duodenum, pancreas, and

Digestive System Overview kidneys, lie outside the peritoneal

cavity, making them
The digestive system transforms food into retroperitoneal.
nutrients for cells, involving multiple
organs, glands, and ducts. It comprises Parts of the Digestive System
the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also
known as the digestive tract, and various ● Oral Cavity: Includes lips, cheeks,
accessory organs (like the salivary glands, teeth, tongue, and salivary glands.
liver, and pancreas) that aid digestion. It's where mastication (chewing)
begins the mechanical breakdown
Anatomy of the Digestive Tract of food.
● Teeth: Humans have 32 teeth in
1. Four Tunics of the Digestive adulthood, with functions ranging
Tract from cutting (incisors), tearing
○ Mucosa: The innermost (canines), to grinding (molars and
layer, composed of mucous premolars).
epithelium, lamina propria ● Salivary Glands: Three major
(loose connective tissue), glands—parotid, submandibular,
and muscularis mucosae and sublingual—secrete saliva,
(smooth muscle). which contains salivary amylase
○ Submucosa: Thick to begin carbohydrate digestion.
connective tissue layer ● Pharynx: The throat, divided into
containing blood vessels, nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
nerves, and small glands. laryngopharynx, that conducts food
○ Muscularis: Composed of from the mouth to the esophagus.
smooth muscle, ● Esophagus: A muscular tube that
responsible for peristalsis transports food to the stomach via
(contractions that move peristalsis.
food).
○ Serosa/Adventitia: The Digestive Processes in the
outermost layer, serosa is a Stomach
smooth membrane
covering organs within the ● Cardiac Part: Where the
peritoneal cavity, while esophagus connects to the
adventitia refers to regions stomach.
of the digestive tract that ● Fundus: The upper left portion of
are not covered by the the stomach, above the cardiac
peritoneum. part.
2. Peritoneum: ● Body: The main portion of the
○ Visceral stomach, where food is mixed and
Peritoneum/Serosa: partially digested.
Covers the abdominal ● Pyloric Part: The funnel-shaped
organs. region that leads to the small
○ Parietal Peritoneum: Lines intestine.
the abdominal cavity wall.
○ Mesenteries: Connective Gastric Glands and Secretion
tissue sheets that hold the
abdominal cavity's organs The stomach's mucosa contains gastric
in place, like the greater glands that secrete various substances:
omentum and lesser
omentum. ● Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Lowers
3. Retroperitoneal Organs: Some stomach pH to about 2.0, kills
abdominal organs, such as the
 microorganisms, and activates digestion by increasing
digestive enzymes. stool bulk and promoting
● Pepsin: Activated from regular bowel movements.
pepsinogen, it breaks down
proteins into smaller peptides. Mastication (Chewing)
● Mucus: Protects the stomach
lining from acidic chyme. Chewing breaks food into smaller pieces,
● Intrinsic Factor: Binds vitamin increasing surface area for digestive
B12 to facilitate its absorption in enzymes. Incisors and canines are used
the small intestine. for cutting and tearing, while molars and
premolars crush and grind food.
Stomach Disorders
Swallowing Process
● Heartburn (Gastritis): A burning
sensation caused by acid reflux, ● Voluntary Phase: Initiates with
where acidic chyme backflows into food formation into a bolus, pushed
the esophagus. to the back of the mouth.
○ Causes: Overeating, fatty ● Pharyngeal Phase:
foods, excessive alcohol, Reflex-controlled, food moves
smoking, and medications. through the pharynx.
○ Treatment: Antacids, ● Esophageal Phase: Peristalsis
proton pump inhibitors, and pushes food down the esophagus
H2 blockers to reduce to the stomach.
gastric acid.
Peristalsis
Salivary Function and
Composition ● Involuntary smooth muscle
contractions move food along the
Saliva is produced by the salivary glands digestive tract. Peristalsis occurs
(parotid, submandibular, sublingual) and from the mouth to the stomach and
consists of: throughout the intestines.

● Serous fluid (mostly water, Gastric Secretions and

bicarbonate ions).
● Mucus: Lubricates and protects
Regulation
the oral cavity.
● Gastric secretions are regulated in
● Lysozyme: Provides mild
three phases:
antibacterial action.
○ Cephalic Phase:
● Salivary Amylase: Begins
Stimulated by the sight,
carbohydrate digestion, converting
smell, or thought of food,
starches into simpler sugars like
increasing stomach
maltose.
secretions.
