WORKBOOK ANSWERS

OCR A-level
Geography 1
Landscape systems
Changing spaces; making places
This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers to the
questions in the Workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be acceptable,
but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.

Exam-style question answers

Answers for short-answer questions such as definitions or examples tend to be precise and
are usually point marked, earning between 2 and 4 marks. The answers given for questions of
an explanatory or evaluative kind simply set out what is called ‘indicative content’. Just
showing the examiner you are familiar with some or most of the content will not suffice. You
need to demonstrate that you understand it and are able to apply it in a way that directly
addresses the question. The indicative content shown for each question is not exhaustive.
Questions may be approached in a number of ways – the choice of approach is yours. Just
be sure you answer the question in a focused and detailed way.

Assessing whether or not the question has been answered is where ‘levels marking’ comes
in. For questions with maximum marks between 6 and 16, three levels of attainment are
recognised. The table below gives an idea of the descriptors that are used to determine the
quality of an answer and the mark to be awarded.

Lev
el Descriptor Mark

Demonstrates basic geographical knowledge and 1–2

understanding – place-specific detail is inaccurate.
1–4
1 Application to the question is basic, with simple analysis
and conclusions.

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 Demonstrates thorough geographical knowledge and 3–4
understanding – place-specific detail is partially accurate.
3–5
2 Application to the question is thorough, with clear and
6–10
developed analysis offering generally secure judgements.

Demonstrates comprehensive geographical knowledge and 5–6

understanding – place-specific detail is accurate.
6–8
3 Application to the question is comprehensive, with clear,
12–16
developed and convincing analysis offering secure
judgements.

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 Landscape systems Option A: Coastal landscapes

Landscape systems
Option A: Coastal landscapes
How can coastal landscapes be viewed as
systems?
Coastal landscapes can be viewed as systems
1 Kinetic – energy of movement; thermal – heat energy; potential – energy of position that
could be transferable into another energy form.

2 Energy – long wavelength/terrestrial radiation.

Material – wind-blown sand/wave-eroded material.

3 A system displaying unrepeated average states through time.

OR

When the equilibrium of a system is disturbed, the system undergoes self-regulation and
changes its form in order to restore equilibrium.

4 Stores – points of accumulation of energy/material in a system, e.g. beach.

Flows – movements of energy/material to/from stores, e.g. longshore drift.

5 There may be some movement of sediment between cells, transported around barriers
such as headlands, perhaps during storms. Sand from beaches may be blown further
inland. Currents may carry sediment out to sea.

Coastal landscapes are influenced by a range of physical factors

6 The frictional drag of wind blowing across the surface of the sea leads to a transfer of
kinetic energy from the air to the water.

7 When the water is shallow enough, typically about half the wavelength, the deepest-
circulating water molecules within the wave come into contact with the sea floor. Friction
slows the wave movement, causing the waves to bunch up as both wavelength and wave
velocity decrease. The top part of the wave is not affected by sea-floor friction and so
continues to move forward at the same speed, causing the wave to steepen. When water
depth is less than 1.3 times the wave height, the top of the wave topples forward and the
wave breaks.

8 Backwash is the movement of water back down the beach after the swash (forward
movement up the beach) and after it has lost its energy. Backwash is movement by the
force of gravity acting perpendicular to the shoreline, down the steepest slope angle.

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9 When waves approach a discordant coastline, such as in Figure 1, the wave front bends to
become increasingly parallel to the coastline. As each wave nears the coastline it is
slowed by friction in the shallower water, which is initially met when reaching a headland,
shown in Figure 1 as being made of resistant rock. The wave crest entering the bay in
deeper water continues to move at the same speed as it is not slowed by friction. As the
wave bends, or refracts, around the headland, energy is concentrated on the sides of the
headland as the orthogonals (imaginary lines of equal wave energy) converge. In bays,
shown in Figure 1 as being made of weaker rock, the orthogonals diverge and energy is
dissipated over a longer length of coast.

10 Spring tides are high tides occurring twice a month while neap tides are low tides occurring
with the same frequency.

11 Warm ocean currents transfer heat from low latitudes to high latitudes, and this may allow
higher than expected air temperatures. Processes such as chemical weathering may
therefore operate at faster rates, as the heat acts as a catalyst for chemical reactions.

12 Lithology – if bonds between particles are weak, they can easily be separated by
weathering and erosion processes. The reverse is true.

Structure – rocks with joints, faults and bedding planes are weak and enable water and
wind to enter and weather/erode the rock. The reverse is true.

Coastal sediment is supplied from a variety of sources

13 Weathering and mass movement from valley sides move sediment into the river channel.
Rivers also erode their own channel as they flow, providing a further input of sediment.
When the river reaches the sea it loses energy as it slows down and deposits sediment
into the coastal sediment budget.

14 Waves derive sediment from abrasion of the cliff base, concentrated between high and low
water marks. Undercut cliffs may collapse and further sediment is added to the beach
below by mass movement processes such as rockfall. If the geology of the cliffs is
relatively weak, e.g. clay, a high yield of sediment is likely to occur.

15 Aeolian.

16 Longshore drift can transport sediment from areas of surplus to areas of deficit, creating or
re-establishing an equilibrium state.

17 Because a lack of beach material may make the area less attractive to tourists and have a
negative impact on the economy. No beach below cliffs may mean that wave energy is
concentrated at the cliff base, leading to high rates of undercutting, collapse and retreat.
This can threaten buildings and infrastructure such as transport links.

18 Sediment can be brought in by lorry and dumped on the beach before being spread by
bulldozers. It may also be pumped from offshore directly onto the beach, sometimes being
sprayed across the beach in a process known as rainbowing.

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How are coastal landforms developed?

Coastal landforms develop through a variety of interconnected
climatic and geomorphic processes
19 Chemical weathering decays the rock by chemical change of rock minerals into altered
substances.

20 In temperate areas generally, temperatures may seldom fluctuate around zero degrees,
which is essential for freeze–thaw weathering that operates by expansion and contraction
of water in cracks and joints. As the sea retains heat effectively because of its high thermal
heat capacity, air temperatures are raised slightly in coastal environments, making sub-
zero temperatures even less likely.

21 Slumps have a curved rupture surface/slip plane whereas in linear slides there is a
straight, uniform plane of movement.

22 Up to 30 tonnes/m2.

23 Material is deposited when waves lose energy. This results from a loss of velocity and/or
volume. Velocity is lost after a wave has broken, at the top of the swash or when entering
sheltered locations such as behind spits. Volume is often lost during backwash as water
percolates into the beach material, although this can also happen during the swash. When
energy is lost, the largest particles of sediment are deposited first as they require the most
energy for transportation; deposition is, therefore, sequential.

24 Clay particles possess negative charges, meaning that in fresh water they repel each
other. In an estuary, the positively charged sodium ions in salt water overcome the
repelling force so the clay particles bind together to form flocs. These are heavy enough to
be deposited.

25 Winds blowing onshore have enough energy to carry sediment, often dry sand picked up
from beaches above the high water mark. As the wind travels inland, it experiences friction
from irregular surfaces and vegetation. This causes a decrease in velocity and a loss of
energy; transported sediment is then deposited.

26 As shore platforms increase in width they result in shallow water and large amounts of
friction. This reduces the speed of waves and causes them to break earlier on the platform
rather than at the base of the cliff.

27 Geos form when there is a weak, narrow area of rock perpendicular to the coastline. This
may be a band of weak geology or a fault line. Erosion follows the line of weakness inland,
creating an inlet. Blowholes are formed by erosion of a vertical line of weakness, such as a
master joint, in the roof of a cave. The weakness is, therefore, eroded vertically, creating
an opening in the cave roof.

