The digestive system converts food into nutrients through various organs, including the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. It consists of multiple phases, including the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases, which regulate gastric secretions and digestion. The large intestine absorbs water and nutrients, forming feces, while the pancreas and liver play crucial roles in enzyme secretion and metabolism.
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Digestive
The digestive system converts food into nutrients through various organs, including the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. It consists of multiple phases, including the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases, which regulate gastric secretions and digestion. The large intestine absorbs water and nutrients, forming feces, while the pancreas and liver play crucial roles in enzyme secretion and metabolism.
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duodenum, pancreas, and
Digestive System Overview kidneys, lie outside the peritoneal
cavity, making them The digestive system transforms food into retroperitoneal. nutrients for cells, involving multiple organs, glands, and ducts. It comprises Parts of the Digestive System the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the digestive tract, and various ● Oral Cavity: Includes lips, cheeks, accessory organs (like the salivary glands, teeth, tongue, and salivary glands. liver, and pancreas) that aid digestion. It's where mastication (chewing) begins the mechanical breakdown Anatomy of the Digestive Tract of food. ● Teeth: Humans have 32 teeth in 1. Four Tunics of the Digestive adulthood, with functions ranging Tract from cutting (incisors), tearing ○ Mucosa: The innermost (canines), to grinding (molars and layer, composed of mucous premolars). epithelium, lamina propria ● Salivary Glands: Three major (loose connective tissue), glands—parotid, submandibular, and muscularis mucosae and sublingual—secrete saliva, (smooth muscle). which contains salivary amylase ○ Submucosa: Thick to begin carbohydrate digestion. connective tissue layer ● Pharynx: The throat, divided into containing blood vessels, nasopharynx, oropharynx, and nerves, and small glands. laryngopharynx, that conducts food ○ Muscularis: Composed of from the mouth to the esophagus. smooth muscle, ● Esophagus: A muscular tube that responsible for peristalsis transports food to the stomach via (contractions that move peristalsis. food). ○ Serosa/Adventitia: The Digestive Processes in the outermost layer, serosa is a Stomach smooth membrane covering organs within the ● Cardiac Part: Where the peritoneal cavity, while esophagus connects to the adventitia refers to regions stomach. of the digestive tract that ● Fundus: The upper left portion of are not covered by the the stomach, above the cardiac peritoneum. part. 2. Peritoneum: ● Body: The main portion of the ○ Visceral stomach, where food is mixed and Peritoneum/Serosa: partially digested. Covers the abdominal ● Pyloric Part: The funnel-shaped organs. region that leads to the small ○ Parietal Peritoneum: Lines intestine. the abdominal cavity wall. ○ Mesenteries: Connective Gastric Glands and Secretion tissue sheets that hold the abdominal cavity's organs The stomach's mucosa contains gastric in place, like the greater glands that secrete various substances: omentum and lesser omentum. ● Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Lowers 3. Retroperitoneal Organs: Some stomach pH to about 2.0, kills abdominal organs, such as the microorganisms, and activates digestion by increasing digestive enzymes. stool bulk and promoting ● Pepsin: Activated from regular bowel movements. pepsinogen, it breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. Mastication (Chewing) ● Mucus: Protects the stomach lining from acidic chyme. Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces, ● Intrinsic Factor: Binds vitamin increasing surface area for digestive B12 to facilitate its absorption in enzymes. Incisors and canines are used the small intestine. for cutting and tearing, while molars and premolars crush and grind food. Stomach Disorders Swallowing Process ● Heartburn (Gastritis): A burning sensation caused by acid reflux, ● Voluntary Phase: Initiates with where acidic chyme backflows into food formation into a bolus, pushed the esophagus. to the back of the mouth. ○ Causes: Overeating, fatty ● Pharyngeal Phase: foods, excessive alcohol, Reflex-controlled, food moves smoking, and medications. through the pharynx. ○ Treatment: Antacids, ● Esophageal Phase: Peristalsis proton pump inhibitors, and pushes food down the esophagus H2 blockers to reduce to the stomach. gastric acid. Peristalsis Salivary Function and Composition ● Involuntary smooth muscle contractions move food along the Saliva is produced by the salivary glands digestive tract. Peristalsis occurs (parotid, submandibular, sublingual) and from the mouth to the stomach and consists of: throughout the intestines.