○ Gastric Phase: Occurs
Role of Dietary Fiber in Digestion when food enters the
stomach, stimulating the
● Types of Fiber: release of gastric juice.
○ Soluble Fiber: Found in ○ Intestinal Phase:
oats, barley, and fruits like Decreases gastric secretion
apples. It helps lower LDL to slow down digestion as
cholesterol and regulates food moves into the
blood sugar. intestines.
○ Insoluble Fiber: Found in
whole grains, vegetables, This detailed overview covers the
and legumes. It aids in physiology of the digestive system,
describing various stages and processes ○ Stimuli: Presence of acidic
of digestion, as well as the roles of chyme or fatty acids in the
different organs and their secretions. I'll duodenum.
break down the key points for clarity: ○ Mechanism:
■ Acidic chyme (pH <
Phases of Stomach Secretion 2.0) inhibits gastric
secretion via neural
1. Cephalic Phase: reflexes and the
○ Control: CNS (central secretion of
nervous system) via the hormones like
brain. secretin (which
○ Stimuli: The taste, smell, inhibits gastric
or thought of food, or tactile secretion) and
sensations from food in the cholecystokinin
mouth. (which also helps
○ Mechanism: Signals from inhibit gastric
sensory input (taste, smell, emptying).
etc.) activate the medulla ■ This phase
oblongata, which sends regulates the rate of
signals via the vagus nerve stomach emptying
to stimulate gastric to optimize
secretions before food even digestion and
enters the stomach. absorption.
2. Gastric Phase:
○ Control: Presence of food
in the stomach.
○ Stimuli: Stretching of the Stomach Movements
stomach (distention),
peptides from partially 1. Mixing Waves:
digested proteins. ○ Weak contractions that mix
○ Mechanism: ingested food with gastric
■ Mechanoreceptors secretions, forming chyme.
detect stomach 2. Peristaltic Waves:
stretching and ○ Stronger contractions that
trigger move chyme towards the
parasympathetic pyloric sphincter.
reflexes. ○ The pyloric sphincter only
■ Peptides from food allows small amounts of
stimulate the chyme into the duodenum
release of gastrin, at a time to ensure proper
which promotes digestion.
secretion of gastric
juices (HCl, pepsin,
mucus).
■ Local reflexes Small Intestine
enhance gastric
secretions. 1. Structure:
3. Intestinal Phase: ○ Divided into three parts:
○ Control: Entrance of Duodenum (25 cm),
chyme (acidic, partially Jejunum (2.5 m), Ileum
digested food) into the (3.5 m).
duodenum. ○ Circular Folds and Villi:
Increase surface area for
absorption. Each villus
 contains blood vessels and ○ Central vein drains into
a lymphatic vessel (lacteal) hepatic veins, which return
that help absorb nutrients. blood to the inferior vena
○ Microvilli on the surface of cava.
absorptive cells further 2. Functions:
enhance nutrient ○ Metabolism: Converts
absorption. nutrients into usable forms
2. Functions: (e.g., converting amino
○ Digestion & Absorption: acids into glucose, lipids,
Majority of nutrient ATP).
absorption occurs in the ○ Detoxification: Converts
duodenum and jejunum. harmful substances like
○ Secretion: Intestinal ammonia into urea (which
glands secrete enzymes is excreted by kidneys).
(peptides, disaccharides), ○ Storage: Stores nutrients
mucus, and bicarbonate to (e.g., glycogen, lipids,
neutralize stomach acid. vitamins, copper, iron).
○ Peristalsis & Segmental ○ Protein Synthesis:
Contractions: Help in Synthesizes blood proteins
mixing chyme and moving it (e.g., albumin, fibrinogen,
through the intestine for clotting factors).
further digestion and ○ Bile Production: Bile is
absorption. produced by hepatocytes
3. Enzyme Actions: and stored in the
○ Peptidases break down gallbladder. Bile aids in
proteins into amino acids. digestion, especially the
○ Disaccharidases break breakdown of fats.
down disaccharides (e.g.,
maltose into glucose).
○ Bile from the liver and
pancreatic enzymes Pancreas
(lipase, nucleases,
amylase) assist in digestion 1. Structure:
of lipids, proteins, and ○ Located behind the
carbohydrates. stomach, it has both
endocrine (hormonal) and
exocrine (digestive
enzyme) functions.