28 Weathering and mass movement act on the roof of an arch, weakening it and making it
more vulnerable to collapse when undercut and widened at its base.

29 Finer material is found furthest down the beach, deposited by low energy waves. Larger
material is found further up the beach, deposited by higher energy waves, perhaps in
storms or high tides that were able to carry larger particles. Smaller particles such as

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sands have a lower angle of rest. Larger sediment, such as pebbles, can interlock with
each other and so form steeper beach profiles.

30 Wave refraction may occur around the end of the spit, causing sediment to be moved
towards the shore as the wave front bends. A secondary wind may also sometimes blow
from a different direction so that longshore drift is altered and wind/waves/sediment move
around the end of the spit, extending it landwards.

31 If the prevailing or dominant wind is blowing at an oblique angle to the coastline, sediment
may be moved along the beach, with swash moving sediment diagonally across the beach
and backwash bringing it back down the beach at 90°. If longshore drift continues to move
sediment across a bay or inlet until the spit reaches land on the other side, a bar is formed.
If the spit reaches an island and joins to it, a tombolo is formed.

32 Salt-tolerant plants, such as spartina and salicornia, can colonise coastal environments
between high and low water marks. The stems of plants act as a physical barrier to wave
movement, slowing waves down and causing them to lose energy, thus sediment is
deposited. Plant roots, stems and leaves also act as baffles to trap and hold sediment in
place, preventing it being removed by backwash and/or tidal currents.

Coastal landforms are interrelated and together make up

characteristic landscapes
33 Answer depends on the case studies chosen, but is likely to refer to variations in wave
energy resulting from differences in wind direction and fetch length. Winds may also vary
in their speed and availability of energy to carry out aeolian processes. The latitudinal
location will also influence the amounts of thermal energy received from the sun. Tectonic
setting will influence the availability of geothermal energy. Coastal environments with a
very low tidal range, such as in the Mediterranean, receive much lower energy levels than
those with a high tidal range, such as in SW England.

As the question is about the case studies, you should provide convincing locational detail,
such as fetch length and dominant wind direction.

34 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to specific rock types and
resistance. May refer to concordant/discordant nature.

35 Answer depends on the landforms chosen, but is likely to include cliff/shore platform,
bay/headland, arch/stack. The key is to link them via the processes acting upon them
and/or the sequential nature of their formation.

36 Answer depends on the landform chosen, but is likely to include geology, wind direction,
wave energy and wave refraction. The key is to link the factor to the formation, e.g.
prevailing winds blowing at an oblique angle to the coastline causing longshore drift which
extends the beach into open sea when there is a bay/inlet, leading to the formation of a
spit.

37 Answer depends on the coastline chosen, but is likely to include the development of a
delta as sediment input from a river exceeds sediment removal by low energy waves,
causing the delta to form and then extend seawards over time, e.g. the Nile Delta over
3,000 years.

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How do coastal landforms evolve over time

as climate changes?
Emergent coastal landforms form as sea level falls
38 Raised beaches are formed from shore platforms that were developed during periods of
higher sea level. Wave erosion caused undercutting, collapse and retreat of the cliff line,
leaving a bare, rocky platform or a beach beneath. As sea levels fell, the cliff was
abandoned and the shore platform/beach was left exposed above and inland of the new,
lower sea level as a raised beach.

39 Depends on the period chosen, but could be, for example, the Riss glacial period which
reached its maximum about 108,000 years ago. At this time temperatures reached 7°C
lower than today and sea levels were 83 m lower than they are today.

40 Most likely modification would be frost weathering of the exposed cliff face leading to
degradation and instability. Mass movement by rockfall would transport material to the cliff
base where it would be likely to accumulate because of the lack of active marine erosion.

Submergent coastal landforms form as sea level rises

41

Fjord
Ria
Long profile A smooth profile Overall, a deep basin, but
often with a rock lip, or
threshold, at the mouth

Cross profile Gently sloping estuary sides Steep-sided, wide, fairly flat
floor (U-shaped)

Water depth Relatively shallow water at the edges Uniformly deep

with increasing depth towards the
centre

Formation Former river valley submerged by rising Former glacial valley

sea level submerged by rising sea
level

42 This is due to depositional infilling of earlier river channels by rivers with a lower base level
and reduced energy.

43 Predictions are that by 2100 sea level may rise by as much as 0.98 m or as little as 0.27
m, with a mean of about 0.55 m, compared with 2000 levels. Predictions vary significantly
as it depends on how global temperatures change in the future, particularly determined by
how successful global attempts are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Future sea
levels will also be influenced by natural causes of climate change such as sunspot activity
and volcanic eruptions.

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44 Shingle is likely to be moved further inland. In storms, it could be over-topped by high

waves. Breaching of spits or bars is possible. Increased longshore drift is also likely
because of the tidal range extending further up the beach. With higher wave energy
extending further up the beach, it is also more likely that sediment will be moved offshore.

How does human activity cause change in

coastal landscape systems?
Human activity intentionally causes change within coastal
landscape systems
45 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to the need to protect high
value land and economic activities, such as tourism, from increased erosion and flood risk
as sea levels rise. Management may be through the use of sea walls, groynes, beach
nourishment, managed retreat or realignment.

46 Answer depends on the strategy chosen, but is likely to refer to the use of groynes to trap
sediment being transported by longshore drift. The beach provides a natural defence
against marine erosion as waves break earlier and expend energy on the beach rather
than at the base of vulnerable geology at the back of the beach.

47 Answer depends on the strategy chosen, but groynes will cause the beach to increase in
height on one side of the groyne and result in the beach width increasing seawards.

Economic development unintentionally causes change within

coastal landscape systems
48 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to be sand mining in the
nearshore zone, tourism or port development. For example, sand is dredged or pumped
from vessels which can then remove it for its economic use. The location may be suitable
for mining if sand has accumulated over time, including as a result of deposition during
recent post-glacial periods of abundant meltwater in a sediment cell with no external
output.

49 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but if sand mining then it is likely to be used in
construction, in glass-making or for beach recharging in areas of sediment deficit.

50 Answer depends on the case study, but you must show influences on the landscape, so
annotations are likely to include:

 imbalance in the sediment cell

 increased rates of marine erosion

 reduction in beach width

 undercutting of foredune ridges

 breaching of beach/spit/bar

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Exam-style questions
51 Kinetic energy in high energy waves may lead to high rates of erosion by processes such
as hydraulic action, causing undercutting collapse and retreat of the cliff. Kinetic energy in
wind may lead to aeolian erosion of cliff face and further retreat and degradation. Thermal
energy from insolation may aid cliff face chemical weathering and further degradation and
retreat. Potential energy of loosened cliff face material could be transformed into kinetic
energy of rockfall.

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on

the formation of a cliff. (AO1)

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows

on the formation of a cliff. (AO1)

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on the
formation of a cliff. (AO1)

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

52 a 16.8/6 = 2.8 cm3/m2

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

b 0.8, 1.1, 1.4, 3.4, 4.5, 5.6

3.5th value = 1.4 + 3.4/2 = 4.8/2 = 2.4 cm3/m2

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

53 Increasing global temperature causes melting of land-based ice in ice sheets and glaciers.
The meltwater produces flows as run-off under gravity across the landscape before
entering the sea, increasing its volume and raising its level.

Also, as temperatures rise, water molecules in oceans expand, which increases the
volume of water present and consequently increases sea level. A 1°C rise in temperature
is thought to raise sea level by about 2 m.

Point marked 5 × 1. You must use evidence from the figure

54 Changes relate to processes and flows of energy and material within coastal landscape
systems. Changes may also then be related to individual landforms and to the landscape
as a whole. There is no right or wrong answer to this question. You should carry out a
balanced assessment of the two types of change and, supporting your argument with
evidence, make your own judgement as to the extent to which one type has caused more
change than the other. Evidence is likely to come from intentional management, such as at
Sandbanks, and unintentional consequences, such as those from sand mining in
Mangawhai-Pakiri.

