Handouts On QDE. Edited.

A.Y.
2016-2017 NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially
visible that may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil,
ink writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or photographed;
to maps or plans; to seals, plates, or even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its
plural form, “documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and other written
instruments used to prove a fact.
 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example (in Latin “instruction, or
official paper”), OR
 French word “docere”, means to teach. Medieval
According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):
1. formal piece of writing
2. object containing information
3. computer file
As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:
1. record information in or on media
2. support a claim with evidence
DEFENITION OF TERMS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

1. FORGERY– is a kind of crime that is committed by a person who with intend to defraud,
knowingly makes others a false writing which apparently impress a legal liability to his
prejudice.
-Making and or altering a written instrument with intent to defraud another
person.
-Legal basis: Art. 169, Revised Penal Code.
2. DOCUMENTS- are manuscripts or printed matter regarded as conveying information or
evidence.
3. QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS- are manuscripts or printed matter questioned because of
its origin, and its contents are doubtful. Its validity is not acceptable.
4. LINE QUALITY- it is when forgery which nearly shows plainly the natural result of the
strained condition described likes hesitation, appearance and inviting itself.
- features of the lines and curve of the handwriting.
5. SIGNATURE- one’s name written by himself.
- somebody’s name written by him/her in a characteristic way.
- a distinctive mark, characteristics, or thing that identifies somebody.
6. EVIDENCE SIGNATURE- a signature signed at a particular time and place under
particular conditions while the signer was at a particular age in or particular implements
and with particular reasons.
7. GENUINE SIGNATURE- a genuine signature expresses combination of characteristic,
which are completing consistent with the natural conditions or combination of
characteristics, which are incompatible with stake of mind and hand which protect forgery.
- combination of limited number of letters and strokes that compose of the name
of the author/writer.
8. INFRARED(IR) PHOTOGRAPHY- will reveal written or printed matter on bond paper;
altering of checks where a different ink having the same color as the original is used to
change the amount.
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A.Y. 2016-2017 NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION
- taking of photographs with radiations 700-1000 nanometers of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
9. ULTRA VIOLET LIGHT- has been used to reveal alterations on documents forged dates,
signature and other like – such as for detecting the presence of otherwise invisible
fingerprints.
- methods of U.V (reflected method; fluorescence method)
10. CHARACTERISTIC- any property or mark that distinguished and in documents
examination commonly refers to identifying details there are two groups of characteristic
class and individuals.
11. DOCUMENT EXAMINER (Holography’s, Handwriting Identification Experts) - one who
examines handwriting to identify the writing or to detect evidence of forgery.
- One who studies scientifically the details and elements of document in order to
identify their source to discover other facts concerning them.
12. DISPUTED DOCUMENT- a term suggesting that there is an argument on controversy
over the document. “Disputed Document and Questioned Documents” are employed
interchangeably to signify a document that is under special security.
14. CRIMINALISTIC EXAMINATION- for the detection of forgeries erasures alternatives
and obliteration.
15. MODEL SIGNATURE- a genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or
traced forgery.
16. MOVEMENT- an important element of handwriting. It embraces all factor related to the
motion of writing instrument skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor
and the like. The manner, in which the writing instrument is moved that is the finger, hand
or arm action, may influence each of these factors.
17. NATURAL WRITING- any specimen of writing exerted normally without an attempts
control or other it’s identifying habits and its usual quality of execution. It is typical writing
of an individual.
18. PATCHING- retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke careful
patching is a common defect in forgeries.
19. PEN LIFT- an interruption in a stroke cause by remaining the writing instrument (pen) from
the paper.
20. PEN PRESSURE- the average force with the pen contacts the paper as estimated from an
examination of writing pen pressure. As oppose to pen emphasis deals with usual or
average force involved in the writing gather than with the periodic increases.
21. SHADING- a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure in the flexible pen point or
to the use of a stub pen.
22. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE- a fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt
at simulation or imitation. It is common form of forgery encountered in investigation of
fraudulent checks where the person passing the checks depends on the surrounding
circumstances rather than upon the quality of the signature for his success.
23. TREMOR- a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes.
24. DEFECT-any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter that is reflected in its work and
lead to its individualization or identification.
25. ALTERED DOCUMENT- a document that contains some change either as an addition or
deletion.
26. CHARRED DOCUMENT- document that has become blackened and brattled through
burning or through exposure to excessive heat.
27. INK ERADICATION- a chemical solution capable of bleaching ink.
28. ERASURE- the removal of writing typewriting or printing from a document. It may be
accomplished by either of two means a chemical eradication in which the writing is
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removed or bleached by chemical agents ex. Liquid ink eradication, or an abrasive erasure
in which the writing is effaced by rubbing with the rubber eraser or scratching out with the
knife.
- eliminates the traces of ink on the paper.
29. GENERAL CHARACTER OF WRITING- is the resemblance due to the general similarity
in the promotion and arrangement of the letters.
30. ALTERATION- means an act purposely done an instrument or resulting of altering.
- any change made on a document before, during or after its original
preparations.
31. SPOLIATION- a change made in a document accidentally or intentionally or by one having
no beneficial interest in the instrument.
- the intentional destruction of a document or an alteration of it that destroys its
value as evidence.
- the alteration or destruction of document so as to make it invalid or unusable as
evidence.
32. DISGUISE- a deliberate departure from normal handwriting habits.
33. STANDARD OF COMPARISON-are defined as any handwriting, printing, and typewriting
or like material from a known source that is issued as a standard for comparison with
questioned document.
34. PROCEDURED OR COLLECTED STANDARD- are those which were executed during
the normal course of business or social activities at a time when the author had no
knowledge that they would later be used for comparison purpose.
35. REQUESTED STANDARD OR DICTATED- specimen of the person writing for the sole
purpose of comparison.
36. GUIDED HAND SIGNATURE- signature produce by two hands two minds.
37. DIACRITIC- to term applies to complete certain letters such as dot of an “i” and bar of “t”.
38. HESITATION- the term applies to the irregular movement where the written shows down
and stop while a person takes a stop of his position.
39. COUNTERFEITING- is something made to imitate the real thing and used to gain the word
is usually apply to a form of forgery involving money.
40. EXAMINATION- the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with
questioned documents is process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various
types of examination are undertaken, including microscopic, visual, photographic,
ultraviolet, and infrared examination.
41. EXEMPLAR- a term used by some document examination and attorneys to characterized
known material but the author is preparing this text has used the older better
establishment, term standards.
42. EXPERT WITNESS- a legal used to describe a witness who by reason of his special
technical training or experiences is promoted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or
certain aspects of the issue, which is involved in a court in a court action, his propose is to
interpret technical information in his particular specially in order to assist the court in
administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as expert witness.
43. FRAUD- a deliberate deception for unfair or unlawful gain.
44. FORGE- to produce fraudulently counterfeit forge signatures, the making of a false
document in order it may be used as genuine.
45. GRAPHOLOGY- the act of attempting to interpret the character or personality of an
individual from his handwriting also called grapho analysis such an undertaking is beyond
the realm or the document examiners work.
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-The art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person from
the study of handwriting especially with reference to forgeries and questioned
documents.
Bibliotics – the science of handwriting analysis. It is the study of document and
writing materials to determine its genuine or authorship.
46. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTIC- a characteristic that is highly personal or peculiar and is
unlikely to occur in other instances.
47. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION- any study that is highly made with the Microscope in
order to discover physical details.
48. NATURAL VARIATION- normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens
or any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or other record making
machines.
49. OPINION- is legal language, the document examiners conclusion actually in court he not
only expresses an opinion but demonstrate the reason for arriving at it. Throughout this
book opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.
50. QUALIFICATION- the professional experience, education and ability of a document