● Serous fluid (mostly water, Gastric Secretions and
bicarbonate ions). ● Mucus: Lubricates and protects Regulation the oral cavity. ● Gastric secretions are regulated in ● Lysozyme: Provides mild three phases: antibacterial action. ○ Cephalic Phase: ● Salivary Amylase: Begins Stimulated by the sight, carbohydrate digestion, converting smell, or thought of food, starches into simpler sugars like increasing stomach maltose. secretions. ○ Gastric Phase: Occurs Role of Dietary Fiber in Digestion when food enters the stomach, stimulating the ● Types of Fiber: release of gastric juice. ○ Soluble Fiber: Found in ○ Intestinal Phase: oats, barley, and fruits like Decreases gastric secretion apples. It helps lower LDL to slow down digestion as cholesterol and regulates food moves into the blood sugar. intestines. ○ Insoluble Fiber: Found in whole grains, vegetables, This detailed overview covers the and legumes. It aids in physiology of the digestive system, describing various stages and processes ○ Stimuli: Presence of acidic of digestion, as well as the roles of chyme or fatty acids in the different organs and their secretions. I'll duodenum. break down the key points for clarity: ○ Mechanism: ■ Acidic chyme (pH < Phases of Stomach Secretion 2.0) inhibits gastric secretion via neural 1. Cephalic Phase: reflexes and the ○ Control: CNS (central secretion of nervous system) via the hormones like brain. secretin (which ○ Stimuli: The taste, smell, inhibits gastric or thought of food, or tactile secretion) and sensations from food in the cholecystokinin mouth. (which also helps ○ Mechanism: Signals from inhibit gastric sensory input (taste, smell, emptying). etc.) activate the medulla ■ This phase oblongata, which sends regulates the rate of signals via the vagus nerve stomach emptying to stimulate gastric to optimize secretions before food even digestion and enters the stomach. absorption. 2. Gastric Phase: ○ Control: Presence of food in the stomach. ○ Stimuli: Stretching of the Stomach Movements stomach (distention), peptides from partially 1. Mixing Waves: digested proteins. ○ Weak contractions that mix ○ Mechanism: ingested food with gastric ■ Mechanoreceptors secretions, forming chyme. detect stomach 2. Peristaltic Waves: stretching and ○ Stronger contractions that trigger move chyme towards the parasympathetic pyloric sphincter. reflexes. ○ The pyloric sphincter only ■ Peptides from food allows small amounts of stimulate the chyme into the duodenum release of gastrin, at a time to ensure proper which promotes digestion. secretion of gastric juices (HCl, pepsin, mucus). ■ Local reflexes Small Intestine enhance gastric secretions. 1. Structure: 3. Intestinal Phase: ○ Divided into three parts: ○ Control: Entrance of Duodenum (25 cm), chyme (acidic, partially Jejunum (2.5 m), Ileum digested food) into the (3.5 m). duodenum. ○ Circular Folds and Villi: Increase surface area for absorption. Each villus contains blood vessels and ○ Central vein drains into a lymphatic vessel (lacteal) hepatic veins, which return that help absorb nutrients. blood to the inferior vena ○ Microvilli on the surface of cava. absorptive cells further 2. Functions: enhance nutrient ○ Metabolism: Converts absorption. nutrients into usable forms 2. Functions: (e.g., converting amino ○ Digestion & Absorption: acids into glucose, lipids, Majority of nutrient ATP). absorption occurs in the ○ Detoxification: Converts duodenum and jejunum. harmful substances like ○ Secretion: Intestinal ammonia into urea (which glands secrete enzymes is excreted by kidneys). (peptides, disaccharides), ○ Storage: Stores nutrients mucus, and bicarbonate to (e.g., glycogen, lipids, neutralize stomach acid. vitamins, copper, iron). ○ Peristalsis & Segmental ○ Protein Synthesis: Contractions: Help in Synthesizes blood proteins mixing chyme and moving it (e.g., albumin, fibrinogen, through the intestine for clotting factors). further digestion and ○ Bile Production: Bile is absorption. produced by hepatocytes 3. Enzyme Actions: and stored in the ○ Peptidases break down gallbladder. Bile aids in proteins into amino acids. digestion, especially the ○ Disaccharidases break breakdown of fats. down disaccharides (e.g., maltose into glucose). ○ Bile from the liver and