MT632LEC (ANAPHY LECTURE)

1ST TERM 3RD SHIFTING

AMP | ‘23-’24 12/08/2023

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The total time it takes food to travel the length of the
digestive tract is usually about 24–36 hours.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Peritoneum - serous membrane surrounding the
● Ingestion and Mastication visceral organs
○ Ingestion - intake of solid or liquid food into the Heimlich Maneuver - used when someone is choking
stomach The propulsive movements begin with swallowing,
○ Mastication - process by which the teeth chew followed by peristalsis, and finally mass movements
food in the mouth to begin the process of
digestion
● Propulsion and Mixing MAJOR COMPONENTS ORGANS/
○ Propulsion - process by which the teeth chew REGIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
food in the mouth to begin the process of
digestion ORAL CAVITY
○ Mixing - the movement of food back and forth in
the digestive tract, without forward movement FUNCTION
● Digestion and Secretion
● Mastication
○ Digestion - breakdown of large organic
● Preliminary Digestion
molecules into their component parts
○ Secretions - added to lubricate, liquefy, buffer,
and digest the food as it moves through the
ANATOMY
digestive tract ● Lips
● Absorption ● Cheeks
○ Absorption - movement of molecules out of the ● Tongue
digestive tract and into the blood or into the ○ Lingual Frenulum - attaches tongue to floor of
lymphatic system mouth
● Elimination ○ Tongue-tied/Ankyloglossia - very short lingual
○ Elimination - process by which the waste frenulum
products of digestion are removed from the body ● Teeth
○ 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars
STRUCTURE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ○ Dental Formula: half the upper jaw/half the lower
jaw; 2123/2123
○ Total number of teeth: 32
ANATOMY ○ Half the lower and upper jaw: 16
● Oral Cavity ○ Molars sometimes erupt later in life or not at all.
● Pharynx ○ Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) syndrome -
● Esophagus tenderness in jaw
● Stomach ○ milk teeth -> permanent teeth -> false teeth
● Small Intestines (replaced by dentures)
● Large Intestine (Colon and Rectum)
● Anus PHARYNX
● “throat”
ASSOCIATED ORGANS
● Salivary Glands FUNCTION
● Liver ● connects mouth to esophagus
● Pancreas
● Gallbladder ANATOMY
● 3 Parts:
LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
○ Nasopharynx
● Tunica Mucosa - simple columnar ○ Oropharynx
● Tunica Submucosa ○ Laryngopharynx
● Tunica Muscularis Propria - circular & longitudinal
● Tunica Serosa/Adventitia - simple squamous
epithelium
 ESOPHAGUS ● Sphincters:
○ Cardiac sphincter - esophagus to stomach
FUNCTION ○ Pyloric sphincter - stomach to duodenum
● Rugae - folds in stomach
● passageway of food from mouth to stomach
● Cells:
● function: propel the food bolus from the oral cavity to
○ Surface Mucous Cells
the stomach
■ Found in the inner stomach
■ Produces mucus
ANATOMY ○ Mucous Neck Cells
● muscular tube posterior to trachea ■ Also produces mucus
● lined by stratified squamous epithelium ○ Parietal Cells
(non-keratinizing) ■ Produces hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
● Parts of the Esophagus: factor (HCL help digest food)
○ Upper Third – Skeletal muscle is present in the ■ important cell
wall ○ Endocrine Cells
○ Middle Third – Skeletal and smooth muscle is ■ Produces regulatory hormones
present in the wall ○ Chief Cells
○ Lower Third – Smooth muscle only in the wall ■ Produces pepsinogen
● Sphincters: ● Smooth muscles in the muscularis propria - facilitate
○ Upper/esophageal Sphincter movement
○ Lower/cardiac Sphincter – guards entrance to ○ Outer Longitudinal
stomach ○ Middle Circular
MOVEMENTS & EVENTS ○ Inner Oblique
● 3 Phases:
○ Voluntary Phase Pepsinogen: converted to pepsin; inactive
■ Tongue pushes the food bolus against the Pepsin: digests proteins; active
hard palate
○ Pharyngeal Phase with -gen: enzyme inactive form
■ Largely a reflex without -gen: active form
○ Esophageal Phase
● Peristalsis
1. A wave of smooth muscle relaxation moves SECRETIONS
ahead of the bolus, allowing the digestive tract ● Hydrochloric Acid – Kills microorganisms, activates
to expand. pepsinogen to pepsin
2. A wave of contraction of the smooth muscle ● Pepsin – breaks the covalent bonds of proteins to
behind the bolus propels it through the digestive break them into smaller peptide chains.
tract ● Mucus – protects the stomach lining
● Voluntary process of deglutition - get food back from ● Intrinsic Factor – Aids in Vitamin B absorption.
stomach to the mouth Vitamin B is important for DNA synthesis and red
● Involuntary - food cannot be brought back to the blood cell production
mouth ● Hormones:
○ Gastrin
Carbohydrates - being digested by amylase ■ produced in the stomach
Trachea - anterior to neck; supported by c-shaped ■ stimulated by distension of stomach
bones ■ partial digestion of protein takes place
Bolus - formed in mouth ■ increases gastric secretion
■ increases gastric motility
○ Secretin
STOMACH ■ produced in the duodenum
■ counteract acidity of chyme
FUNCTION ■ stimulated by chyme
● main function: food storage ■ decrease gastric secretion
● secondary function: digestion ■ stimulate pancreas and gallbladder to
● partial digestion of protein occurs in the stomach produce secretions that are very high in
bicarbonate ion
ANATOMY ■ decrease gastric motility
○ Cholecystokinin
1. Cardia ■ presence of fatty acids and peptides induce
2. Fundus the secretion
3. Body ■ produced in the duodenum
4. Pyloric Area ■ decrease gastric secretion
 ■ stimulate pancreatic secretion (high in SECRETIONS
digestive enzymes) ● Mucus
■ contraction of gallbladder ● Water
■ relaxation of hepatopancreatic ampullar ● Ions
sphincter ● Peptidases
■ strongly decrease gastric motility ● Disaccharidases