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AO1

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of intentional and

unintentional change to coastal landscape systems. The answer should include accurate
place-specific detail.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of intentional and unintentional

change to coastal landscape systems. The answer should include place-specific detail
which is partially accurate.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of intentional and unintentional change

to coastal landscape systems. There is an attempt to include place-specific detail but it is
inaccurate.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

AO2

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide

clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy to provide a detailed evaluation that
offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions and
evidence of the extent to which human activity causes intentional rather than unintentional
change to coastal landscape systems.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound

analysis that shows some accuracy to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised
judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence of the extent to which human
activity causes intentional rather than unintentional change to coastal landscape systems.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple

analysis that shows limited accuracy to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers
simple conclusions of how human activity causes intentional rather than unintentional
change to coastal landscape systems.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

Quality of extended response

Level 3

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There is a well-developed line of reasoning which is clear and logically structured. The
information presented is relevant and substantiated.

Level 2

There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is,
in the most part, relevant and supported by some evidence.

Level 1

The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is

supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.

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Option B: Glaciated landscapes

How can glaciated landscapes be viewed as
systems?
Glaciated landscapes can be viewed as systems
1 Kinetic – energy of movement; thermal – heat energy; potential – energy of position, that
could be transferable into another energy form.

2 Energy – long wavelength/terrestrial radiation.

Material – ice eroded and transported material.

3 A system displaying unrepeated average states through time.

OR

When the equilibrium of a system is disturbed, the system undergoes self-regulation and
changes its form in order to restore equilibrium.

4 Stores – points of accumulation of energy/material in a system, e.g. ice in a glacier.

Flows – movements of energy/material to/from stores, e.g. meltwater flowing from a

subglacial stream.

5 Snow and ice accumulation minus snow and ice ablation; usually over an annual period.

Glaciated landscapes are influenced by a range of physical factors

6 Relief – the steeper the relief, the greater the gravitational potential energy the ice mass
has and the faster it can move.

Aspect – on slopes facing away from the sun, such as north-facing aspects in the Northern
Hemisphere, temperatures are likely to be lower and there will be less melting. The mass
balance will tend to be positive, and ice will move forward.

7 As altitude increases, air temperatures typically decrease, at a rate of about 0.6°C/100 m.

High altitude locations usually have higher precipitation totals because of the influence of
orographic cooling, leading to condensation, cloud and precipitation.

8 Lithology – if bonds between particles are weak, they can easily be separated by
weathering and erosion processes. The reverse is true.

Structure – rocks with joints, faults and bedding planes are weak and enable water and ice
to enter and weather/erode the rock. The reverse is true.

9 Areas of high intensity erosion tend to be in more northerly areas, such as NW Scotland
and the Lake District. Areas of low-intensity erosion tend to be in more southerly locations,
such as central England and South Wales.

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The locations further north will have slightly colder climates and a greater rate of ice
accumulation, meaning thicker, more erosive glaciers. They also have steeper relief, again
making them colder, but also resulting in higher-velocity glacier movement and faster rates
of erosion.

There are different types of glacier and glacier movement

10 If snow falling in one year does not melt before the following year’s snowfall occurs, snow
will accumulate on the ground. Each additional snowfall compresses and compacts low-
density snow into higher-density firn ice and then, with further snowfalls, into glacier ice.

11

Fresh snow 0.05 g/m3

Firn 0.4 g/m3

Glacier ice 0.83–91 g/m3

12 50,000 km2.

13

Warm-based Cold-based

Relief Steep, high altitude Low

Basal temperature At or above pressure-melting point Below pressure-melting point

Rate of movement Rapid; 20–200 m/year Slow; a few metres per year

14 Intergranular flow, when individual ice crystals re-orientate and move past each other.

Laminar flow, when upper layers of ice move over the layers of ice below.

How are glacial landforms developed?

Glacial landforms develop through a variety of interconnected
climatic and geomorphic processes
15 Decays it by chemical change of rock minerals into altered substances.

16 In many glacial areas, especially those in high latitude locations, temperatures may
seldom fluctuate around zero degrees, which is essential for freeze–thaw weathering to
operate by expansion and contraction of water in cracks and joints. Instead, temperatures
are typically below zero throughout the year.

17 Slumps have a curved rupture surface/slip plane, whereas in linear slides it is a straight,
uniform plane of movement.

18 Plucking happens when meltwater seeps into joints in valley floor/side rocks. This then
freezes and becomes attached to the base of the glacier. As the glacier advances, it pulls
pieces of rock from the ground.

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19 englacial – inside the glacier

subglacial – at the base of the glacier

supraglacial – on top of the glacier

20 Glaciers deposit sediment when they lose capacity to transport material. This usually
occurs during ablation and periods of retreat, such as during the ‘summer’ or the end of a
glacial period. Reduced capacity is the result of a loss of volume rather than velocity.

However, deposition can also occur during glacial advance when excess sediment may
become lodged in the valley floor material.

21 Annotations are likely to include:

Snow accumulates in a small depression on a hillside. Further accumulation year on year

enlarges the depression by nivation

Frost shattering of exposed rocks above the ice adds debris into the bergschrund

Rotational flow of ice under gravity

Plucking of the backwall as ice advances causes steepening

Abrasion of the corrie base using material from plucking causes deepening

Lip formed at front as ice is thinner and is less erosive; may also be formed by deposition
of moraine

22 Striations are scratches/grooves in bare rock surfaces caused by abrasion of ice carrying
large pieces of debris. The alignment of the groove corresponds to the direction of ice
advance.

23 Subaerial processes of weathering and mass movement, often rockfall, occur on the valley
sides above the level of the ice. The weathered debris falls onto the edges of the glacier
and is deposited as lateral moraine when the ice melts.

24 Lodgement till is subglacial debris pressed into pre-existing valley floor material, while
ablation till is debris deposited at the front and edges of the glaciers where melting mainly
occurs.

25 Drumlins are typically elongated mounds with a higher, wider stoss end facing the direction
of ice movement and a more gently tapered lee side.

26 Roches moutonnées form when a projection of resistant rock is found in the path of a
glacier on the valley floor. The up-valley side is then streamlined by abrasion as the glacier
advances over it, aided by pressure melting on the base of the ice. When the ice moves
onto the leeward side, refreezing occurs as pressure drops and plucking occurs. This
causes a much steeper, more jagged side to the outcrop.

Glacial landforms are interrelated and together make up

characteristic landscapes
27 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to specific rock types,
relative resistance and permeability, for example. The tilting of rocks during tectonic
movements and the exposure of weaker rocks after uplift may also be relevant. The key is
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to link the geological characteristics to the resultant landforms, e.g. erosional basins
formed under ice sheets because weaker geologies are exposed.

28 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to the erosional effects of
advancing ice. This could be in the context of valley glaciers in places such as the Lake
District, or ice sheets such as the Laurentide in Minnesota.

29 Answer depends on the landforms chosen, but is likely to include terminal moraine and
recessional moraine. The key is to link them via the processes acting upon them and/or
the sequential nature of their formation, with terminal moraine marking the further point of
advance of the ice sheet, and recessional moraine marking stillstands during retreat.

30 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to include depositional landforms
created during slow, gradual retreat or erosional landforms formed during slow gradual
growth and advance of valley glaciers or ice sheets. It may also refer to post-glacial
changes.