examiner before he is permitted to testify as expert witness, the court must rule that is a
qualified expert in his field.
51. DISGUISE WRITING- a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes
of biding identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised
writing.
52. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE- a forged signature. It involves the writing of a names as
signature by someone other than the person himself without his permission. Often with
someone degree of imitation.
53. FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY- a fraudulent signature that has executed purely by
simulation rather than by tracing the outing of a genuine signature. The term “Stimulated
Forgery” has identical meaning.
54. HABIT- any repeated element or detail that may serve to individualize writing.
55. HANDLETTERING- any disconnected style of writing in which letter is written separately
also called “hand printing”.
56. INTERLINEATIONS- the act of inserting writing or typewriting between the two lines of
writing.
- established pattern of behavior.
57. OBLITERATION- blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the original invisible or
undecipherable.
58. RESTORATION- any process in which erased writing is developed or brought again on
the document (decipherment).
59. BALL POINT PEN- a writing instrument having as its making trip a small freely rotating
ball being that the ink onto the paper.
60. INK- a colorful fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or painting.
61. PEN NIB- one or two division or point that forms the writing portion of clip pen or fountain
pen.
62. PHOTOCOPY- a reproduction of a document made or paper by any office commercial
system.
63. SIMPLICATION- eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.
64. SIZE- may refer to the overall size of writing or the proportions between zones.
65. SKILL- in any set, there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of
handwriting usually contains evidence of writer’s proficiency; degree or ability or skill of
writer proficiency.
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66. SLOPE/SLANT- the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.
There are three classes: Slant to the left; Slant to the right; and Vertical slant.
67. SPEED OF WRITING- the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the
paper.
68. SYSTEM OF WRITING- the combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system.
69. TENSION- the degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of relaxation.
70. THREADY FORM- an indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy.
71. VARIABILITY- the degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.
72. VARIATION- the act or process of changing.
73. WRITING CONDITION- it includes the writer’s position (sitting, standing etc.) writing ability
may be modified by the condition of the writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of
intoxication.
74. WRONG HANDED WRITING- any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally
used. a.k.a as the “with the awkward hand.” It is one means of disguise.( left handed
writing).
75. WRITING IMPULSE- the result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving across
the page, until it is raised from the paper.
76. MOTOR COORDINATION- the special way in which the various muscles used in writing
work together to produces written forms.
77. DISGUISED WRITING- a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in
hopes of hiding his identity.
78. FORM- the writer’s chosen writing styles, the way the writing looks, whether it is copybook,
elaborated, simplified or printed.
79. GARLAND FORMS- a cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the
bottom.
80. GRAPHOANALYSIS- the study of handwriting based on the two fundamentals strokes:
the curve and the straight strokes.
81. GRAPHOMETRY- analysis by comparison and measurement.
82. HAND LETTERING- any disconnected style of writing in which each other letter is written
separately; also called hand printing.(MANUSCRIPT WRITING)
83. LETTER SPACE- the amount of space between letters.
84. LINE DIRECTION- movement of the baseline.
85. LINE SPACE- the amount of space left between letters.
86. MARGINS- the amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
87. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION- any study or examination which is made with the use of
microscope to discover minute details.
88. PEN HOLD- the place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which
he holds it.
89. PEN POSITION- relationship between the pen point and the paper.
90. PRINT SCRIPT- a creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
91. PROPORTION or RATIO- the relation between the tall and the short letter or referred to
as the ratio of writing.
92. QUALITY- a distinct or peculiar character, also used in describing hand writing that refer
to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement.
93. MOVEMENT- the element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality, the
flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in a written record.
94. SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABIT- any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently
uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
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Questioned Document Timeline:

*1609 – the treatise on systematic document examination was published by Francis Demelle of
France.
*1810 – the first recorded used of questioned document analysis occurred in Germany. A
chemical test for a particular ink dye was applied to a document known as KoniginHanschritt.
*1882 – Gilbert Thompson, railroad builder with the US Geographical Survey on Mexico, put his
own thumbprint on wage chits to safeguard himself from forgeries.
*1894 – Alfred Dreyfus of France was convicted of Treason based on mistaken handwriting
identification by Bertillion.
*1910 – Albert S. Osborn, an American and arguably the most influential document examiner;
published Questioned Document.
*1935 – the Lindbergh baby kidnapping case, State vs. Hauptmann, Osborn proved in court as an
expert witness that the accused Bruno Richard Hauptmann had written all of the ransom notes
found or sent after the abduction of the son of Charles A. Lindbergh leading to the conviction of
the accused.
Other terms to ponder:

QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are
contested either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be
a deed, contract, will, election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form, check
writer, certificates, etc.
DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the
document, and strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage,
however, “disputed document” and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to signify a
document that is under special scrutiny.
Note: a disputed document is, therefore, is always a questioned document, while a
questioned document is not always a disputed document.
STANDARD a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT - Are condensed and compact set of authentic
specimens which, if adequate and proper, should contain a cross section of the material from
a known source.
"Standard" in questioned documents investigation, we mean those things whose
origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples to
compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consist of the known
handwriting of a person such case, "standard" has the same meaning as is understood
by the word "specimen" of handwriting.
EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known
material. Standard is the older term.
HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely written and signed by one person;
also known as a holograph. In a number of jurisdictions a holographic will can be probated
without anyone having witnessed its execution.
REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to
assist him in answering special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing
specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are frequently maintained.
LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS

A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:
1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by which a
right is established or an obligation is extinguished.
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2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument
executed by person by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or
setforth.
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical
embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of account,
a blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).
B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or competent public official with
solemnities required by law.(Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents or its officers having the
authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are
authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary
public or of any person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth (US vs Orera, 11 Phil. 596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any
Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.
Take Note:
A private document may become a public or official document when it partake the nature
of a public or official record. So if the falsifications committed on such document that is, when it is
already a part of the public record, falsification of public or official document is committed.
However, if such private document is intended to become a part of the public record, even though
falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public document is committed.
WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on some Supreme Court

Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs.
Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not
documents but are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

1. Document with Questioned Signature
-The most disputed document is that of document with questioned signature. This
document with Questioned Signature may be found either in private document, official
document, public document or commercial document. In this class of document with
questioned signature, two forging methods are used, and the following are:
a. Simulating Method (Freehand Imitation or Imitated Signature)- if the forger is
really a person with a “Golden hand” or skilled person, he may stimulate the
signature from the model available. This may be the most difficult of all the
methods of forgery. If the forger’s work is slow and painstaking, an examination
under a low- powered microscope will reveal the forger’s natural hesitation and the
interruption at points where the pen was lifted.
b. Tracing Method- the signature can be traced from a model. Proof of forgery in this
case is the fact that the questioned signature is an exact duplicate of the authentic
signature. It is however, practically impossible to write the same signature twice in
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exactly the same way, even at the instance of one and the same author of the
signature.
Kinds of Tracing Method:
1. Carbon Process- carbon paper is interlined between the genuine signature
and the document intended to be forged or placed at the top.
2. Indention Process- intended or canal like outline of the genuine signature.
Tracing with considerable pressure the outline of the signature with a sharp
pointed instrument. (placed at the bottom)
3. Transmitted light Process- strong light directed through the two sheets of
paper either from below or behind.
2. Questioned Documents Alleged to have been containing Fraudulent Alterations

-The word “alterations” has inherent in the idea of deception-making the instruments speak
of something which the parties did not intend to speak. To be an alteration in violation of law,
it must be done which causes the instrument to speak a language different in legal effect from
that which it originally spoke. The alteration must affect either the veracity of the document, or
the effects thereof.
Elements of making alteration or intercalation in a genuine document.
-In order to prove that the questioned documents alleged to have been containing
Fraudulent Alterations, the following elements must be present:
a. there is a genuine document
b. an alteration or intercalation is made therein
c. such alteration or intercalation change the meaning of the document.
d. the change made the document speak something false.
- In effect, an alteration which makes a document speak the truth does not constitute
falsification. So if the age “23” appearing on a cedula was changed by the accused to “25” which
was his correct age, there is no falsification as the change was a correction. It did not make a the
questioned speak lie.
- This class of questioned documents also include all varieties of raised checks or checks
with increased amount, drafts, treasury or bank notes or any document payable to bearer or
order, giving the appearance of a true and genuine document as well as fraudulent interlineations
in contracts, deeds, and will and other legal papers.
-In this class of Questioned Documents which alleged to have been
containing Fraudulent Alterations, two forging methods may be need, and the following are:
1. Alterations- the document or check may be altered to change the true date,
name, or
Other material matters. The existence of any change can be detected by holding a check
under a ultra-violet lamp. Alterations may be made by the following means:
a. Addition- the value of the check may be raised by addition of certain numbers or
figures. The ink may be detected by the naked eye or with the use of ultra-
violet lamp. The use of filtered photocopy or of infrared film will make it visible.
b. Erasure- mechanical and chemical erasures.
2. Watermark- the watermark can be used to trace the source of the paper.
3. Questioned or Disputed Holographic Wills