Liver ○ The pancreas secretes
enzymes via the
1. Structure: pancreatic duct, which
○ Located in the right upper joins the common bile
quadrant of the abdomen, it duct before emptying into
has four lobes: Right lobe, the duodenum.
Left lobe, Caudate lobe, 2. Endocrine Function:
and Quadrate lobe. ○ Islets of Langerhans
○ Divided into hepatic (clusters of endocrine cells)
lobules with a portal triad secrete:
at each corner consisting ■ Insulin &
of: Glucagon:
■ Hepatic portal vein Regulate blood
■ Hepatic artery glucose levels.
■ Bile duct ■ Somatostatin:
Regulates insulin
 and glucagon ● Appendicitis:
secretion. ○ Definition: Inflammation of
3. Exocrine Function: the appendix, a small
○ Pancreatic Enzymes:
pouch-like structure
Includes amylase (for
carbohydrate digestion), attached to the large
lipase (for fat digestion), intestine.
and proteases like trypsin ○ Cause: The appendix
and chymotrypsin (for becomes inflamed when
protein digestion). secretions or bacteria
○ Bicarbonate Secretion: accumulate inside, causing
Neutralizes acidic chyme
pain and swelling.
entering the duodenum
from the stomach. ○ Symptoms: Abdominal
pain (often starting around
the belly button), nausea,
vomiting, fever.
Large Intestine ○ Treatment: Surgical
removal of the appendix
1. Structure: (appendectomy).
○ Includes the Cecum,
● Hemorrhoids:
Colon (ascending,
transverse, descending, ○ Definition: Swollen,
sigmoid), Rectum, and inflamed veins in the
Anal Canal. rectum or anus.
○ Ileocecal Sphincter: ○ Symptoms: Pain, itching,
Regulates passage of and/or bleeding during
chyme from the ileum to the bowel movements.
cecum.
○ Causes: Increased
○ Appendix: A small,
lymphoid tissue-filled pressure in the rectal veins
structure attached to the from straining, pregnancy,
cecum. or obesity.
2. Function: ○ Treatment: Dietary
○ Water Absorption: More changes (fiber-rich foods),
than 90% of the water from
medications, and in severe
chyme is absorbed,
converting it into feces. cases, surgery.
○ Storage of Feces: The
colon stores feces until
defecation.
○ Fermentation of Functions of the Large Intestine
Remaining Nutrients:
Bacteria in the colon ● Length: Approximately 1.5 meters
ferment undigested (5 feet).
carbohydrates, producing
gases and short-chain fatty ● Segments:
acids. ○ Ascending colon: The part
○ Defecation: Feces are of the colon that rises on
eliminated from the body. the right side of the
abdomen.
○ Transverse colon:
Crosses the abdomen
Appendix and Colon horizontally.
 ○ Descending colon: Moves ● Internal Anal Sphincter:
downward on the left side ○ Made of smooth muscle.
of the abdomen. ○ It prevents defecation
○ Sigmoid colon: The "S" under normal conditions by
shaped portion that leads maintaining tonic
into the rectum. (continuous) contractions.
● Functions: ○ Involuntary control.
○ Feces Formation: The ● External Anal Sphincter:
large intestine absorbs ○ Made of skeletal muscle,
water, salts, and nutrients under voluntary (conscious)
from the remaining control.
indigestible food matter, ○ Allows the body to control
forming feces. when defecation occurs.
○ Microorganisms: The ● Anal Canal:
colon houses trillions of ○ The final segment of the
bacteria, which help break digestive tract, leading to
down materials not the anus.
digested in the small ○ Composed of skeletal
intestine. These microbes muscle, allowing conscious
contribute to about 30% of control over defecation.
the dry weight of feces.
○ Mass Movements: Strong,
wave-like contractions that
push contents toward the Digestive Process
anus for elimination. These
occur every 8-12 hours. ● Mechanical Digestion:
○ Defecation Reflex: The ○ Purpose: Breaks down
stretching of the rectal walls large food particles into
by feces triggers a reflex smaller pieces.
that relaxes the internal ○ Process: Begins in the
anal sphincter and mouth with chewing,
promotes further continues with churning in
contractions for bowel the stomach, and finishes
movement. with peristalsis in the
intestines.
