLOGY
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed an advanced
Chaff technology to safeguard the fighter aircraft of the Air Force against hostile
radar threats.
DRDO’s Defence Laboratory at Jodhpur developed the advanced chaff material and chaff
cartridge — called 118/I — in collaboration with its Pune-based High Energy Materials
Research Laboratory (HEMRL).
KNOW ABOUT CHAFF TECHNOLOGY
o Chaff is an electronic countermeasure technology used by militaries worldwide to
protect naval ships or other sensitive targets from radar and radio frequency (RF) guiding
mechanisms of the enemy missile.
o The chaff rockets deployed in the air reflect as multiple targets for the missile
guidance systems and deflecting adversary missiles, thus protecting their own assets.
o DRDO has indigenously developed three variants of the critical technology namely Short
Range Chaff Rocket (SRCR), Medium Range Chaff Rocket (MRCR) and Long
Range Chaff Rocket (LRCR).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHAFF AND FLARES:
o Both chaff and flares are defensive countermeasures deployed by military aircraft. The purpose
is to confuse radar-guided or infrared-guided anti-aircraft missiles fired so that they could be
diverted.
o Chaff is composed of many small aluminium or zinc coated fibres stored on-board the
aircraft in tubes. In case the aircraft feels threatened by any radar tracking missiles, chaff is
ejected into the turbulent wake of air behind the plane.
o Flares on being fired provide an alternate strong IR (Infrared) source to heat-seeking
anti-air missiles so that they are lured away from the aircraft.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

 CYBER SECURITY
o Cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic
systems, networks, and data from malicious attacks. It's also known as information technology
security or electronic information security. The term applies in a variety of contexts, from
business to mobile computing, and can be divided into a few common categories.
o Network security is the practice of securing a computer network from intruders, whether
targeted attackers or opportunistic malware.
o Application security focuses on keeping software and devices free of threats. A compromised
application could provide access to the data its designed to protect. Successful security begins
in the design stage, well before a program or device is deployed.
o Information security protects the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in transit.
o Operational security includes the processes and decisions for handling and protecting data
assets. The permissions users have when accessing a network and the procedures that
determine how and where data may be stored or shared all fall under this umbrella.
o Disaster recovery and business continuity define how an organization responds to a cyber-
security incident or any other event that causes the loss of operations or data. Disaster recovery
policies dictate how the organization restores its operations and information to return to the
same operating capacity as before the event. Business continuity is the plan the organization
falls back on while trying to operate without certain resources.
o End-user education addresses the most unpredictable cyber-security factor: people. Anyone
can accidentally introduce a virus to an otherwise secure system by failing to follow good
security practices. Teaching users to delete suspicious email attachments, not plug in
unidentified USB drives, and various other important lessons is vital for the security of any
organization.
TYPES OF CYBER THREATS: The threats countered by cyber-security are three-fold:
1. Cybercrime includes single actors or groups targeting systems for financial gain or to cause
disruption.
2. Cyber-attack often involves politically motivated information gathering.
3. Cyberterrorism is intended to undermine electronic systems to cause panic or fear.
So, how do malicious actors gain control of computer systems? Here are some common
methods used to threaten cyber-security:
MALWARE
o Malware means malicious software. One of the most common cyber threats, malware is
software that a cybercriminal or hacker has created to disrupt or damage a legitimate user’s
computer. Often spread via an unsolicited email attachment or legitimate-looking download,
malware may be used by cybercriminals to make money or in politically motivated cyber-
attacks.
o There are a number of different types of malware, including:
▪ VIRUS: A self-replicating program that attaches itself to clean file and spreads throughout a
computer system, infecting files with malicious code.
▪ TROJANS: A type of malware that is disguised as legitimate software. Cybercriminals trick
users into uploading Trojans onto their computer where they cause damage or collect data.
▪ SPYWARE: A program that secretly records what a user does, so that cybercriminals can
make use of this information. For example, spyware could capture credit card details.
▪ RANSOMWARE: Malware which locks down a user’s files and data, with the threat of erasing
it unless a ransom is paid.

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▪ ADWARE: Advertising software which can be used to spread malware.