MOVEMENTS & EVENTS MOVEMENTS & EVENTS

● Regulation of Gastric Secretions ● Peristaltic contractions
○ Cephalic Phase ○ causes the ileocecal valve/sphincter to
■ thought of food activates the relax/open which results to the flow of chyme
chemoreceptors and cause tactile sensation into the large intestine (cecum)
in mouth, cause hypothalamus to produce ● Segmental contractions
secretions
○ Gastric Phase LARGE INTESTINE
■ once secretion is stimulated, stomach will
distent, food will be churned and mixed,
FUNCTION
secretion of hormones of secretin and
cholecystokinin, food will enter the intestinal ● Absorbs only water
phase ● Storage of chyme from the small intestines
○ Intestinal Phase ● Around 1500 mL of chyme enters the large
intestines daily but more than 90% of this is
SMALL INTESTINE reabsorbed.
● The remaining chyme that was not reabsorbed is
called feces
FUNCTION
● Feces Formation
● Main function: Absorption of nutrients. ● Mucus Secretion – To make the feces easier to
move
ANATOMY ● Defecation/Egestion – the process of eliminating the
● Villi formed feces
○ circular folds
● Microvilli ANATOMY
○ increases absorptive action ● portions:
○ longer than cilia ○ ascending
● 3 major parts: ○ transverse
○ Duodenum ○ descending
■ ~12 inches ● haustra - saccules in the colon that give it its
■ contains duodenal glands segmented appearance
○ Jejunum - ~2.5 m long
○ Ileum SECRETIONS
■ ~3.5 m long
■ Lymphoid follicles (Peyer’s patch) are ● none
present
● Microscopic Anatomy: MOVEMENTS & EVENTS
○ Absorptive Cells ● Mass Movement
■ Have microvilli. ○ cause defecation reflex
■ Produces digestive enzymes and absorb ○ in contrast to the peristaltic movement of the
digested food. small intestines
○ Goblet Cells ○ Each mass movement contraction extends over
■ Produces protective mucus 20 or more centimeters of the large intestine
○ Granular Cells ● Defecation Reflex
■ Helps protect intestinal epithelium from ○ Once the feces reaches the rectum and anus
bacteria area, the distention of these structures will send
○ Endocrine Cells signals via the parasympathetic pathway for
■ produces regulatory hormones them to relax. This results in the relaxation of the
● Ileocecal Junction internal anal sphincter.
○ where small intestines terminate ● The internal anal sphincter = involuntary control
○ contains a valve (ileocecal valve) which ● The external anal sphincter = voluntary control
demarcates the end of the small intestines and ● Contraction of the external anal sphincter opens it
the beginning of the large intestines (colon) and facilitates completion of defecation
 - where bile is temporarily stored
Constipation - chyme stays too long in the large - humans can function without gallbladder
intestine; hindi nagtatae for days ● Excretion
Diarrhea - bacterial infection due to poor absorption of ● Nutrient Storage
water; watery feces ● Nutrient Conversion
● Detoxification
ACCESSORY ORGANS OF ● Synthesis of Important Substances
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ANATOMY
SALIVARY GLANDS ● Considered the largest internal organ
● composed of fluid and proteins ● Average weight: 3.0 kgs
● digests carbohydrates ● Location: Right Upper Quadrant of the Abdomen
● has three main functions: ● Falciform Ligament - divides left and right lobe
○ helps the oral cavity remain moist ● Hepatic Triad
○ protective functions ○ hepatic ducts, portal vein, hepatic artery
○ involved in the initial phase of digestion ● Hepatocytes - cell in the liver
● Large Salivary Glands: ● Receives blood from the hepatic artery and portal
○ Parotid Glands – Serous; located behind ears vein
■ Mumps - viral infection; enlarged PG; can ● Blood exits through the hepatic vein which
travel down testes and affect production of eventually drains to the inferior vena cava (heart)
sperm
○ Submandibular Glands - Mixed, Predominantly MECHANISM
Serous ● Parasympathetic stimulation stimulates bile
○ Sublingual Glands – Mixed, Predominantly secretion. This also stimulates the gallbladder to
Mucous contract