How do glacial landforms evolve over time as

climate changes?
Glacio-fluvial landforms exist as a result of climate change at the
end of glacial periods
31 The thickness is quite variable, but overall there is a general trend of decreasing thickness
over time. Thickness varies from a maximum of 22 cm in year 1 to a minimum of 12 cm in
year 8, a range of 10 cm. There are anomalies, such as year 6 when thickness increased
by 4 cm compared with year 5.

The variations in thickness are due to fluctuations in discharge of meltwater. In some

years, significant amounts of glacial melting occurs during warm temperatures, and so the
meltwater contains more energy and is able to transport, and subsequently deposit, larger
volumes of sediment. It may also be influenced by the length of the summer melting period
– the longer the period of melt, the greater the volume of sediment transported and
deposited.

32 During the day, insolation heats the rocks of the valley side and this heat is then used to
melt the edges of the glacier. Melting may also result from friction between moving ice in
the glacier and the rocks of the valley sides.

33 Delta kames can form in ice-marginal lakes along the edges of glaciers. They may also
form at the snout where meltwater streams emerge. They may be formed from ice-filled
crevasses in the body of the glacier.

34 Supraglacial streams flow along the sides of the glacier and have the energy to carry
sediment, derived either from glacial erosion or weathering and mass movement on the
exposed valley sides. When these streams lose energy, particularly after glaciation, they
deposit the sediment carried in ridges along the edges of the valley floor.

35 Eskers are long, sinuous ridges of stratified sands and gravels deposited by glacial
meltwater. Material is deposited in subglacial tunnels as the supply of meltwater decreases

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after the end of a glacial period. The subglacial streams may carry large volumes of
sediment because they are under hydrostatic pressure, which increases their capacity.

36 As the glacier snout retreats at the end of a glacial period, the point of deposition will move
backwards. The beads, which are larger areas of accumulated sediment, reflect a slowing
in the rate of retreat.

37 Braiding occurs because of the highly variable, seasonal discharge of meltwater streams.
A high volume of large material can be carried during high discharge events in the
summer. This is then deposited during the low-discharge flows in winter. The deposited
sediment causes the flow of water to diverge, creating numerous small subdivisions to the
main channel.

38 Repeated advance of a glacier over previously deposited material will alter the shape of
the landform and redistribute the loose, superficial deposits of which the landform is
composed. At the end of the glacial period, large amounts of meltwater may also entrain,
transport and then re-deposit the loose sediment. Vegetation may also eventually colonise
the landscape in the post-glacial period, further altering its appearance. Human activity,
e.g. sand and gravel extraction, would also be a cause, as would general subaerial
weathering and erosion, e.g. rivers flowing across outwash plains, as well as coastal
erosion, e.g. wave action acting on a drumlin swarm.

Periglacial landforms exist as a result of climate change before

and/or after glacial periods
39 Precipitation is low throughout the year and the annual total is only 113 mm. There is a
slightly wetter period between July and October, but the differences are small.
Temperatures vary more significantly during the year. Summer temperatures are above
zero for 3–4 months, with a maximum of about 5°C in July. Winters are long and cold, with
a minimum of almost −30°C in February, giving an annual range of 35°C.

40 Perennially frozen ground, or ground that has been frozen for at least two consecutive
years.

41 The south of England.

42 Stones within fine material heat up and cool down faster than their surroundings as they
have a lower specific heat capacity. As temperatures fall, water beneath the stones
freezes and expands, pushing the stones upwards.

43 Stone stripes are linear accumulations of larger material aligned down slopes, whereas
stone polygons are a more circular network of larger stones, usually found on flatter
surfaces.

44 A diagram should be drawn, and explanation may be as text or annotation on the diagram.
Closed-system pingos develop beneath lake beds where there is a supply of water from
the immediate local area. As permafrost extends during cold periods, groundwater
beneath the lake is trapped between the permafrost below and the now-frozen lake above.
The saturated talik (unfrozen ground) is compressed by the expanding permafrost and is
under hydrostatic pressure. It expands upwards and forces the overlying material into a
raised dome.

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 Landscape systems Option B: Glaciated landscapes

How does human activity cause change

within glacial and periglacial landscape
systems?
Human activity causes change within periglacial landscape
systems
45 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to be related to the extraction of
raw materials such as oil and gas in places such as Alaska. The ‘why’ could be linked to
the available resources present and the high demand for them. The ‘how’ is likely to be
linked to the drilling/extraction and the transportation involved.

46 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to the development of
thermokarst as a result of the heat produced by the activity and infrastructure required. An
urban heat island effect may be created, leading to a thicker active layer and even thawing
of the permafrost. Warmer temperatures may also result in fewer freeze–thaw cycles.
Gravel is extracted from river beds for building insulation pads for roads.

47 Thermokarst includes surface depressions as a result of subsidence of the thawed ground.

Landscapes show extensive areas of hummocky ground. Small surface lakes and larger
alsas (depressions) are common.

Human activity causes change within glaciated landscape systems

48 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to be related to generation of
hydro electric power (HEP). This happens when the landscape, climate and river regime
are suitable, and also when there is a high demand for electricity stimulated, at least in
part, by tourism.

49 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to be related to the storage of
water behind a dam, which reduces the energy of the river below and reduces its sediment
load as material is trapped behind the dam. Flow is generally much more consistent over
the year than it was before dam construction, although ‘purging’ does take place when
large quantities of water are flushed through the system to clear the accumulated
sediment. This material is then transported downstream in high concentrations in the high
energy flow.

50 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but a diagram should be drawn. The main
changes are likely to be that river channels downstream of dams tend to contract in size
because of the reduction in flow and energy levels; the scale of the contraction increases
with distance downstream. Channels may run dry at certain times of the year. At certain
times, erosion rates may be high as the river expends little energy in carrying sediment as
so much of it is trapped behind the dam.

Exam-style questions
51 Kinetic energy is provided by the gradient of the valley floor, allowing the glacier to slide
forward and erode as it does so, deepening and widening the valley by processes such as
plucking and abrasion.

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 Landscape systems Option B: Glaciated landscapes

Thermal energy enables freeze–thaw weathering to take place on the valley sides, further
contributing to the valley widening.

Potential energy of loosened valley-side material could be transformed into kinetic energy
of rockfall.

High levels of energy resulting from the large mass of ice present in the valley enable
erosion rates to be high enough for the truncating of spurs, making the valley much
straighter in plan form.

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on

the formation of a glacial trough. (AO1)

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows

on the formation of a glacial trough. (AO1)

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on the
formation of a glacial trough. (AO1)

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

52 a 22.8/6 = 3.8 cm of water equivalent

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

b 1.8, 2.1, 2.4, 4.4, 5.5, 6.6

3.5th value = 2.4 + 4.4/2 = 6.8/2 = 3.4 cm of water equivalent

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

53 Delta kames form in different ways. Some are formed by englacial streams emerging at
the snout of the glacier, as shown in Figure 9. They lose energy at the base of the glacier
and deposit their load. Others are the result of supraglacial streams depositing material on
entering ice-marginal lakes, seen on the edge of the ice in Figure 9, losing energy as they
enter the static body of water. Some also form as debris-filled crevasses collapse during
ice retreat.

Kame terraces are ridges of material running along the edge of the valley floor.
Supraglacial streams on the edge of the glacier pick up and carry lateral moraine that is
later deposited on the valley floor as the glacier retreats.

An esker is a long, sinuous ridge composed of stratified sand and gravel laid down by
glacial meltwater. Material is deposited in subglacial tunnels, shown in Figure 9, as the
supply of meltwater decreases at the end of the glacial period.

Point marked 5 × 1. You must use evidence from the figure.