▪ BOTNETS: Networks of malware infected computers which cybercriminals use to perform
tasks online without the user’s permission.

o SQL INJECTION: An SQL (structured language query) injection is a type of cyber-attack

used to take control of and steal data from a database. Cybercriminals exploit vulnerabilities
in data-driven applications to insert malicious code into a databased via a malicious SQL
statement. This gives them access to the sensitive information contained in the database.
o PHISHING: Phishing is when cybercriminals target victims with emails that appear to be
from a legitimate company asking for sensitive information. Phishing attacks are often used to
dupe people into handing over credit card data and other personal information.
o MAN-IN-THE-MIDDLE ATTACK: A man-in-the-middle attack is a type of cyber threat
where a cybercriminal intercepts communication between two individuals in order to steal
data. For example, on an unsecure WiFi network, an attacker could intercept data being passed
from the victim’s device and the network.
o DENIAL-OF-SERVICE ATTACK: A denial-of-service attack is where cybercriminals
prevent a computer system from fulfilling legitimate requests by overwhelming the networks
and servers with traffic. This renders the system unusable, preventing an organization from
carrying out vital functions.

MAZE RANSOMWARE
• Maze ransomware was first discovered on May 29, 2019 by a malware intelligence analyst
Jerome Segura and since then it has wreaked havoc amongst corporations and organizations.
Factors like the cost of loss of trade secrets, damage to the brand image, possible lawsuits and
imposition of fines have dictated companies’ choice to pay the ransom.
• When a system is infected with this ransomware this is how it looks
SHOULD WE IGNORE THIS RANSOMWARE ?
• For those who take it as idle threats, examples of data of several companies being released on
internet present a cautionary tale. Particularly in a time of pandemic, when the world is going
through a gigantic shift to the online economy, ransomware pose a massive disruption to some
of the vital services.
• Interpol has already warned health organizations across the world to expect such a situation.
This calls in for prompt cooperation among nations and international organization for building
an elaborate normative framework on data security and also strengthening the technical
infrastructure on the same.

 AKIRA RANSOMWARE
The Indian government's Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) issued a
warning about the Akira ransomware, which has emerged as a significant cybersecurity
threat, targeting both Windows and Linux devices.
Ransomware is a type of malware that hijacks computer data and then
demands payment (usually in bitcoins) in order to restore it.

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CERT-IN

• It is an organisation of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology with

the objective of securing Indian cyberspace.
• It is a nodal agency which deals with cybersecurity threats like hacking and phishing.
• It collects, analyses, and disseminates information on cyber incidents, and also issues alert on
cybersecurity incidents.
• CERT-IN provides Incident Prevention and Response Services as well as Security
Quality Management Services.

AKIRA RANSOMWARE
• It is malicious software that poses a significant threat to data security.
• It targets both Windows and Linux devices, encrypting data and demanding a ransom
for decryption.
• It is designed to encrypt data and create a ransomware note with a unique ".akira"
extension appended to encrypted filenames.
• It is capable of deleting Windows Shadow Volume copies and shutting down Windows services
to prevent interference during encryption.
• It exploits Virtual Private Network (VPN) services and malicious files to infect devices,
making it challenging to detect and prevent.
MODE OF OPERATION
• Akira ransomware spreads through various methods, including spear phishing emails with
malicious attachments, drive-by downloads, and specially crafted web links in emails.
• Insecure Remote Desktop connections are another avenue for ransomware
transmission.
• Once infected, Akira ransomware steals sensitive data and encrypts it, rendering it
inaccessible to the victim.
• Attackers then demand a ransom for decryption and threaten to leak the stolen data on
the dark web if their demands are not met.
PROTECTION MEASURES
1. Regularly maintain up-to-date offline backups to prevent data loss in case of an attack.
2. Keep operating systems and networks updated, including virtual patching for legacy
systems, to address potential vulnerabilities.
3. Implement security protocols such as Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting,
and Conformance (DMARC), Domain Keys Identified Mail (DKIM), and Sender Policy for
email validation.
4. Enforce strong password policies and Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) to
enhance user authentication.
5. Establish a strict policy for external device usage and ensure data-at-rest and data-in-transit
encryption.
6. Block attachment file types with suspicious extensions like .exe, .pif, and .url to avoid
downloading malicious code.
7. Educate users to be cautious about clicking on suspicious links to prevent malware
downloads.
8. Conduct regular security audits, especially for critical systems like database servers, to
identify and address vulnerabilities.