SALIVA SECRETIONS
● Composition: ● Secretin
○ Water ○ from the duodenum
○ Amylase – breaks down starch ○ stimulates bile secretion
○ Lysozyme - antibacterial ● Cholecystokinin
● Regulation of secretion ○ stimulates bile secretion, gallbladder contraction
○ Autonomic/Neural – Predominantly and sphincter relaxation
parasympathetic
○ Parasympathetic stimuli = Increased gland PANCREAS
activity ● both a digestive organ and a gland
○ Sympathetic stimuli = decreased gland activity
FUNCTION
Average daily rate of secretion: 0.5L - 1.5L per day ● produce pancreatic hormones that aid in digestion
● beta cells of langerhans produce insulin

LIVER ANATOMY
● 2 portions:
FUNCTION ○ Exocrine
● General Functions: ○ Endocrine
○ produces bile ● Anatomic Parts (Gross Anatomy)
○ receives toxic substances ○ Head
○ produces albumin and coagulation factor ○ Body
● Digestion ○ Tail
○ Bile secretion ● Microscopic Anatomy
■ Bile ○ Acinar Cells (Exocrine)
- an important substance secreted by the ○ Islet Cells and Alpha Cells (Endocrine)
liver that aids in digestion ○
- neutralizes acidic contents
- emulsifies lipids so that it can be acted MECHANISM
upon by enzymes that break down lipids ● Parasympathetic stimulation triggers release of
into more absorbable forms pancreatic enzymes
■ Gallbladder ● Acidic chyme in the duodenum stimulates the
- stores and concentrates bile release of secretin
- behind right lobe
● Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release a watery
secretion rich in bicarbonate into the duodenum to
neutralize acidic chyme
● Fatty acids in the duodenum stimulate
cholecystokinin.
● Cholecystokinin causes gallbladder to contract to
release stored bile, stimulates the pancreas to
release an enzyme rich solution

SECRETIONS
● Bicarbonate – Neutralizes stomach acid
● Trypsin – Protein digestion
● Chymotrypsin – Protein digestion
● Carboxypeptidase – Protein digestion
● Amylase – Breaks down carbohydrates
● Lipase – Breaks down lipids
● Nucleases – Breaks down DNA and RNA

When the pancreas explodes, all of these are released.