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 Landscape systems Option B: Glaciated landscapes

54 Changes relate to processes and flows of energy and material within glaciated landscape
systems. Changes may also then be related to individual landforms and to the landscape
as a whole. There is no right or wrong answer to this question. You should carry out a
balanced assessment of the two types of change and, supporting your argument with
evidence, make your own judgement as to which is more significant. Evidence is likely to
come from resource extraction, such as in Alaska, and HEP schemes, such as the Grande
Dixence scheme. The high degree of fragility of the periglacial environment also means
that permafrost is easily disturbed by both heat and machinery.

Significance may be addressed in various ways, including spatial and temporal scale of
the changes.

AO1

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of change in periglacial

landscape systems and glaciated landscape systems.

The answer should include accurate place-specific detail.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of change in periglacial landscape

systems and glaciated landscape systems.

The answer should include place-specific detail which is partially accurate.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of change in periglacial landscape

systems and glaciated landscape systems.

There is an attempt to include place-specific detail but it is inaccurate.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

AO2

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide

clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy to provide a detailed evaluation that
offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions and
evidence of how human activity in periglacial landscape systems causes more significant
change than human activity in glaciated landscape systems.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound

analysis that shows some accuracy to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised
judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence of how human activity in
periglacial landscape systems causes more significant change than human activity in
glaciated landscape systems.
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 Landscape systems Option B: Glaciated landscapes

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple

analysis that shows limited accuracy to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers
simple conclusions of how human activity in periglacial landscape systems causes more
significant change than human activity in glaciated landscape systems.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

Quality of extended response

Level 3

There is a well-developed line of reasoning that is clear and logically structured. The
information presented is relevant and substantiated.

Level 2

There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is in
the most part relevant and supported by some evidence.

Level 1

The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is

supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.

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 Landscape systems Option C: Dryland landscapes

Option C: Dryland landscapes

How can dryland landscapes be viewed as
systems?
Dryland landscapes can be viewed as systems
1 Kinetic – energy of movement; thermal – heat energy; potential – energy of position, that
could be transferable into another energy form.

2 Energy – long wavelength/terrestrial radiation.

Material – wind-blown sand/water-transported sediment/evaporation/stream flow.

3 A system displaying unrepeated average states through time.

OR

When the equilibrium of a system is disturbed, the system undergoes self-regulation and
changes its form in order to restore equilibrium.

4 Stores – points of accumulation of energy/material in a system, e.g. sand in a dune.

Flows – movements of energy/material to/from stores, e.g. wind-blown sand.

5 Aridity index = P/PET

where P is mean annual precipitation and PET is mean annual potential

evapotranspiration.

Dryland landscapes are influenced by a range of physical factors

6 Relief barriers can create a rain shadow effect, with warmer and drier sinking air on the
leeward side compared with the windward side. As the sinking air warms, its ability to hold
water vapour increases, meaning that saturation, and hence condensation, is very unlikely
to occur.

7 Temperature falls with altitude. The thin atmosphere and cloudless skies lead to low
humidity and a lack of precipitation.

8 Lithology – if bonds between particles are weak, they can easily be separated by
weathering and erosion processes. The reverse is true.

Structure – rocks with joints, faults and bedding planes are weak and enable water to enter
and weather/erode the rock. The reverse is true.

9 Areas of steep relief often yield high sediment availability because of erosion and
transportation by wind and water. Bare rock surfaces and desert pavements yield little
sediment.

There are different types of dryland

10
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 Landscape systems Option C: Dryland landscapes

a They lie on or just outside of both tropics. There are more in the Northern
Hemisphere. Some are on the western edge of continents, e.g. the Atacama. Others are
found more centrally in continents, e.g. the Sahara.

b Depends on the chosen example, but potentially: high pressure, rain shadow effect,
continentality, cold ocean current.

11 Typically, they have low precipitation totals (100–200 mm/yr), cool, short summers (a few
degrees above zero for three or four months), long cold winters (−20/30°C for several
months).

12 0.21–0.50.

13

Polar drylands Mid- and low- Semi-arid

latitude deserts environments

Ground conditions Permafrost Mainly rocky, but Very varied, soil

sometimes sandy layer present

Vegetation Almost completely Limited, mainly Some grassland and

lacking xerophytic also agricultural
crops

Drainage Streams flow after Mainly intermittent, Seasonal rainfall with

summer melting endoreic or droughts and flash
exogenic floods

How are landforms of mid- and low-latitude

deserts developed?
Dryland landscapes develop because of a variety of
interconnected climatic and geomorphic processes
14 Breaks it down into smaller particles of the same material.

15 Because of the lack of vegetation cover and limited presence and role of insects and
animals. However, lichen and algae can grow on rocks and play a role.

16 Rock falls – rocks loosened by weathering become detached and fall under gravity.
Essentially a dry and fast movement.

Debris flows – fast-moving mixture of rock, mud and soil with a significant presence of
water.

17 A river that flows for only part of a year and is dry at other times.

18 Lack of vegetation to slow water flow, limited infiltration on hard, dry surfaces and shallow
soils with limited throughflow so more water enters river channels more rapidly.

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 Landscape systems Option C: Dryland landscapes

19 Creep – sand grains slide and roll across the surface.

Saltation – downwind skipping motion of sand grains within 1–2 m of the surface.

Suspension – fine particles are entrained by the wind and carried in the air.

20 Once deposition starts, the deposited sediment then creates frictional drag on air moving
close to the surface, which is slowed and loses energy, resulting in more deposition and
the effect is increased.

21 Annotations are likely to include:

Abrasion within 1–2 m of the ground caused by saltating particles, which undercuts the
base of an exposed rock

Base of the rock is of weaker geology than that above, so is more easily eroded

More moisture near the ground, enabling weathering of the base

Duricrust forms on the top of the rock, which protects it from erosion by suspended
particles

22 Abrasion will be concentrated on the facet of the stone facing the prevailing wind direction
and so it will be smoother than the other sides.

23 Weathering and mass movement are limited in drylands because of the lack of moisture in
the air. Therefore they have a limited influence on the formation of canyons. If they do
occur, they will have a greater and more rapid effect on weaker rocks. If there are bands of
rock of different resistance, this can contribute to the formation of ‘stairs’ on the sides of
the canyon.

24 Alluvial fans are single, cone-shaped accumulations of fluvial sediment whereas bajadas
are continuous alluvial aprons formed from the merging of multiple alluvial fans.

25 They form parallel to the prevailing wind direction.

26 Annotations are likely to include:

Horn moves faster than the centre of the dune as there is less sand to move

Saltation and creep move sand grains up the windward side

Coarse grains avalanche down the leeward side

Eddying helps steepen the leeward side

Basal apron is gently sloping because of the presence of fine grains with a low angle of
rest

Dryland landforms are interrelated and together make up

characteristic landscapes
27 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to include different types of dune,
yardangs, possibly desert pavement, rocky plains and even inselbergs.

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28 Answer depends on the landforms chosen, but is likely to include yardangs and linear
dunes both forming parallel to the prevailing wind direction. Also, the erosion of rock from
between yardangs generates sediment available for the production of linear dunes.

29 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to differences in the
resistance of different rock types, related to lithology and/or structure. Rock types should
be named/identified.

30 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to refer to the limited availability of
sediment in areas of bare rock/desert pavement and/or high levels of availability on steep,
unvegetated slopes in areas of sand accumulation.

31 Answer depends on the landforms chosen, but is likely to include pediment formation
related to parallel retreat of mesa/butte.

32 Answer depends on the case study chosen, but is likely to include rock falls/scree
formation, flash floods/wadi formation or creep/micro-avalanches on dune faces.

How do dryland landforms evolve over time

as climate changes?
Fluvial landforms can exist in dryland landscapes as a result of
earlier pluvial periods
33 Answer depends on the period chosen, but could potentially be 10,000–6,000 years BP in
the Sahara, when a humid, savanna-type climate existed. Rainfall averaged 100–600
mm/yr.