pancreatic enzymes Pancreas (lipase, nucleases, amylase) assist in digestion 1. Structure: of lipids, proteins, and ○ Located behind the carbohydrates. stomach, it has both endocrine (hormonal) and exocrine (digestive enzyme) functions. Liver ○ The pancreas secretes enzymes via the 1. Structure: pancreatic duct, which ○ Located in the right upper joins the common bile quadrant of the abdomen, it duct before emptying into has four lobes: Right lobe, the duodenum. Left lobe, Caudate lobe, 2. Endocrine Function: and Quadrate lobe. ○ Islets of Langerhans ○ Divided into hepatic (clusters of endocrine cells) lobules with a portal triad secrete: at each corner consisting ■ Insulin & of: Glucagon: ■ Hepatic portal vein Regulate blood ■ Hepatic artery glucose levels. ■ Bile duct ■ Somatostatin: Regulates insulin and glucagon ● Appendicitis: secretion. ○ Definition: Inflammation of 3. Exocrine Function: the appendix, a small ○ Pancreatic Enzymes: pouch-like structure Includes amylase (for carbohydrate digestion), attached to the large lipase (for fat digestion), intestine. and proteases like trypsin ○ Cause: The appendix and chymotrypsin (for becomes inflamed when protein digestion). secretions or bacteria ○ Bicarbonate Secretion: accumulate inside, causing Neutralizes acidic chyme pain and swelling. entering the duodenum from the stomach. ○ Symptoms: Abdominal pain (often starting around the belly button), nausea, vomiting, fever. Large Intestine ○ Treatment: Surgical removal of the appendix 1. Structure: (appendectomy). ○ Includes the Cecum, ● Hemorrhoids: Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, ○ Definition: Swollen, sigmoid), Rectum, and inflamed veins in the Anal Canal. rectum or anus. ○ Ileocecal Sphincter: ○ Symptoms: Pain, itching, Regulates passage of and/or bleeding during chyme from the ileum to the bowel movements. cecum. ○ Causes: Increased ○ Appendix: A small, lymphoid tissue-filled pressure in the rectal veins structure attached to the from straining, pregnancy, cecum. or obesity. 2. Function: ○ Treatment: Dietary ○ Water Absorption: More changes (fiber-rich foods), than 90% of the water from medications, and in severe chyme is absorbed, converting it into feces. cases, surgery. ○ Storage of Feces: The colon stores feces until defecation. ○ Fermentation of Functions of the Large Intestine Remaining Nutrients: Bacteria in the colon ● Length: Approximately 1.5 meters ferment undigested (5 feet). carbohydrates, producing gases and short-chain fatty ● Segments: acids. ○ Ascending colon: The part ○ Defecation: Feces are of the colon that rises on eliminated from the body. the right side of the abdomen. ○ Transverse colon: Crosses the abdomen Appendix and Colon horizontally. ○ Descending colon: Moves ● Internal Anal Sphincter: downward on the left side ○ Made of smooth muscle. of the abdomen. ○ It prevents defecation ○ Sigmoid colon: The "S" under normal conditions by shaped portion that leads maintaining tonic into the rectum. (continuous) contractions. ● Functions: ○ Involuntary control. ○ Feces Formation: The ● External Anal Sphincter: large intestine absorbs ○ Made of skeletal muscle, water, salts, and nutrients under voluntary (conscious) from the remaining control. indigestible food matter, ○ Allows the body to control forming feces. when defecation occurs. ○ Microorganisms: The ● Anal Canal: colon houses trillions of ○ The final segment of the bacteria, which help break digestive tract, leading to down materials not the anus. digested in the small ○ Composed of skeletal intestine. These microbes muscle, allowing conscious contribute to about 30% of control over defecation. the dry weight of feces. ○ Mass Movements: Strong, wave-like contractions that push contents toward the Digestive Process anus for elimination. These occur every 8-12 hours. ● Mechanical Digestion: ○ Defecation Reflex: The ○ Purpose: Breaks down stretching of the rectal walls large food particles into by feces triggers a reflex smaller pieces. that relaxes the internal ○ Process: Begins in the anal sphincter and mouth with chewing, promotes further continues with churning in contractions for bowel the stomach, and finishes movement. with peristalsis in the intestines. ● Chemical Digestion: ○ Purpose: Breaks