heimlich maneuver - used when choking trachea - anterior to neck; supported by c-shaped bones
most of absorption of food happens in the small esophagus - posterior to trachea; lined by stratified
intestine; water = large intestine squamous epithelium (non-keratinized); passageway of
food from mouth to stomach
anus bolus - formed in mouth
internal sphincter =
external sphincter = voluntary process of deglutition - get food back to
stomach
Associated Organs: involuntary = food cannot be brought back to the mouth
- Salivary Glands
- Liver esophagus
- Pancreas Upper Third – Skeletal muscle is present in the wall
- Gallbladder • Middle Third – Skeletal and smooth muscle is present
in the wall
layers: • Lower Third – Smooth muscle only in the wall
tunica Mucosa - simple columnar Has two sphincters on both ends
tunica Submucosa • Upper/esophageal Sphincter
tunica Muscularis Propria - circular, longitudinal • Lower/cardiac Sphincter – guards entrance to stomach
tunica Serosa/Adventitia - simple squamous epithelium
stomach
Peritoneum main function: food storage
• Serous Membrane surrounding the visceral organs secondary function: digestion
- partial digestion of protein occurs in the stomach
Oral Cavity Anatomy
• • Cardia
• Fundus
upper jaw = 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars • Body
lower jaw = 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars • Pyloric Area
dental formula:
half the upper jaw/half the lower jaw esophagus-stomach: cardiac sphincter
2123/2123 stomach-duodenum: pyloric sphincter
folds in stomach: rugae
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) syndrome
lingual frenulum - attaches tongue to floor of mouth Cells:
tongue-tied/ankyloglossia - very short lingual frenulum • Surface Mucous Cells – Found in the inner stomach.
milk teeth -> permanent teeth -> false teeth (replaced by Produces mucus.
dentures) • Mucous Neck Cells – Also produces mucus
• Parietal Cells – Produces hydrochloric acid and
salivary gland - keeps mouth moist; produce saliva intrinsic factor; important; HCL help digest food
saliva - contains lysozyme, digest carbohydrates • Endocrine Cells – Produces regulatory hormones
parotid glands - behind ears; if infected = mumps: viral • Chief Cells – Produces pepsinogen
infection, enlarged PG, can travel down testes and affect
production of sperm pepsinogen = converted to pepsin
Submandibular Glands- Mixed, Predominantly Serous pepsin = digests proteins
• Sublingual Glands – Mixed, Predominantly Mucous
with -gen: enzyme inactive form
Saliva without -gen: active form
• Composition:
Water Secretions
Amylase – Breaks down starch • Hydrochloric Acid – Kills microorganisms, activates
Lysozyme - Antibacterial pepsinogen to pepsin
Regulation of secretion • Pepsin – breaks the covalent bonds of proteins to
• Autonomic/Neural – Predominantly parasympathetic break them into smaller peptide chains.
• Various stimuli can either increase or decrease • Mucus – protects the stomach lining
salivation • Intrinsic Factor – Aids in Vitamin B absorption. Vitamin
• Increased parasympathetic stimuli = Increased activity B is important for DNA synthesis and red blood cell
of the salivary glands production
• Increased sympathetic stimulation = Decreased gland
activity cephalic phase: thought of food activates the
chemoreceptors and cause tactile sensation in mouth,
carbohydrates: being digested by amylase cause hypothalamus to produce secretions
gastric phase: once secretion is stimulated, stomach will Other features
distent, food will be churned and mixed, secretion of • Duodenum – The submucosa contains duodenal
hormones of secretin and cholecystokinin, food enter the glands
intestinal phase • Ileum – Lymphoid follicles (Peyer’s patch) are present,
protect SI from harmful microorganisms
hormones • The small intestines terminate in the ileocecal junction.
gastrin This junction contains
- produced in the stomach a valve (ileocecal valve) which demarcates the end of
- stimulated by distension of stomach the small intestines and the beginning of the large
- partial digestion of protein takes place intestines (colon)
- increases gastric secretion
- increases gastric motility Secretions
secretin • Mucus
- produced in the duodenum • Water
- counteract acidity of chyme • Ions
- stimulated by chyme • Peptidases
- decrease gastric secretion • Disaccharidases
- stimulate pancreas and gallbladder to produce
secretions that are very high in bicarbonate ion The peristaltic contractions causes the ileocecal
- decrease gastric motility valve/sphincter to
cholecystokinin relax/open which results to the flow of chyme into the
- presence of fatty acids and peptides induce the large intestine
secretion (cecum)
- produced in the duodenum
- decrease gastric secretion Liver
- stimulate pancreatic secretion (high in digestive function: produce bile, serves to receive toxic
enzymes) substances, produces albumin and coagulation factor
- contraction of gallbladder • Considered the largest internal organ
- relaxation of hepatopancreatic ampullar • Average weight: 3.0 kgs
sphincter • Location: Right Upper Quadrant of the Abdomen
- strongly decrease gastric motility right lobe and left lobe - divided by falciform ligament
hepatic triad: hepatic ducts, portal vein, hepatic artery
Remember that the stomach has three groups of smooth hepatocytes: cell in the liver
muscle in
the muscularis propria: gallbladder
• Outer Longitudinal - behind right lobe
• Middle Circular - where bile is temporarily stored
• Inner Oblique - organ that stores and concentrates bile.
• These muscles facilitate the movements in the stomach - can function without gallbladder