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TERMS

• DMARC is an email authentication policy that protects against bad

Domain-based actors using fake email addresses disguised to look like legitimate
Message emails from trusted sources.
Authentication, • DMARC makes it easier for email senders and receivers to determine
Reporting, and whether or not an email legitimately originated from the identified
Conformance sender. Further, DMARC provides the user with instructions for
(DMARC) handling the email if it is fraudulent.

Domain Keys • DKIM is a protocol that allows an organization to take responsibility

Identified Mail for transmitting a message by signing it in a way that mailbox providers
(DKIM) can verify.
Multi-Factor • Multi-factor authentication (MFA) is a multi-step account login process
Authentication that requires users to enter more information than just a password.
(MFA)

 TELEGRAM BOTs
The CoWIN portal, has gained significant attention due to concerns surrounding a reported
data breach involving a Telegram bot.
The reports indicate that sensitive details, including phone numbers, gender, identification card
information, and dates of birth, were exposed on a Telegram channel.
This confidential information was allegedly accessible through a Telegram bot, where
individuals' names could be used to retrieve the leaked data.
TELEGRAM
• Telegram is a popular open-source instant messaging app that doesn't require users to
share their phone numbers, like WhatsApp.
• The platform was launched in 2013. It offers an open-source API for developers to create
their own apps and integrate services.
TELEGRAM BOTS
• Bots are computer programs that act as agents of a user or another computer
program.
• Bots on telegram are small applications that run entirely within the platform and can be
designed to support any kind of task or service.
• It can host full Web Apps and can be designed to support everything from online stores to
arcade games.
• They can also be designed to make it easier for users to access information held
within large databases they are connected to.
• They can also have @stickers @gif @wiki or @bing as their suffix.
THREATS
• Bots can collect personal information, pose security risks, distribute malicious content, or
be used for scams.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

• Malicious individuals can also develop bots with the intention of disseminating harmful
content, including phishing links or malware. They may distribute these bots to deceive users
by offering false promises of rewards or discounts, enticing them to divulge their personal
information.
• Certain bots may possess security weaknesses that threat actors can exploit to compromise the
security of unsuspecting users.

 C-295 MW TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

o The procurement of 56 C-295MW transport aircraft from Airbus Defence and Space
S.A., Spain approved by the Cabinet Committee on Security marks the culmination of a
decade-long process by the Indian Air Force (IAF) to replace the ageing Avro aircraft in service,
pending signing of the formal contract.
o This is the first project of its kind in which a military aircraft will be manufactured in India
under technology transfer by a private company and is expected to cost close to $3bn.
o The deal has become even more critical for the IAF as a separate project to jointly co-develop
and produce a Medium Transport Aircraft (MTA) of 20 tonnes with Russia to replace the An-
32s in service was scrapped after initial design discussions.
o The IAF has 56 Avro transport aircraft procured in the 1960s and in urgent need of
replacement.
o The C-295MW is a transport aircraft of 5-10 tonne capacity and has a rear ramp door for quick
reaction and para dropping of troops and cargo. It is powered by Pratt & Whitney PW127
engines, part of the PW100 family. All 56 aircraft will be installed with indigenous Electronic
Warfare Suite.
o The project would give a boost to aerospace ecosystem in India wherein several Micro, Small
and Medium Enterprises spread over the country would be involved in manufacturing of parts
of the aircraft.
o On the project spread, the Ministry said that a large number of detail parts, sub-assemblies
and major component assemblies of aero structure were scheduled to be manufactured in
India. The programme would act as a catalyst in employment generation in the aerospace
ecosystem of the country and was expected to generate 600 highly skilled jobs directly, over
3,000 indirect jobs and an additional 3,000 medium skill employment opportunities with more
than 42.5 lakh man hours of work within the aerospace and defence sector of India.
o During the process of manufacturing in India, it is expected that all the suppliers of Tata
Consortium who will be involved in special processes will gain and maintain globally
recognised National Aerospace and Defence Contractors Accreditation Program accreditation.
It will involve development of specialised infrastructure in form of hangars, buildings, aprons
and taxiway.

