Antenna Radiation and Reception

Points to note
▪The power fed to an antenna from a signal source is radiated
into free space as electromagnetic waves.
▪The reverse is also true, i.e. electromagnetic radiations falling on
an antenna gets converted to power and is available at the antenna
terminals which can be delivered to a load.
▪Understanding the radiation properties of an antenna is
equivalent to knowing its receiving properties.

The above properties of antennas are derived from the

reciprocity principle of an antenna which may be stated as the
properties of an antenna are unchanged when used as a
radiator or a receiver.
 Concept of Isotropic Radiator
The isotropic radiator or isotropic antenna is a fictitious radiator. It is
defined as an antenna radiating equally in all directions. It is also
known as isotropic source or simply unipole.

The isotropic antenna or radiator is a conceptual lossless radiating

antenna with which any practical radiating antenna is compared. Thus
the isotropic antenna is a theoretical reference antenna.

Exceptions
Though certain applications use a half wave dipole antenna as a
reference antenna, but use of the concept of isotropic radiator is
preferred in majority of the cases since it gives a better understanding
of distribution of radiation in three dimensional space.
Isotropic Radiator and Inverse Square Law
Power Wt radiated from
center passes through
the sphere’s surface
area 4 r 2.

Power density (power

per unit area) at a radius
r on the surface of the
sphere is Pr given as:

Wt = Wt Wt
Pr = 2  =
 2
 ds
4 r

0 0
r2 sin d d

Right hand side of the above equation is known

as inverse square law of radiation.
 Radiating Near and Far Fields
The field patterns generated by a
radiating antenna vary with
distance and are associated with (i)
radiating energy and (ii) reactive
energy. The space surrounding an
antenna can be divided into three
regions (i) reactive field region,
(ii) radiating near-field region
and (iii) radiating far-field region.
The boundaries of these regions
are not defined precisely but are
only approximations.
2D 2 Reactive near field R  R1
D3 R2 =
R1 = 0.62
  Radiating near field R  R  R
1 2
Where D is the length of the largest element in the antenna. © Shubhendu Joardar
 Radiation Patterns
Radiated power from a practical antenna is more in some particular
direction and less or null in some other directions. The energy radiated
in a particular direction is measured in terms of field strength or flux
density at a point which is fixed radial distance from the center of the
antenna. The measurement must be done in the Fraunhofer region.

Radiation patterns of a dipole antenna.

 Principle Radiation Patterns
Generally, antennas are oriented in such a way that at least one of
its principle plane patterns coincide with one geometrical plane.

A three dimensional A two dimensional The radiation pattern plotted as

view of a radiation view of the same a function of angle in one plane.
pattern. radiation pattern.
Lobes of a radiation pattern with main lobe oriented along an axis.
 Lobes and Beam-widths
Between two adjacent radiating regions, there exists a
very low radiating region called null. Region between
two nulls is called a lobe. The lobe associated with
peak radiation is called the main lobe. The others are
called side lobes and a back lobe.
The angle at which the peak
radiating power of the main
lobe falls by half on either
sides is called half power
beam width or HPBW.
The angle subtended by the major lobe
between two adjacent nulls is called beam
width between first nulls or BWFN.
The front to back ratio or FBR is given as:
radiated flux density from the center of the major lobe
FBR =
radiated flux density from the center of the back lobe
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Normalized Radiation Patterns
We place an antenna at the
center. The electric field
components are E ( ) and
E(, ). The radiated power
will be in the direction of the
Poynting vector P = E x H.
Power pattern is S (, ).
The normalized power
pattern is Pn (, ).
Normalized electric field E ( ,) = E ( ,)
 n
E ( ,  ) max
Power pattern S ( ,) =  E 2 ( ,  )+ E 2 ( ,  )  / Z 0
Z0 is characteristic impedance of free space.
S ( ,)
Normalized power pattern Pn (,) = S (,)
max © Shubhendu Joardar
 Antenna Beam Solid-Angle
Sometimes it is easy to compare beam-widths using a common standard
namely, beam solid angle.

Fictitious
beam Comparison
pattern for of the two
Practical patterns in a
calculating
radiation two
beam solid
patterns. dimensional
angle.
plane.