-Under art. 810 of the Civil Code of the Philippines, a person may execute a
Holographic Will which must be entirely written, dated and signed by the hand of the testator
himself. It is subject to no other form, and may be made in or out of the Philippines, and need not
be witnessed. Art. 812, also of said Civil Code, states that in Holographic Wills the disposition of
the testator written his signature must be dated and signed by him in order to make them valid as
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testamentary dispositions. And finally under, Art. 814 also of the Civil Code, in case of any
insertion, cancellation, erasure or alteration in a Holographic Will, the testator must authentic the
same by his full signature.
4. Documents Questioned as to their authenticities because their alleged age is not
consistent with their physical facts.
5. Documents that are disputed because of materials used in their production.
6. Documents are question as to their typewriting.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some
person through handwriting.
Areas in Questioned Document Examination:

1. Questioned Document Examiner- a document examiner analyzes any questioned
document and is capable of more than just questions of authorship, limited only by their
access to laboratory equipment.
2. Historical Dating- this involves the verification of age and worth of a document or object,
sometimes done by a document examiner, and can gets as complicated as Carbon-14
dating.
3. Fraud Investigator- this work often overlaps with that of the document examiner and
focuses on the money trail and criminal intent.
4. Paper and Ink Specialist- this a public or private experts who date, type, source and/or
catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines, computer
cartridges, etc., using chemical methods.
5. Forgery Specialist- this is a public or private experts who analyze altered, obliterated,
changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lightning, expensive
spectrograph equipment, or digital enhancement techniques.
6. Handwriting Analyst-this is usually a psychology expert who assesses personality trait
from handwriting samples, also called graphologist or grapho analyst; Forensic analyst
refers to same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word choice, syntax and
phraseology.
7. Typewriting Analyst-this is an expert on the origin, make and model used in typewritten
material.
8. Computer Crime Investigator- this is an emerging group that relates to QDE through
some common investigative and testimonial procedures.
DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

1. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation may
be referred to as addition.
2. CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results form relating observed facts by logical,
common-sense reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. The document
examiner's conclusion, in legal term is referred to as "opinion".
3. DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them.
Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts, but today the
work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely the examination of
handwriting.
4. ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an
erasure. It may be accomplished by either of two means. A chemical eradication in which the
writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator); and an abrasive
erasure is where the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a
knife or other sharp with implement.
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5. EXAMINATION - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and
with questioned documents, it is the process necessary to discover the facts about them.
Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultra violet
and infra-red examination.
6. EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his
special training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a
certain aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret
technical information in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in administering
justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.
7. INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION - The term "insertion" and "interlineations"
include the addition of writing and other material between lines or paragraphs or the addition
of whole page to a document.
8. NON-IDENTITIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text it means that the source
or authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens is different.
9. OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original
invisible to as an addition.
10. OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner's conclusion. Actually
in Court, he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his
opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.
11. QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability of a document
examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is
qualified in his field.
REASON FOR QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

- Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific
Comparison” which means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification or
forgery lies on the availability of known standards for comparison. After thorough comparison,
the following principle of identification is applied:
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically
oriented characteristic of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of
their occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted for differences, it
may be concluded that they are same in their characteristics attributed to the same
cause.”
DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration or
obliteration of documents.
Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents said that an
intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a
document with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in determining the author of

writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.
FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Grapho analysis)
1. examination of signatures and initials
2. examination of anonymous letters
3. hand printing examination
B. Examination of Typewriting’s and type prints.
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C. Examination of Inks
D. Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