34 Northerly shift in the ITCZ is the most likely answer, meaning pressure was lower and
rainfall higher. These changes were associated with the Earth coming out of a glacial
period.

35 Possibly fossil evidence of organisms found in a wetter climate, rock carvings showing
wetter climatic conditions and landscape evidence of lakes and permanent river systems.

36 Annotations are likely to include:

Deep chemical weathering during previous wetter climates

Exploitation of joints

Recent mass movements create talus slopes at the base

Tafoni formed by wetting/drying and hydration

37 Most likely suggestion would be the undercutting of scarps by lateral erosion from
ephemeral streams, leading to scarp collapse and parallel retreat. This may be aided by
weak underlying geology.

38 Depends on how climate changes in the future. If warmer, then rates of chemical
weathering may be increased because of catalyst; if wetter, rates of erosion at the base of
slopes and on slopes may increase.

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 Landscape systems Option C: Dryland landscapes

Periglacial landforms can exist as a result of earlier colder periods

39 Jagged, angular shapes. Some very flat faces and sharp, straight edges. Varied sizes from
large blocks to small fragments.

40 Suggests mechanical weathering, most likely frost action, widening joints and causing the
rock to split.

41 Most likely to have happened during a previous colder climatic period, probably periglacial.

42 Present-day climate may still have cold nights because of a lack of cloud cover, and so
temperatures could fall and allow frost action to continue. This would break down larger
fragments into smaller ones. If climate becomes warmer, this is less likely to happen and
so change may be slow. If it becomes wetter and warmer, chemical weathering may occur,
leading to more rounded fragments.

43 Solifluction would have occurred in previous periglacial climates as thawed surface

material moved across the frozen permafrost. Material deposited at that time, up to 10,000
years ago, remains in place because of the slow rates of geomorphic processes since.

44 A diagram is required. Annotations are likely to include:

Physical weathering under snow patch

Debris removed by meltwater

Snow is trapped in enlarged hollow and this encourages further operation of the processes
involved

How does human activity cause change

within dryland landscape systems?
Water supply issues can cause change within dryland landscape
systems
45 Answer depends on the case study, but you must show why it is being used, so
annotations are likely to include:

Presence of a river in a dryland environment

Exogenic source

Demand for domestic/agricultural/industrial use to be met

Low rainfall/high evapotranspiration rates limit supply

Suitable landscape for dam construction

46 Answer depends on the case study, but is likely to include:

Dams stabilise seasonal flows of both water and sediment

Water flow rates vary daily in response to demand

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Sediment is trapped behind the dam so river load is negligible

Annual scour and fill cycle, which was in equilibrium, has been disturbed

47 Answer depends on the case study, but is likely to include:

Disappearance of downstream sand bars because of a lack of sediment

Debris fans on tributaries are no longer eroded by flood waters and so have expanded

Wadi channels decrease in width and depth because of reduced energy in flow

Pediments experience aggradation from channels with decreased competence

Economic activity causes change within dryland landscape

systems
48 Answer depends on the case study, but is likely to include:

Tourism as a result of hot, dry climate and spectacular landscape

Lack of other employment opportunities because of limited resources and low agricultural
potential

Role of government in developing attractions

49 Answer depends on the case study, but is likely to include:

Footfall and use of vehicles increase rates of erosion on paths/roads

Compaction increases surface runoff and soil erosion

Damage to fragile cryptobiotic crust leading to increased erosion of fertile crust layer

Erosion of dunes by 4×4 vehicles because of damage to vegetation that binds sand/soil
together

Dust/loess deposited on snowfields reduces reflection and increases absorption of solar

energy

50 Answer depends on the case study, but is likely to include:

Dynamic equilibrium on sand dunes disturbed, causing increased rates of erosion and
decrease in scale

Eroded sand deposited as loess on desert fringes

Dust storms result, which can travel long distances

Exam style questions

51 Fine-grained material is removed by high energy wind.

Coarse material remains.

Coarse material creates frictional drag on the wind, reducing its energy and lowering
erosion rates.

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 Landscape systems Option C: Dryland landscapes

Coarser material unable to be removed.

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on

the formation of a desert pavement. (AO1)

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows

on the formation of a desert pavement. (AO1)

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the influence of energy flows on the
formation of a desert pavement. (AO1)

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

52 a 22.8/6 = 3.8 m3

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

b 1.8, 2.1, 2.4, 4.4, 5.5, 6.6

3.5th value = 2.4 + 4.4/2 = 6.8/2 = 3.4 m3

1 mark for correct working and 1 mark for correct answer

53 Bajadas are formed by the coalescence of alluvial fans.

Ephemeral streams leaving upland areas and reaching lowlands or valley floors lose
energy because of reduced gradient and deposit their sediment, as seen in (a).

The largest sediment is deposited first, and the finest material is carried further, leading to
the formation of a cone-shaped landform.

When nearby streams produce individual fans, they continue to grow over time as more
sediment is added, as seen in (b), until they merge to form an apron of sediment, as
shown in (c).

Point marked 5 × 1. You must use evidence from the figure.

54 Changes relate to processes and flows of energy and material within a dryland landscape.
Changes may also then be related to individual landforms and to the landscape as a
whole, such as the drowning of tributary wadis/canyons when dams are constructed.
There is no right or wrong answer to this question. You should carry out a balanced
assessment of the two activities and, supporting your argument with evidence, make your
own judgement as to which has caused the more significant change. Significance may be
addressed in various ways, including spatial and temporal scale of the changes.

AO1

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

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Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of human activity related to

water supply issues and economic activity in drylands.

The answer should include accurate place-specific detail.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of human activity related to water

supply issues and economic activity in drylands.

The answer should include place-specific detail which is partially accurate.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of human activity related to water

supply issues and economic activity in drylands.

There is an attempt to include place-specific detail but it is inaccurate.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

AO2

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide

clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy to provide a detailed evaluation that
offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions and
evidence of how human activity related to water supply issues causes more significant
change in drylands than economic activity.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound

analysis that shows some accuracy to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised
judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence of the relative importance of how
human activity related to water supply issues causes more significant change in drylands
than economic activity.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple

analysis that shows limited accuracy to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers
simple conclusions of how human activity related to water supply issues causes more
significant change in drylands than economic activity.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

Quality of extended response

Level 3

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There is a well-developed line of reasoning which is clear and logically structured. The
information presented is relevant and substantiated.

Level 2

There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is in
the most part relevant and supported by some evidence.

Level 1

The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is

supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.

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 Changing spaces; making places

Changing spaces; making

places
What’s in a place?
Places have several characteristics and are shaped by changing
flows and connections
1 Relief, e.g. slope, altitude, aspect; climate, e.g. rainfall – annual total and seasonal
distribution, temperature – annual and daily range; soil, e.g. fertility, drainage.

2 Age structure; gender structure; ethnicity; population density.

3 The built environment refers to all the constructed elements of a place, such as houses,
factories, offices, shops, infrastructure (roads, railways, water, sewage and power
systems). Their age and building materials are important.

4 Socioeconomic characteristics are factors such as average household size; per cent
owner-occupiers; per cent renting (social/private); per cent people with ill health;
educational qualifications; access to a car. When comparing two places in the UK, census
data are very helpful (www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk).

5 Past connections can range across a broad sweep of time but the answer should be as
precise as possible, for example knowing the date the railway arrived or in which part of a
century the place experienced substantial in-migration from other places. Explanation is
achieved by linking a fact such as the arrival of a railway with the growth of a place as a
resort or the arrival of migrants in bringing their own culture such as shops and
restaurants.