down Anatomy of the Rectum and Anal large molecules Canal (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) into smaller ● Rectum: molecules that can be ○ A muscular tube that stores absorbed. feces until they are ready to ○ Enzymes: Specialized be expelled. enzymes break down food ○ Structure: Contains molecules into their building smooth muscle to contract blocks (e.g., carbohydrates and move feces toward the into sugars, proteins into anus. amino acids). ● Absorption: contaminated food ○ Carbohydrates: Broken or water. down into ■ Hepatitis B: Spread monosaccharides (glucose, through blood or galactose, and fructose) for bodily fluids, absorption. including sexual ○ Proteins: Digested into contact. amino acids, absorbed by ■ Hepatitis C: Often the small intestine. leads to chronic ○ Lipids: Absorbed primarily infection, cirrhosis, in the small intestine, where and liver cancer. they are broken down by ● Intestinal Disorders: bile salts and lipase. ○ Inflammatory Bowel ○ Water and Minerals: About Disease (IBD): Includes 9 liters of water enter the Crohn's disease and digestive system daily, with ulcerative colitis, both of most absorbed in the small which cause chronic intestine and the rest in the inflammation of the large intestine. intestines, leading to diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fatigue. ○ Celiac Disease (Gluten Digestive System Diseases and Enteropathy): An immune Disorders disorder triggered by gluten, leading to damage ● Stomach Diseases: in the small intestine. ○ Peptic Ulcer: A sore that ○ Constipation: Caused by forms in the lining of the slow-moving feces, often stomach or duodenum, due to inadequate fiber caused by Helicobacter intake, lack of water, or lack pyloriinfection or irritants of physical activity. like alcohol, stress, and ● Infections: smoking. Symptoms ○ Food Poisoning: Caused include abdominal pain, by bacterial toxins (e.g., nausea, and indigestion. Salmonella, E. coli), ● Liver Diseases: leading to vomiting, ○ Cirrhosis: Chronic liver diarrhea, and abdominal damage, often due to cramps. alcohol consumption, that ○ Giardiasis: A parasitic leads to scarring of liver infection caused by Giardia tissue, liver dysfunction, lamblia, leading to and impaired blood flow. digestive distress. ○ Hepatitis: Inflammation of ○ Dysentery: Severe the liver caused by various diarrhea with blood or viruses: mucus in the stool, caused ■ Hepatitis A: by bacterial or protozoan Transmitted by infections. ○ Intestinal Parasites: ○ Peptidases: Enzymes that Includes tapeworms, break down smaller pinworms, and hookworms, peptides into amino acids, usually acquired from which are absorbed into the contaminated food or water bloodstream. in unsanitary conditions.
Summary of Digestion and
Key Digestive System Functions Absorption 1. Carbohydrates: ● Carbohydrates: Digestion begins ○ Salivary Amylase: Starts with salivary amylase and carbohydrate digestion in continues with pancreatic the mouth. amylase, breaking down ○ Pancreatic Amylase: polysaccharides into Continues carbohydrate disaccharides. Disaccharidases digestion in the small further break them down into intestine. monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). ○ Disaccharidases: Break ● Lipids: Lipase breaks down down disaccharides (e.g., triglycerides, aided by bile salts lactose into glucose) in the through emulsification. Fatty acids small intestine. and glycerol are absorbed by the 2. Lipids: intestinal cells and transported via ○ Lipase: Secreted by the micelles. pancreas to break down ● Proteins: Pepsin starts protein triglycerides into fatty acids breakdown in the stomach, and and glycerol. trypsin and chymotrypsin ○ Emulsification: The continue this process in the small process by which bile salts intestine. Peptidases convert break large fat droplets into smaller peptides into amino acids smaller droplets, increasing for absorption. surface area for digestion. ○ Micelles: Small clusters of bile salts and lipids that help absorb lipids into the intestinal cells. 3. Proteins: ○ Pepsin: Enzyme in the stomach that begins protein digestion by breaking down large proteins into smaller peptides. ○ Trypsin and Chymotrypsin: Enzymes in the small intestine that continue protein digestion.