● Chemical Digestion:
○ Purpose: Breaks down
Anatomy of the Rectum and Anal large molecules
Canal (carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids) into smaller
● Rectum: molecules that can be
○ A muscular tube that stores absorbed.
feces until they are ready to ○ Enzymes: Specialized
be expelled. enzymes break down food
○ Structure: Contains molecules into their building
smooth muscle to contract blocks (e.g., carbohydrates
and move feces toward the into sugars, proteins into
anus. amino acids).
 ● Absorption: contaminated food
○ Carbohydrates: Broken or water.
down into ■ Hepatitis B: Spread
monosaccharides (glucose, through blood or
galactose, and fructose) for bodily fluids,
absorption. including sexual
○ Proteins: Digested into contact.
amino acids, absorbed by ■ Hepatitis C: Often
the small intestine. leads to chronic
○ Lipids: Absorbed primarily infection, cirrhosis,
in the small intestine, where and liver cancer.
they are broken down by ● Intestinal Disorders:
bile salts and lipase. ○ Inflammatory Bowel
○ Water and Minerals: About Disease (IBD): Includes
9 liters of water enter the Crohn's disease and
digestive system daily, with ulcerative colitis, both of
most absorbed in the small which cause chronic
intestine and the rest in the inflammation of the
large intestine. intestines, leading to
diarrhea, abdominal pain,
and fatigue.
○ Celiac Disease (Gluten
Digestive System Diseases and Enteropathy): An immune
Disorders disorder triggered by
gluten, leading to damage
● Stomach Diseases: in the small intestine.
○ Peptic Ulcer: A sore that ○ Constipation: Caused by
forms in the lining of the slow-moving feces, often
stomach or duodenum, due to inadequate fiber
caused by Helicobacter intake, lack of water, or lack
pyloriinfection or irritants of physical activity.
like alcohol, stress, and ● Infections:
smoking. Symptoms ○ Food Poisoning: Caused
include abdominal pain, by bacterial toxins (e.g.,
nausea, and indigestion. Salmonella, E. coli),
● Liver Diseases: leading to vomiting,
○ Cirrhosis: Chronic liver diarrhea, and abdominal
damage, often due to cramps.
alcohol consumption, that ○ Giardiasis: A parasitic
leads to scarring of liver infection caused by Giardia
tissue, liver dysfunction, lamblia, leading to
and impaired blood flow. digestive distress.
○ Hepatitis: Inflammation of ○ Dysentery: Severe
the liver caused by various diarrhea with blood or
viruses: mucus in the stool, caused
■ Hepatitis A: by bacterial or protozoan
Transmitted by infections.
 ○ Intestinal Parasites: ○ Peptidases: Enzymes that
Includes tapeworms, break down smaller
pinworms, and hookworms, peptides into amino acids,
usually acquired from which are absorbed into the
contaminated food or water bloodstream.
in unsanitary conditions.

Summary of Digestion and

Key Digestive System Functions Absorption
1. Carbohydrates: ● Carbohydrates: Digestion begins
○ Salivary Amylase: Starts with salivary amylase and
carbohydrate digestion in continues with pancreatic
the mouth. amylase, breaking down
○ Pancreatic Amylase: polysaccharides into
Continues carbohydrate disaccharides. Disaccharidases
digestion in the small further break them down into
intestine. monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).
○ Disaccharidases: Break ● Lipids: Lipase breaks down
down disaccharides (e.g., triglycerides, aided by bile salts
lactose into glucose) in the through emulsification. Fatty acids
small intestine. and glycerol are absorbed by the
2. Lipids: intestinal cells and transported via
○ Lipase: Secreted by the micelles.
pancreas to break down ● Proteins: Pepsin starts protein
triglycerides into fatty acids breakdown in the stomach, and
and glycerol. trypsin and chymotrypsin
○ Emulsification: The continue this process in the small
process by which bile salts intestine. Peptidases convert
break large fat droplets into smaller peptides into amino acids
smaller droplets, increasing for absorption.
surface area for digestion.
○ Micelles: Small clusters of
bile salts and lipids that
help absorb lipids into the
intestinal cells.
3. Proteins:
○ Pepsin: Enzyme in the
stomach that begins protein
digestion by breaking down
large proteins into smaller
peptides.
○ Trypsin and
Chymotrypsin: Enzymes
in the small intestine that
continue protein digestion.