If power radiated from both these patterns are same, the solid angle  is
definedas=beam solid angle.
P ( , ) d    where, d = sin d d
A  n HP HP
4
Note: (i) side lobes are included for calculations, and (ii) the fictitious
pattern radiates at the peak intensity of the main lobe. © Shubhendu Joardar
 Antenna Beam Solid-Angle
We now know that the beam solid
angle is given as
A =
 P ( , ) d  
4
n HP HP

Some power is radiated by the side

lobes. Thus the solid angle M of
the main lobe is less than the beam
solid angle A (varies from <100%
to 75% of A). Thus we introduce a
factor kB in following equation:

M =  P ( , ) d  k 
n B HP HP , d = sin d d , 0.8  kB  1.0
main
lobe

© Shubhendu Joardar
 Antenna Beam-Efficiency, Stray-Factor
The distribution of radiation over the sphere is not uniform for
any antenna. At certain points there seems to be no radiation at
all. The shape of the antenna beam can give a rough estimation
of what fraction of the power is radiated in required direction.
Beam efficiency: Ratio of solid angle of the main beam to the sum of
solid angles subtended by all lobes (including main lobe).
solid angle subtended by the main beam M
 M = sum of solid angles subtended by all the lobes =
A

Stray factor: Ratio of sum of solid angles subtended only by minor

lobes to the sum of solid angles subtended by all lobes (including main
lobe).
sum of solid angles subtended by the minor lobes m
m = =
sum of solid angles subtended by all the lobes A
Thus the sum of these two factors is unity
M + m = 1
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Radiation Power Density
Electromagnetic waves travel through free space. At a large distance
from the source of radiation, the power available per unit area Pav can
be obtained from the average value of the Poynting vector as given
below:
⃗ ⃗ 1
P=(P⃗av )= E ×H = Real ( E × H ) watt / m2
2
Here, P is the instantaneous Poynting vector, E and H are the
instantaneous electric and magnetic fields, E and H* are respectively
the scalar values of time varying electric field and complex conjugate
of magnetic field H.

If E and H are respectively expressed in volts/meter and ampere/meter,

then the average value of the Poynting vector is in watts/m2.
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity (U): It is the power emitted over a unit solid angle
from an antenna. It is independent of the distance and is expressed in
watts/steradian.
An infinitesimal ds = r 2 sin  d d
area on the sphere
Solid angle d = sin d d
subtended
Total solid angle of a sphere is given as:
2 

 =  d =
 sin d d = 4
0 0
U = Wr
Radiation intensity of isotropic radiator i 4
infinitesimal power dWr
Radiation intensity U = =
infinitesimal solid angle d
U ( ,)
Normalized power pattern Pn ( , ) = U ( , )
max
Antenna Impedance, Radiation Resistance
The antenna shows an impedance at its input terminals consisting of a
resistive and a reactive part. The real part is responsible for radiation
and power loss. Z = R + jX
The antenna dissipates the power fed to it. If the radiated power and the
dissipated power are respectively represented by Wr and Wl, then the
total power Wt consumed by the antenna can be expressed as:
Wt =Wr +Wl
If I is the current flowing through the antenna at its terminals then we
may express the total power Wt consumed by the antenna is given as:
W = I2 ( R + R )
t r l

Here, Rr is a fictitious resistance that would consume the amount of

power lost as radiation. It is known as radiation resistance. Rl is a
resistance that would consume the amount of power lost as heat. It is
called the loss resistance. For an ideal antenna, Rl = 0.
 Antenna Efficiency
The power efficiency of an antenna or antenna efficiency is the ratio
of power radiated to total power input to the antenna and is denoted
by a. Thus, if the radiation resistance Rr and the loss resistance Rl is
known, the antenna efficiency can expressed as

power radited by the antenna I 2R R

a = = r
= r
power input to the antenna I2 ( R + R ) R +R
r l r l

Here, I is the current flowing through the antenna terminals.