6 Flows of money and investment include both public and private funds. Among the former,
inward investment in infrastructure such as road and rail can be significant in improving a
place’s accessibility. Private investment might include a retail, office or industrial park with
associated employment opportunities. Flows might also be outwards, such as the closure
of a factory leading to impacts such as unemployment and physical dereliction of buildings.

7 Local politics includes not only local elected representatives but also bodies such as
resident groups and special-interest groups such as heritage societies and conservation
organisations. National politics overlaps with local, for example local places have a
Member of Parliament who is part of a national party organisation and operates at the
national scale within a national parliament. It is important to link both scales of politics with
some aspect of the local place, such as the closure, opening or expansion of a local
facility, e.g. school, hospital or library. Housing developments are often closely linked with
both local and national politics.

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 Changing spaces; making places

How do we understand place?

People see, experience and understand place in different ways and
this can also change over time
8 Changes in life-cycle stage are often associated with either an increase or decrease in
demand for space. People also vary in their need for access to services such as schools,
healthcare, entertainment (e.g. cinemas, clubs, restaurants) as well as transport links for
commuting. These differences can be linked with different locations, such as close to city
centre, suburb or village.

9 Until the later twentieth century there was a divide between places such as work and
recreation (pubs, sports grounds) which people saw as being essentially male, and the
home which was perceived by most as the province of females. Perceptions have been
changing, resulting in the opening up of many places to females. Within medical places,
increasing numbers of females are in senior roles and more nurses are male; females
perceive sports stadia, restaurants, theatres and cinemas as places open to them either
singly or as part of a group. It is important to link clearly the change in attitude with actual
places.

10 A wide range of examples is relevant, from those with local meaning, e.g. a parish church
in a village, to a globally significant shrine. Also places such as Stonehenge and Uluru.

11 Stateless groups such as the Kurds or Basques often form strong emotional attachments
to territory they regard as theirs. Their historical occupation of this land often precedes
modern states, and the landscape and what has occurred to the group in this place are
now part of their folklore. This is often expressed in literature, music and art as well as in
present-day campaigns for independence.

12 Globalisation is the growing integration and interdependence of people’s lives in a complex

process involving economic, social, political and environmental components.

13 Figure 14 shows how networks, connections and flows of people, resources, money and
ideas have changed a place over time. For example, in the 1800s, the influx of migrants
from rural areas meant large numbers of cheap terraced houses were built in high
densities. Between the 1800s and the 2000s, outgoing flows changed from manufactured
goods to knowledge (data), meaning that the built environment altered from factories to
offices.

Places are represented through a variety of contrasting formal and

informal ways
14 Formal representations come from institutions and governments (local, regional and
national) and often involve statistics. Informal representations are generated by individuals
and small groups acting in their own right.

15

Representation Formal/informal

Government census Formal

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Police crime data Formal

Novel Informal

Photograph Informal

Health data Formal

Blog Informal

How does economic change influence

patterns of social inequality in places?
There is an uneven spread of resources, wealth and opportunities
within and between places
16 Poverty is having insufficient money to support a decent standard of living and is best
related to the spread of income across the population – relative poverty. Deprivation refers
to a general lack of resources and opportunities, e.g. income, education, employment and
health.

17 a Choropleth; dot; located pie charts/bar graphs/pictograms/proportional symbols.

b Any indices of deprivation, e.g. UK Index of Multiple Deprivation; correlations, e.g.

Spearman’s, Pearson’s; Gini coefficient.

18 Income – higher average earnings in Kensington and Chelsea compared with Sunderland,
for example, give money for a higher standard of living and quality of life, e.g. purchasing
food and heat.

Employment – Sunderland/Blackburn/Glasgow have more employment in manufacturing,

which has less-healthy working environments than service industries, which dominate in
Oxford, for example.

Housing – more substandard housing, e.g. damp and cold in Glasgow compared with
Kensington and Chelsea.

Health – poor diet, housing, stress of living in poverty leads to ill-health. Distribution of
medical services often uneven, e.g. access to GPs better in areas such as St Albans
compared with Blackburn.

Economic change creates both advantages and disadvantages for

people
19 a Little significant change from 1921 to 1961, with services accounting for between 40%
and 50% of employment, manufacturing about 37% and agriculture and fishing about 5%.
From 1961 considerable increase in service employment, up to more than 80% by the
early twenty-first century, sustained decline in manufacturing to about 10% in 2018, and
agriculture and fishing down to about 1%.

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b Manufacturing migrated abroad to EDCs and LIDCs, e.g. textiles, iron and steel, as
England and Wales became a post-industrial society. It became cheaper to import goods,
e.g. clothes, fridges and computers, from abroad. Services, e.g. finance, have become
globalised based on hubs such as London using a highly trained workforce.

20 Deindustrialisation is concentrated in regions once dominated by heavy industry and

mining, e.g. northeast USA. These industries are often located close to their raw materials,
e.g. coal and iron ore. The multiplier effect occurred but when industries closed, these
regions were badly affected. Places less dependent on manufacturing, e.g. the London
region, suffered less.

21 Growth does not occur everywhere at the same time. Inhabitants in regions such as the
West Midlands, the Ruhr or Silicon Valley have benefited from above-average economic
growth on occasions while peripheral areas such as mid-Wales or Tennessee stagnated,
with fewer opportunities and lower incomes. Within the core regions, inequalities exist
between those who are able and those who are unable to take advantage of new
opportunities, often as a result of better education. When one cycle ends and another
begins, recession affects the declining region compared with a boom in the growing
location.

22 Taxation – progressive tax systems tax higher incomes more than lower. Money raised is
spent on areas such as health, transport and education.

Subsidies – poorer groups receive benefits such as free school meals.

Law – targets discrimination, e.g. ethnic. Also minimum wage legislation.

Education – funding for training and upgrading skills.

The contrasts in social inequality between two places

23 Locational details such as where it is, e.g. coastal/inland, and where it is within an urban
area or in relation to other places in a rural region. Their respective sites might be a useful
comparison.

24 Facts and figures are required to make the comparison convincing, such as types of
employment, life expectancy and literacy rates.

25 Facts and figures of factors such as climate, e.g. prone to flooding, air quality, amount of
open space are useful, as are comments about housing environment, e.g. types of building
materials and overcrowding.

Who are the players that influence economic

change in places?
Places are influenced by a range of players operating at different
scales
26 Public player regional/national scale – county council (UK), regional tourist body, national
government or individual department, e.g. transport or education.

Private player global scale – trans- or multinational corporations.

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Private player local scale – individuals, local groups, e.g. wildlife trusts/residents’
associations.

27 Facts and figures of the changes through time are required, such as variations in the
numbers and types of jobs.

28 It is helpful if the two chosen players operate at different scales, such as local government
and a transnational corporation (TNC). It is important to link clearly the player with actual
economic structural change such as growth or loss of jobs.

29 The link between economic change and socioeconomic impacts must be clear. For
example, the closure of an industry often leads to poverty and deprivation whereas the
growth of an enterprise leads to employment, increased wealth in a place and
developments in infrastructure such as healthcare and education.

How are places created through place-

making processes?
Place is produced in a variety of ways at different scales
30 Architects and planners frequently work together to create redeveloped built environment.
Flagship projects – such as Birmingham’s Grand Central, Newcastle’s Gateshead Centre
and the Cardiff Bay location – are designed using modern architecture and materials to
transform places.

31 A city where an around-the-clock cycle of activities occurs, thereby changing the type of
place it is, the centre in particular. For example, retailing and office employment often
dominate between 8 a.m. and 7 p.m., followed by entertainment (theatres, cinemas,
restaurants) through to midnight. Cleaning and restocking and maintenance of public
transport take place during the early hours.

32 Groups such as residents’ associations and heritage groups (e.g. civic societies) tend to
be concerned about matters such as housing, local services (shops/healthcare facilities)
and environmental issues (protection/maintenance of open spaces and preservation of
historic buildings).