A. VALUE -
1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one or more
documents in furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against government, documents often play an important part
in proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual may show
that:
a. He committed the crime.
b. He had knowledge of the crime.
c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.
B. PURPOSE - A document may be examined to know the following:
a. Identity of the author.
b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.
THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A.FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS: to select "QUESTIONED", "DENIED" or "ADMITTED",
"AUTHENTIC", and "DOUBTFUL" documents.
1. Concerning the Document in Questioned.
a. Is only one signature in questioned?
b. Is any part of the document in question?
c. Is the date of the document in questioned?
d. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in questioned? Etc.
2. Regarding the Standards:
a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for comparison
submitted. If there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
b. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can be
built for admitting them in evidence.
B.SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS: Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances,
conditions, technical problems and the like.
1. The examiner after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the
circumstances of the document in questioned, the condition of an alleged writer, or of any
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EXAMINATION
condition that may have affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part of the
technical problem with the document that is submitted to the expert.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such
as; was the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting on bed,
lying on his back or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a moving
automobile or while having a drink at the bar.
C.THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE:
1. How much time is needed for the examination?
2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make
special photo-enlargements for proper examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it advisable
to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion
is based, especially in Court.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Analysis (Recognition) - properties or characteristics, observed or measured.
B. Comparison - Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought
analysis are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a
certain value for identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or
significance of each must therefore be considered.
The criteria of scientific examination of documents are:

A. Accuracy – correspondence between results obtained and the truth.
B. Precision – measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or
experimentation.
“In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic facts and then
reason carefully and logically from these facts according to established and recognized
rules in order to form an opinion or conclusion as to whether a questioned
signature/handwriting is genuine or forged”
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

It is the initial examination conducted on a document to determine whether it is genuine or
not. It is not a misnomer, for in reality it consists of painstaking analysis more than looking at a
document and expressing an off-hand opinion.
A.THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

1. ensures preparedness;
2. avoidance of delay; and
3. ensures success of the case.
B.Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of questioned

documents. Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they
appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
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EXAMINATION
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the
signature of other writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Is the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and
alterations/substitutions of any kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by
transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the
typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs or pages written on a
different typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size, position, and arrangement of
matters with original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing and
opening of envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed
above the paper examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal and is
it made in proper sequence?
C.Who Conducts the Preliminary Examination? – It should be conducted by a

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT.
D.Who is a Questioned Document Expert? A Questioned Document Expert is one who has:
1. Attained the appropriate education and training;
2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document
examinations; and
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.
E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. Assurance of preparedness;
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently, they
do not possess the knowledge of the documents expert's ability of the various methods
that exist for determining forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.
F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not

based on thorough scientific examination.
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EXAMINATION
G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS - It has happened in some cases that an off-
hand opinion, has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer was given a chance to
escape.
INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