Multiplying ηa by 100, one may obtain the percentage antenna
efficiency.
 Antenna Directivity
All practical antennas concentrate more power in one specific
direction. It is of interest to see how much power is concentrated in a
particular direction by the antenna. The antenna directivity may be
visualized as to the extent which a lossless practical antenna (a = 1)
concentrates the radiated power relative to an isotropic radiator.
The directivity D is the ratio of (i) maximum radiated power density to
its average value, or (ii) maximum radiation intensity to radiation
intensity of an isotropic radiator. It is dimensionless and expressed as:
P( ,)max U ( ,)max 4
D= = =
P( , ) av Ui M
Here, M is the solid angle subtended by the main beam. P(θ,Ф)max max
and and P(θ,Ф)av are are respectively the maximum (unity) and average
(isotropic) normalized power pattern values. U(θ,Ф)max is the radiation
intensity along any direction and Ui is the mean of radiation intensities
over all directions.
Directivity and Half Power Beam Width

If the half power beam widths of the major lobe in the two
principle planes are known, the directivity D may be
approximately expressed as:

40000
D=
HP HP

Here, HP and HP respectively represent the half power beam
widths measured in the two principle planes in degrees.
 Directive Gain
Unlike directivity which is specific to the direction of maximum
radiation, the directive gain GD is used for any direction. It is
expressed as:

P (θ , 𝜑) U (θ , 𝜑)
GD (θ , 𝜑)= =
P (θ , 𝜑)av Ui

Here, P(, ) is the radiated power density in the required direction,

P(, )av is the average radiated power density over all directions,
U(, ) is the radiation intensity in the required direction and Ui is
the average radiation intensity over all directions.
 Gain or Power Gain
Another concept similar to the directive gain is the gain or power
gain usually denoted either simply as G or GP. The directive gain
GD and the power gain GP of an antenna are related by the antenna
efficiency as expressed as:

GP =  a GD

Here, a is the antenna efficiency (which is always less than unity

for all practical antennas).

Also note that, the power gain is always less than the directive gain
since all practical antennas produce some power loss.
 Effective Aperture Area of an Antenna
The concept of effective aperture area has been developed based on a
receiving antenna. Let us assume we have a device which converts the
electromagnetic energy into electrical power at its terminals. The
amount of electromagnetic energy collected is proportional to the
collecting area. This arises from the fact that electromagnetic energy
is measured as a flow of energy per unit time per unit area across a
frequency bandwidth. In other words, it is flux density. Thus more the
collecting area (more aperture area) the more is the received power.

The amount of power Pant received by an antenna is the product of a

fictitious area called the effective aperture area Ae with the flux
density of the electromagnetic waves falling perpendicular over this
area. This is shown below:

Pant = S Ae
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Aperture Efficiency of an Antenna
The effective aperture area is specific for different type of
antennas. For example, the effective aperture area of a dish
antenna could be equal to the physical cross sectional area of the
dish if the antenna is lossless, whereas for a dipole antenna, this
area is generally more than its physical area. The effective usage
of the physical aperture depends on the aperture efficiency of the
antenna which is the ratio of effective aperture area Ae to the
physical aperture area Ap of the antenna and is expressed below:

Ae
Aperture efficiency  ap =
Ap
 Wavelength, Directivity and Aperture
The effective aperture area Ae is related to the wavelength λ and the
solid angle M subtended by the main beam as shown below:

2 = A 
e M

The directivity D may be obtained from the effective aperture area

Ae using the relationship shown below:

Ae
D = 4
 2
 Effective Height or Effective Length

The effective height or effective length h of an antenna is similar to

the effective aperture except that it is used for calculating the
potential developed across the terminals of a receiving antenna from
an electromagnetic wave instead of power. The output voltage V in
volts across the terminals of an antenna is a product of the electric
field E in volts/m with the effective height h of the antenna in
meters as expressed below:

V = hE
The above equation is useful when working with wire antennas
whose physical aperture area is almost negligible.
 Antenna Reciprocity Theorem

If an emf is applied to the terminals of an antenna 1 and the

current is measured at the terminals of an antenna 2, then an equal
current in both amplitude and phase will be obtained at the
terminals of antenna 1 if the same emf is applied to the terminals of
antenna 2. The theorem is valid if the impedance of the signal
generator and the load across the antenna 2 is zero.
Practically all signal generators have non-zero impedance. Thus it is
necessary to have identical impedances of signal generator and load.
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Applications of Reciprocity Theorem
Most common applications of reciprocity theorem in radio telescopes
are:

(i) The radiation pattern of an antenna is unchanged whether used as a

receiver or transmitter. Therefore, radiation patterns of the radio
telescope antenna-feeds can be measured in the transmitting mode or
in the receiving mode inside an anechoic chamber.

