SN 200 BScN (2023-2024)

Digestive System:

Allen, C. & Harper, V., (2020). Laboratory manual for anatomy & physiology (LL) (7th ed.). John Wiley &
Sons, Canada. ISBN: 9781119662556.

Tortora, G. & Derrickson, B. (2020). Principles of anatomy and physiology (16th ed.). John Wiley & Sons,
Canada. ISBN: 9781119662686.

Tortora, G. & Derrickson, B. (2020). Principles of anatomy and physiology (LL) (16th ed. Incorporated).
John Wiley & Sons, Canada. ISBN: 9781119662792.

Learning Outcomes:
1.1, 2.1,2.4, 2.5, 3.3
Functions of the
Digestive System

• Ingest food
• Digest it
• Mechanical
• Chemical
• Absorb nutrients
• Excrete waste

2
Gastroenterology?
• Some other names for the digestive tract are the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and
the alimentary canal.

• The study of the digestive tract is called gastroenterology.

• Mechanical: Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into

small bits, as in chewing in the mouth or “mixing and mashing” in the stomach.

• Chemical: Chewing food well will facilitate chemical digestion. Chemical

digestion breaks food into simple substances, such as glucose, that can be
absorbed; chemical digestion breaks chemical bonds.
Overview of the
Digestive System:

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Rectum, anus
• Accessory organs
Digestive System:

Accessory organs of
The digestive tract is a
digestion such as, salivary
hollow tube extending
glands, the liver,
from the mouth to the
gallbladder, and pancreas,
anus (considered external
empty their secretions into
to the body).
the tube at various points.
Layers of the
Digestive Tract:

• Mucosal layer
• Submucosal layer
• Muscle layer
• Circular and longitudinal
• Mixing, mashing action
• Peristaltic action
• Enteral nervous system
• Serosal layer
• Peritoneal membranes
Layers of the Digestive Tract:

The digestive tract has four The glands that secrete the
The nerves are the enteral
layers. Within the muscle most important digestive
nervous system
layer, the muscles are enzymes and mucus into
(parasympathetic) and
arranged to produce both the digestive tract are
innervate all the muscles
mixing and a longitudinal located in the mucosa and
for mixing and peristalsis.
peristaltic movement. submucosa.
Peristalsis :
• Waves of muscle contraction, relaxation
• Pushes food from mouth toward anus
• Peristaltic movements differ from organ to
organ

Peristalsis, an alternating rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the

muscles, moves food from the mouth to the anus. Squeezing the end of a
toothpaste tube is an analogy for peristalsis moving food bit by bit
through the tract.
Peristalsis:
• There is not a single wave of peristalsis; that wouldn’t
leave time for digestion.

• In the esophagus, peristalsis moves food from the

proximal to the distal end. A new wave begins at the
proximal end of the stomach to move food to the
duodenum. Within the duodenum, peristalsis is more of a
swaying action to maximize absorption.
Oral Cavity:

Teeth: Mastication
Tongue: Swallowing
Salivary glands
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
10
Eating and
Swallowing:

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Esophageal sphincters
• Pharyngoesophageal
• Lower esophageal
Eating and Swallowing:
• When food passes through the pharynx, it is directed into the
esophagus and not the trachea, primarily because the epiglottis
closes the entrance to the trachea.

TRY: put your fingers on the upper throat and swallow. They
should detect upward movement.

Why is it dangerous to administer fluids orally to a comatose or semicomatose

person? (The swallowing mechanism is impaired, so the epiglottis may not move up to
close the entrance to the trachea. The patient may aspirate.)
Functions of the Stomach
• Regulates rate of gastric emptying
• Secretes gastric juice, including
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Secretes gastric hormones and intrinsic
factor
• Digests limited amount of food
• Absorbs limited substances
The banding and stapling procedures for weight loss are intended to make
a patient feel full sooner and curb appetite.
Gastric secretion and motility are regulated by the vagus nerve, a part of the
enteral nervous system.
Parts of the
Stomach:
• Fundus
• Body
• Pylorus
• Pyloric sphincter
• Lesser curvature
• Greater curvature
• Rugae
Parts of the Stomach:
• The lower esophageal sphincter (LES) prevents reflux from the
stomach into the esophagus.
• The pyloric sphincter relaxes to allow chyme to be ejected from the
distal stomach (pylorus) into the duodenum. The empty stomach is
the size of a sausage. The rugae, accordion-like pleats, allow the
stomach to accommodate a large meal.
• The greater and lesser curvatures are used as landmarks in
gastroscopy¾for example, locating a lesion on the lesser curvature.
Muscles of the
Stomach:
• Longitudinal
• Oblique
• Circular
• Mixing and mashing chyme
• Peristalsis
Muscles of the
Stomach:
• The muscular layers of the
stomach are well developed,
enabling the stomach to
produce chyme.
• Under hormonal and nervous
control, muscle contractions
deliver chyme to the
duodenum.
Stomach
Structure: Mucosa
• Mucous cells
• Parietal cells
• HCl
• Intrinsic factor
• Chief cells
• Digestive enzymes
Stomach Structure:
Mucosa

• The parietal cells produce both

HCl and intrinsic factor, so a
person with pernicious anemia has
a higher gastric pH than normal; he
or she is often described as
achlorhydric.
• Drugs such as proton pump
inhibitors and antacids block or
neutralize HCl, raising gastric pH
but also increasing susceptibility to
stomach infections.
Small Intestine: Parts
and Functions