A. MAGNIFYING LENS – Bank personnel and other people involved in currency examinations
usually use and ordinary hand-lens; the maximum diameter of which is four inches, and this
appears big with its wide frame it has a magnifying power of two times the original only.
Magnifying lenses of five times or more magnifying power, with built-in-lighting are more
useful.
B. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, usually of the hands,
upon a rightful surface or screen.
C. STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is
possible.
D. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) – those used for signatures
and typewriting.
E. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck Lamps) – used for
controlled illumination; needed in sidelight examination wherein light is placed at a low-angle
in a position oblique to plane or document.
F. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device where light comes from beneath or behind
glass on document is placed.
G. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP – this is usually used in the detection of counterfeited bills but can
actually be used to detect security features of qualified documents.
H. INFRARED VIEWER – primarily used to decipher writings in a charred document.
I. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.
TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examination or study which is made with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low
and high power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in
signature analysis. With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in
the decipherment of erasures, some minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the
unaided eye and the sequence of entries done by different writing instruments.
B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – In this examination, the document is viewed with
the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper. Documents
are subjected to this type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching
of serrations and some other types of alterations.
C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - An examination with the illumination so controlled that it
grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle.
Decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed
impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examination.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION - This type of examination is very essential in every
document examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.
E. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION - Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave
lengths just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays
react on some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as
FLOURESCENCE. This type of examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been
warmed up in order to give a maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-
violet light should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid fading of some writing ink
and typewriter ribbon.
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EXAMINATION
F. INFRARED EXAMINATION - This examination of documents employs invisible radiation
beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a
specially sensitized photographic emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN QDE:
1. serve as record of the initial condition of a disputed document;
2. make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. enlarge a writing in question so that every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly
and properly interpreted whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery;
4. enable any number of accurate reproductions of document, thus affording unlimited
opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners, which
would not be possible by using the document alone;
5. allow cutting apart as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparisons;
6. can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes,
which may otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted;
7. can show very clearly any erasures by abrasions made by ordinary rubber eraser and it
can record in permanent form with the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens
and plate and inclined at just right angle of reflection so as to show differences in the
reflected light from different portions of the paper surface; and
8. with transmitted light, photographs is useful in:
a. examination of watermarks
b. determining the identity, or the differences in paper by showing arrangement of the
fibers and the markings of the wire gauze and dandy roll
c. showing the continuity of strokes and
d. determining retouching or patching of a writing by showing clearly the presence of
added ink film and the uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS
A. ERASURES - One of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not an
erasure was actually made on a document. In cases like this, the following examinations
are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with light striking the surface at a
sharp angle, and observation under the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in most instances not the
slightest semblance of a stain remains.
B. INDENTED WRITING - Indented writing is a term usually applied to the partially visible
depressions appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the visible writing
appears. These depressions or indentation are due to the application of pressure on the
writing instrument and would appear as a carbon copy if a sheet of carbon paper had been
properly inserted. Indentation may also appear on a blank sheet of paper if such is used as
a backing sheet while typing out a message on a typewriter. Methods of examination are:
1. Physical methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost
horizontally over the surface of the paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the document.
C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER - A piece of paper maybe subjected to the action of a
limited amount of heat, causing it to become scorched and retaining a certain amount of its
identity or it may be subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and losing its identity.
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EXAMINATION
However, if the combustion is incomplete, a certain amount of success maybe realized
provided the pieces are large enough to form a coherent message.
The following methods maybe applied to decipher the original message contained
thereon:
1. Photographic methods, using various types of filters and different angles of illumination
may determine the writing contained thereon without changing the appearance of the
charred fragments.
2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing charred pieces with solutions
of different chemical reagents.
3. Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred paper to remain in contact
with the emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two weeks.
D. ADDING MACHINES - The construction of an adding machine differs greatly from the
typewriter but the methods and principles of identification are related.
Manufacturers use different types of numerals and from time to time change their design.
The spacing between columns is also not standardized for all machines. Those factors form the
basis of determining the maker of the machine and for estimating the period in which it was built.
Another kind of approach is the ribbon impression, for the ribbon is made and operates very
similarly to the typewriter.
HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed and deposited in court
or with the attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it should be kept
UNFOLDED AND IN A SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER. This is
true not only for the disputed documents, but for many other important documentary
evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right after the document becomes disputed, or questioned, it is
important to make not only the usual photo static copy (Xerox), but also a proper
photograph or photo-enlargement, done if possible by the document expert or under the
supervision of the document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often necessary for the lawyer or
court to handle repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of
handling and working with the original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document, can change
the physical condition of the case. For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can
create smearing in the ink, pointing with a pencil can leave marks that create a suspicion
of previous pencil marks, or experiments as proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, can cause slight
damage which although it cannot be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks
under the microscope or on the enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the old-
fashioned ink test, which was used to determine the age of the ink-writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of a chemist, or
in court, or in front of both parties involved the case.
B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

1. “DO’S”
a. Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at the First Opportunity.
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EXAMINATION
b. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelope or
evidence preserver.
2. “DONT’S”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps,
sticker, write on, or otherwise alter any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case on
grounds of interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long time.
e. Do not marked disputed documents (either by consciously writing instruments or
dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching
for filing purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests; do not
treat or dust for latent finger prints before consulting a document examiner.
C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS

1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and transporting them to the
laboratory requires extra-ordinary care. With forethought and caution they can be brought
from the distant fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found whenever possible. When
the fragments are not packed tightly, they should be padded with lightweight absorbent
cotton. If jarring cannot be entirely eliminated jarring the box must be kept to a minimum.
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling and transporting the charred residue in
order to prevent the large pieces from becoming unnecessarily and badly broken. The
fragment must be held firmly without crushing and prevent movement or shifting when
finally packed in a sturdy container.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION
HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as whole,
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued
painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:
A. Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.
B. Script – separated or printed writing.
C. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. In Wignore's Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily
movement which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting
from fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of
these muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession
of acts stimulated by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other
person cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from
the habit of the first writer.
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EXAMINATION
Take Note:
Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”?
In the hand of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by