Rebranding aims to re-image and regenerate a location to give it a

new place identity
33 Re-imaging is a process contributing to rebranding, usually involving cultural, artistic or
sporting elements. It may involve both formal and informal representations.

34 Sport – major international events, e.g. Olympic/Commonwealth/Student Games can kick-

start rebranding, e.g. London, Glasgow, Sheffield, through the clearance of derelict sites
and building of facilities such as stadia, housing and transport infrastructure.

Art – galleries can be established as a national/international venue, e.g. the Guggenheim,

Bilbao, Victoria and Albert, Dundee, to enhance a place’s reputation and image. Events
such as festivals (Edinburgh, Glastonbury) can contribute positively to economic and
cultural characteristics.

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Heritage – this taps into local history including architecture and past ways of life to offer
visitor experiences. It encourages tourism and its associated income to help boost a place,
e.g. Ironbridge Gorge, Shropshire and Mesa Verde, Colorado.

Retail – either refurbishment of existing retail locations or new shops, e.g. malls, can
improve physical environment, e.g. Birmingham Grand Central. Consumer spending also
creates wealth, e.g. wages of retail employees and local taxes for investing in services,
e.g. schools.

Architecture – this can either emphasise existing distinctive buildings through

refurbishment, e.g. Covent Garden, London, or promote a new image, e.g. Selfridges’
flagship store, Birmingham, and Salford Quays, Manchester.

Food – a ‘high-end’ image can be projected through specialist and high quality food
retailing and restaurants, e.g. Ludlow, Shropshire or Padstow, Cornwall.

35 Some players may welcome rebranding but others feel that they are not benefiting from it.
Large-scale redevelopments may involve demolition of existing buildings, including
housing, meaning that some people may be forced to move away from their local place.
Rising property prices can leave local young people unable to afford to stay in a
neighbourhood. Different players may have contrasting priorities, e.g. modern architecture
or regenerating existing buildings.

Making a successful place requires planning and design

36 Most places requiring rebranding do so for a combination of physical/environmental and
human factors. Polluted land and water, derelict buildings, high levels of unemployment
and widespread deprivation, e.g. substandard housing, are examples.

37 Strategies need to have facts and figures to be convincing. Examples of factors involved in
rebranding might include role of business, cultural, sport or environmental.

38 The relative success or not can be seen in the views of different sets of players. The group
being discussed should be clear, as should their perspectives of the rebranding project. It
may be possible to include some quantifiable data such as employment rates, educational
achievements or levels of deprivation. Qualitative data, such as informal representations of
the place, can also be used.

Exam-style questions
39 Waterfront – allowing connections and flows of people and goods into and out of the place;
flat land – allows building development unhindered by steep slopes; high-rise buildings can
be constructed because of strong geology capable of supporting such development; high
density buildings indicate significant demand for space for offices and apartments –
indicates high levels of economic and social activity.

1 mark for specific evidence interpreted from the resource and 2 marks for drawing
conclusions from the specific resource to explain how place identity is shaped.

40 Knowledge and understanding of the ways two players have driven economic change
could potentially include:

 global players, e.g. investment by transnational corporations, banks, industries,

retailers, sovereign wealth funds; recognition of cultural/natural significance of the
place, e.g. UNESCO
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 national players, e.g. government investment in infrastructure, education, health;

national media, e.g. television, newspapers, websites

 local players, e.g. local government investment and planning choices; local
businesses; local ‘pressure groups’

Level 3 (5–6 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the role of two players in driving
economic change.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about a player’s role in driving
economic change. (AO1)

Level 2 (3–4 marks)

Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the role of two players in

driving economic change.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about a player’s role in driving economic
change. (AO1)

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the role of two players in driving
economic change.

There may be simple ideas about a player’s role in driving economic change. (AO1)

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

41 The data can be used to identify and quantify cities experiencing a net gain or a net loss of
30–39-year-olds. Birmingham and Manchester gained, with twice as many moving to the
former than the latter. London and Liverpool had slight losses while Leeds experienced a
more substantial loss in the age group. However, London received many more migrants in
total.

This age group is likely to be attracted by a dynamic economy, with jobs and suitable
housing being core attractions. London, Birmingham and Manchester are located in a
central core region of the UK which benefits from good links within the country and with the
rest of the world. They are also cities likely to be undergoing significant rebranding and
regeneration, the results of which, for example in architecture, add to the appeal of a city.

The gain in number of 30–39-year-olds is likely to have positive impacts on a city. This age
group is likely to be in employment and thus will contribute to wealth creation. Many might
be at the life-cycle stage when they are thinking about buying a property, starting a family
or already have a young family. All these circumstances can help generate a positive
multiplier effect as this age group purchases furniture, household goods, clothes, food and
entertainment. The loss of this age group brings about negative impacts.

4 marks for specific evidence from investigation and interpretation of Figure 16 and 4
marks for the application of knowledge and understanding to analyse the effects of
contrasting levels of migration of 30–39-year-olds on different cities.

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42 It is important to have knowledge and understanding of characteristics of places and the

rebranding processes they have experienced. This knowledge and understanding should
be applied to analyse and evaluate the significance of past characteristics in the place-
making process such as whether they have contributed to the negative economic change
and social inequalities that have arisen.

Physical elements of remaking a place often involve the elimination of past built
environments such as derelict buildings and infrastructure. Heavy industry such as
chemicals, metal working, shipbuilding and mining often leaves behind a physical
environment in need of significant redevelopment, plus the removal of waste such as spoil
heaps and cleaning of pollution such as contaminated land. In some places buildings built
for a purpose no longer required can be successfully adapted and regenerated, for
example textile mills can be converted into art galleries, e.g. Salts Mill, Saltaire, West
Yorkshire. The past characteristic can be an asset when buildings are cleaned,
highlighting their distinctive architecture and building materials. Disused waterways and
railways can be revived by not removing them from the place but ‘recycling’ them, giving
them new recreational characteristics.

Past socioeconomic characteristics such as dependence on a narrow range of

employment opportunities often need to be completely removed as those opportunities are
no longer available. For example, deindustrialisation due to the migration overseas of
industries means that local people require different types of education and training. In
Birmingham, for example, the contraction of metal-working industries and their
replacement by tertiary activities has required new training facilities.

Natural characteristics such as a location on the coast or on the banks of a river cannot be
removed. These can, however, be re-used in different ways to achieve a ‘makeover’ of a
place – for example, the redevelopment of the Cardiff Bay and Liverpool Pier Head
locations.

Conclusion – some past characteristics are best removed as they can only sustain a
negative perception but others can be redeveloped to contribute to the reimaging and
regeneration of a place.

AO1

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the place-making process

and past characteristics.

The answer should include accurate place-specific detail.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the place-making process and

past characteristics.

The answer should include place-specific detail which is partially accurate.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the place-making process and past
characteristics.

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There is an attempt to include place-specific detail but it is inaccurate.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

AO2

Level 3 (6–8 marks)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide

clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy to provide a detailed evaluation that
offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions and
evidence of the extent to which successful place-making requires the removal of past
characteristics.

Level 2 (3–5 marks)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound

analysis that shows some accuracy to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised
judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence of the relative importance of the
extent to which successful place-making requires the removal of past characteristics.

Level 1 (1–2 marks)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple

analysis that shows limited accuracy to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers
simple conclusions of the extent to which successful place-making requires the removal of
past characteristics.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

Quality of extended response

Level 3

There is a well-developed line of reasoning which is clear and logically structured. The
information presented is relevant and substantiated.

Level 2

There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is,
in the most part, relevant and supported by some evidence.

Level 1

The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is

supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.

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