 ICGS VIGRAHA
o Indian Coast Guard (ICG) Ship Vigraha, seventh in the series of Offshore Patrol
Vessels (OPVs), is commissioned on August 28, 2021.
o The ship will be based in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh and operate on the eastern seaboard
under the Operational and Administrative Control of the Commander, Coast
Guard Region (East).

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

o The 98-meter OPV, with a complement of 11 officers and 110 sailors, has been designed and
built indigenously by Larsen & Toubro Ship Building Limited.
o It is fitted with advanced technology radars, navigation & communication equipment, sensors
and machinery capable of operating in tropical sea conditions. The vessel is armed with a
40/60 Bofors gun and fitted with two 12.7 mm Stabilised Remote Control Gun
with fire control system. The ship is also equipped with integrated bridge system,
integrated platform management system, automated power management system and high-
power external fire-fighting system.
o The ship is also designed to carry one twin-engine Helicopter and four high speed
boats for boarding operation, search & rescue, law enforcement and maritime
patrol.
o The ship is also capable of carrying pollution response equipment to contain oil spill
at sea. The ship displaces approximately 2,200 tons and is propelled by two 9100 KW diesel
engines to attain a maximum speed of 26 nautical miles per hour with endurance of 5000 nm
at economical speed.
o The ship will be deployed extensively for EEZ surveillance and other duties as enshrined in the
Coast Guard Charter to safeguard the country’s maritime interests.

 MPATGM
o The defence ministry described the successful trial of the missile as a major boost for the
government's 'Aatmanirbhar Bharat' (self-reliant India) campaign.
o The missile is being developed to strengthen the combat capabilities of the Indian Army.
o Indigenously developed low weight, fire and forget Man Portable Antitank
Guided Missile (MPATGM) was launched from a man portable launcher integrated with
thermal site and the target was mimicking a tank. The missile hit the target in direct attack
mode and destroyed it with precision. The test has validated the minimum range successfully.
o The missile is incorporated with state-of-the-art Miniaturized Infrared Imaging Seeker along
with advanced avionics. The test brings the development of indigenous third generation man
portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile close to completion.
o The test brings the development of indigenous third-generation man-portable anti-tank guided
missile close to completion

 KRIVAK CLASS SHIPS

o The Krivak class stealth ships are being built with technology transfer from Russia by Goa
Shipyard Ltd. (GSL) under ‘Make in India’. Engines for the ships are supplied by Ukraine.
o In October 2016, India and Russia signed an Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) for four
Krivak or Talwar stealth frigates.
o The first two frigates will be built in Yantar Shipyard, in Kaliningrad, Russia. The following two
will be built in GSL.
o The new Krivak frigates will have the same engines and armament configuration as Yantar’s
last three frigates - INS Teg, Tarkash and Trikand. These will be armed with BrahMos anti-
ship and land attack missiles.

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SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Use:
o They are primarily used to accomplish a wide variety of naval missions such as finding
and eliminating enemy submarines and large surface ships.
o Existing Frigates: The navy already operates six Krivak III frigates. The first three joined the
fleet between June 2003 and April 2004, followed by another three between April 2012 and
June 2013. With the current contract, the navy will operate 10 Krivak frigates.

 P-8I PATROL AIRCRAFT

o The US State Department has approved the sale of six P-8I patrol aircraft and related
equipment to India.
o The six aircraft will come fitted with encrypted systems, as India has signed the
Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) with the US.
o The Defence Acquisition Council approved the procurement of the aircraft in 2019.
P-8I AIRCRAFT
o It is a long-range maritime reconnaissance and Anti-Submarine Warfare Aircraft.
o It is a variant of the P-8A Poseidon aircraft that Boeing company developed as a
replacement for the US Navy’s ageing P-3 fleet.
o With a maximum speed of 907 kmph and an operating range of over 1,200 nautical miles, the
P-8Is detect threats and neutralize them if required, far before they come anywhere near Indian
shores.
o Indian Navy became the first international customer for the P-8 aircraft in 2009.

INDO-US DEFENCE TIES:

o This proposed sale will help to strengthen the US-Indian strategic relationship.
o For the US, India continues to be an important force for political stability, peace, and economic
progress in the Indo-Pacific and South Asia region.

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