(ii) The impedance of an antenna does not change whether used in

transmitting mode or in receiving mode. The impedance of the radio
astronomical antenna-feeds can be measured inside anechoic chamber
in the transmitting mode by measuring the voltage and current at its
terminals.
The theorem fails when the propagation of the radio waves is highly
effected by the presence of the Earth’s magnetic field and disturbances
created in the ionosphere.
 Antenna Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is difficult to define, since the antenna
properties like radiation pattern, radiation resistance etc. changes
with the frequency of operation. Therefore the bandwidth is defined
in such a way that certain properties of the antenna meet certain
specifications. Generally, the bandwidth is measured categorically:
Bandwidth over which the directivity of the antenna is higher than
some acceptable value.
(i) Bandwidth over which at least a specified front to back ratio is met.
(ii) Bandwidth over which the VSWR on the transmission line can be
maintained over a specified value.
fr
Antenna bandwidth f =
Q
Total energy stored by the antenna
Antenna Q-factor Q = Energy dissipated or radiated per cycle
 Analysis of Half Wave Dipole Antenna
Equation of electric current
variation across the dipole
as a function of time
I (t, l) = I 0 exp ( jt ) cos (  l )

𝑢 cosθ)
−jI cos(
2 − j (ω t−𝗉 r )
Electric field E θ=
0
e
2 𝑢 ϵ0 c r sin θ
𝑢
𝑢 /2 cos cos θ
( )
Radiation Resistance Rr =120 ∫ 2 d θ ≡73.13 ohm
0 sin θ

[ ]
−1
cos 𝑢
(
2
𝑢/2 2 cos θ )
Directivity D= ∫0 sin θ
dθ ≡1.641, i.e. 2.15 dBi
© Shubhendu Joardar
 Angular Spectrum
The electric field E(x) at the aperture of an antenna may be thought to be
composed of interference created by a continuum of plane evanescent
waves propagating in various angular directions φ.
Let us represent a plane wave
of fixed frequency ν as

where, rφ is the direction of propagation.

The electric field E may be represented as the sum of

continuum consisting of infinite spatial frequencies (Fourier transform of
P( f(φ) ) ). i.e.,

If we establish the above relationship only in the aperture plane of the

antenna using direction cosines of the waves, what we obtain is called
the angular spectrum of the antenna as shown next.
 Angular Spectrum
One dimensional Angular Spectrum
Geometry for Modified equations:
computing
angular
spectrum in
one dimension.

Two dimensional
Angular Spectrum
Geometry for angular
spec. in two dimension.
Modified equations:
 A few words on Antenna Polarization
The antenna is usually polarized. The electric and magnetic fields lie
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. As the
wave progresses in its travel through space, the electric field (and the
magnetic field) may (i) continue to lie in the same plane, or (ii) change
its orientation within each wavelength traveled. For the former case,
the wave is said to linearly polarized while in the latter case, the wave
could be circularly or elliptically polarized depending on the whether
the amplitude of the electric field remain fixed or change with angle
respectively.

The circular or elliptical polarizations can again be classified as left

circular/elliptical or right circular/elliptical depending on the directions
in which the plane of polarization rotates. The dipole type antennas are
linearly polarized where as helical antennas are circularly polarized.
Antenna Polarization for Astro-Sources
Astronomical radio sources have the possibility of all type of
polarizations: (i) linear, (ii) elliptical, (iii) circular, (iv) random, or
(v) combination of random polarization with the remaining types.
Complete information of the astronomical source can be obtained
by using (i) two linearly polarized antennas with their planes of
polarization perpendicular to each other, or (ii) two circularly
polarized antennas having opposite polarizations (left and right
circular).

If a single polarized antenna is used for receiving from an

unpolarized source, only half of the flux density is received. An un-
polarized source is like two incoherent noise sources of equal
strength connected to two linearly polarized antennas positioned
perpendicular to one another. Two circularly polarized antennas
(one left and one right circular) may also be used instead.