small intestine Bile secretion

Main function: Absorption of nutrients. • Bile is an important substance secreted by the liver that
circular folds: villi aids in digestion
coiled, there are constrictions • Bile neutralizes acidic contents
• Bile emulsifies lipids so that it can be acted upon by
Three major parts: enzymes that break down lipids into more absorbable
• Duodenum - ~12 inches forms
• Jejunum - ~2.5 m long
• Ileum- ~3.5 m long Mechanism:
• Parasympathetic stimulation stimulates bile secretion.
microvilli: increases absorptive action, longer than cilla This also stimulates the gallbladder to contract
• Secretin from the duodenum also stimulates bile
Microscopic Anatomy secretion
• Absorptive Cells – Have microvilli. Produces digestive • Cholecystokinin stimulates bile secretion, gallbladder
enzymes and absorb contraction and
digested food. sphincter relaxation
• Goblet Cells – Produces protective mucus
• Granular Cells – Helps protect intestinal epithelium pancreas (lapay)
from bacteria - both a digestive organ and a gland
• Endocrine Cells – produces regulatory hormones - beta cells of langerhans produce insulin
 - produce pancreatic hormones that aid in Movement: Mass Movement
digestion cause defecation reflex
- both exocrine and endocrine • This is in contrast to the peristaltic movement of the
- has head, body, tail small intestines.
• Each mass movement contraction extends over 20 or
Microscopic Anatomy more centimeters of the large intestine
• Acinar Cells (Exocrine)
• Islet Cells and Alpha Cells (Endocrine) Defecation Reflex
• Once the feces reaches the rectum and anus area, the
Secretions distention of these structures will send signals via the
• Bicarbonate – Neutralizes stomach acid parasympathetic pathway for them to relax. This results
• Trypsin – Protein digestion in the relaxation of the internal anal sphincter.
• Chymotrypsin – Protein digestion • The internal anal sphincter is NOT under voluntary
• Carboxypeptidase – Protein digestion control
• Amylase – Breaks down carbohydrates • The external anal sphincter is the one under voluntary
• Lipase – Breaks down lipids control
• Nucleases – Breaks down DNA and RNA • Contraction of the external anal sphincter opens it and
facilitates completion of defecation
when pancreas explodes, all of these are released

Mechanism of pancreatic secretion:

• Parasympathetic stimulation triggers release of
pancreatic enzymes
• Acidic chyme in the duodenum stimulates the release
of secretin
• Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release a watery
secretion rich in bicarbonate into the duodenum to
neutralize acidic chyme
• Fatty acids in the duodenum stimulate cholecystokinin.
• Cholecystokinin causes gallbladder to contract to
release stored bile, stimulates the pancreas to release
an enzyme rich solution

ileocecal valve = end of small intestine

large intestine
portions:
- ascending
- transverse
- descending
haustra - saccules in the colon that give it its segmented
appearance
Function:
• Storage of chyme from the small intestines
• Around 1500 mL of chyme enters the large intestines
daily but more than 90%
of this is reabsorbed.
• The remaining chyme that was not reabsorbed is called
feces
only absorbs water

constipation = chyme stays too long in the large intestine

diarrhea = bacterial infection due to poor absorption of
water

Functions
• Feces Formation
• Mucus Secretion – To make the feces easier to move
• Defecation/Egestion – the process of eliminating the
formed feces