• Parts
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum
• Functions
• Digests
• Absorbs
• Secretes hormones and
digestive enzymes
Small Intestine: Parts
and Functions

• Dow Jones Industrials is a

mnemonic for the three parts of the
small intestine¾the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.
• Most digestion and absorption
takes place in the duodenum and
the first third of the jejunum.
Small Intestine: Parts
and Functions

• The small intestine receives chyme

from the stomach.
• The common bile duct enters the
duodenum, carrying bile and
pancreatic enzymes.
• Material that is not digested and
absorbed exits the ileum through
the ileocecal valve.
Large Intestine
• Cecum
• Vermiform appendix
• Colon
• Ascending
• Transverse
• Descending
• Sigmoid
• Rectum and anus
Functions of the Large Intestine
• Absorption of water and electrolytes
• Synthesis of vitamins by intestinal bacteria
• Temporary storage of waste
• Elimination of waste (feces) and gas (flatus)
Clinical Conditions:
Large Intestine

• Intestinal
obstruction
• Colostomy
• Hemorrhoids
• Enema
Accessory
Digestive Organs:

• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
Liver Functions:

• Synthesis of bile salts and secretion of

bile
• Synthesis of plasma proteins
• Storage of glucose, fat-soluble vitamins
• Detoxification
• Main organ for drug
detoxification
• Excretion of bilirubin, cholesterol,
drugs
• Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein,
fats
• Phagocytosis (Kupffer cells,
macrophages)
Hepatic Portal System

• End products of digestion flow

through portal vein to liver
• Liver processes end products of
digestion, discharging blood
through hepatic veins and into
inferior vena cava
Gallbladder

• Pear-shaped sac on the underside of

the liver
• Concentrates and stores bile
• Attached to common bile duct by cystic
duct
• Fat in the duodenum stimulates release
of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK)
• CCK causes gallbladder to contract,
eject bile into common bile duct
and duodenum
Gallbladder:

• Bile is used in the duodenum, but it is stored in the gallbladder.

• Dietary fat in the duodenum stimulates the walls of the duodenum to
secrete CCK. CCK travels by blood to the gallbladder, causing it to
contract and eject bile into the biliary tree and duodenum. CCK also
goes to the pancreas, stimulating it to release digestive enzymes. In
addition, it goes to the stomach, slowing the rate of gastric
emptying.
Pancreas:
• Located just below the stomach
• Secretes both endocrine and exocrine
substances
• In addition to the digestive enzymes, the
pancreas also secretes an alkaline juice rich
in bicarbonate
• Neutralizes the highly acidic chyme coming from
the stomach into the duodenum
Digestive Enzymes:
• The most important digestive enzymes include an amylase, which
digests carbohydrate, a lipase, which digests fat, and several proteases,
which digest protein.
• The proteases, such as trypsin, are secreted in an inactive form
(trypsinogen). In the duodenum, bile and enzymes activate all the
proteases.
• If activated trypsin is present in the pancreas, it will digest those tissues.
Bile reflux into the main pancreatic duct activates trypsinogen and
causes pancreatitis, a very painful and potentially lethal condition.
 Digestive Enzymes:
• Amylases digest polysaccharides (starches) into
disaccharides—sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

• Disaccharidases digest disaccharides into monosacchrarides—

glucose, fructose, and galactose.

• Of the two amylases, salivary amylase (ptyalin) and pancreatic

amylase, the latter is more potent.
lactase deficiency, lactose-intolerant individuals cannot digest milk
and milk products. This causes bloating, abdominal cramping, and
diarrhea.
Carbohydrates: Digestion and Absorption
• Polysaccharides
• Digested by amylases to disaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Digested by disaccharidases to
monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides
• Simple sugars, end products of digestion
absorbed by villi
Proteins: Digestion and Absorption
• Gastric HCl unravels strands of protein
• Proteases digest protein into amino acids,
which are absorbed into villi
• Common proteases
• Pepsin, stomach
• Trypsin, pancreas
• Chymotrypsin, pancreas
• Enterokinase, duodenum
Fats: Digestion and Absorption

• Fats are insoluble in water

• Emulsification
• Bile splits big fat globules into small ones
• Bile salts make fat water-soluble
• Digestion
• Accomplished by lipases
• End products : Fatty acids and glycerol, absorbed
by lacteals
Digestion and
Absorption: (Summary )

• Trace the flow of food from the mouth to the

anus
• Point out entrance of each accessory organ
into the digestive tract
Digestion and
Absorption: (Summary )

• Food moves from the mouth though the

esophagus to the stomach. Peristalsis begins
in the esophagus.
• The stomach mixes food with gastric juice,
producing chyme.
Digestion and
Absorption: (Summary )

• Peristalsis delivers chyme to the duodenum, where

it mixes with bile, pancreatic enzymes, and
intestinal enzymes.
• In the small intestine, peristalsis is a swaying
movement to facilitate absorption of digestive end
products by the villi. The end products of digestion
enter the blood or lacteals.
• The rest of the GI tract absorbs water and
electrolytes; waste is excreted as feces.
SN 200 BScN (2023-2024)
Digestive System:

Questions?