means of handwriting/signature is certain. Proper conditions include:
1. sufficient questioned writing
2. sufficient known writing
3. sufficient time
4. use of scientific instruments
III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper,
the directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the nature of tie
writer's nervous organization occur during the act or writing. This center near the motor area of
the cortex is responsible for the finger movement involved in handwriting. The importance of
this center is that when it becomes diseased as in a graphic, one loses the ability to write
although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen or pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold
a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from its cortical
center.
Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:
1. extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes
2. flexor muscles - which push the pen to from the downward strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing - those which operate
the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
various muscles used in writing work together to produce written form is known as motor
coordination.
IV. VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING

A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the hand
does not always produce a stereotyped duplicate of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an
instrument of precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be
absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there will
be in the form of individualize letters as well as in the writing as a whole.
CAUSES OF VARIATION
1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation's, emotion and
deception.
3. Position of letter - all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of a
different position, especially in combination with another and particular letter, may modify
any of them in some way or another.
IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important
element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its
extent. It becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the
variations.
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EXAMINATION
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly
duplicated in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible and
this multitude of possible variations when combined is what constitutes individuality in
handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral
spacing and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is
ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care given to the act,
design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.
Take Note: “The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to the fact that the
evidence of actual forgery is executed on the ground that there is variation in genuine writing.”
V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
4. In the course of trial and error, modification are made, simplification and elaborations,
addition and omissions occur.
a. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviation from
the standard letter forms or school model, and becomes his personal habits.
b. Although thousands learn the same system and that the natural result is identity,
but facts show that it is not because those who were taught the same system or
school copy a class of writers, but such impairs does not by any means produce a
slavish uniformity.
c. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues until each writer in the way
that seems best and easiest to him.
VI. SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) - refers to the standard of handwriting
instruction taught in particular school. Classes of copybook depend on the standard school
copy adopted by a writer.
A.SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting

1. Old English round hand - an Italian hand popular in 1840.
2. Modified round hand - early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and
Scribners copybook - 1840 -1860.
3. Spencerian - there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And a
general tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were
very ornate - 1860-1890.
4. Modern Vertical writing 1890-1900
5. The arm movement writing - the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone
is especially emphasized.
Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems
developed. This is characterized by free movement. And the forms adopted are best suited to
easy rapid writing. These are the Zaner and Blozer system of arm movement writing and the
Palmer system of American arm movement. The last great revolution in American handwriting
was the adoption of vertical writing which was in fact a reversion to the old system of slow but
legible writing. The connecting stroke is based on the small circle and is the most distinctive
"round hand" ever devised. It was very slow compared with writing based on the narrow ellipse
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EXAMINATION
like the Spencerian in which all connections were almost points instead of broad curves. Most
commercial handwritings tend toward straight connecting strokes and narrow connections.
B.SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

1. Palmer Copybook
2. D’Nealian Copybook
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook
C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis in the

Identification of Handwriting
1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual form or what
are termed deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings
but such similarities exist only in letters which are normal in form, the fact bears no
significance.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class or genus or the
difference that does not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of writing have an important
bearing on the question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases, the presence of
European characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.
D.IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System of Writing)
1. To the nationality of the writer.
2. To the system learned.
3. To the date when the writing was acquired and
4. To some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS:

1. ALIGNMENT - Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of individual letters
in words to the baseline. It is the alignment of words or the relative alignment of letters.
2. ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and
changing direction before continuing.
3. ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the
bottom.
4. CHARACTERISTICS - any property or mark which distinguishes and in document
examination commonly called to as the identifying details.
5. COLLATION - side by side comparison; collation as used in this text means
the critical comparison on side by side examination.
6. COMPARISON - the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the element of
one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
7. DISGUISED WRITING - A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in
hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised
writing.
8. DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.
9. FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is
copybook, elaborated, simplified or printed.
10. GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded
on the bottom.
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EXAMINATION
11. GESTALT – The German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good gestalt
needs nothing added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting
analysis that looks at handwriting as a whole picture.
12. GRAPHOANALYSIS - the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental
strokes, the curve and the straight strokes.
13. GRAPHOMETRY - analysis by comparison and measurement.
14. GRAPHOLOGY - the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a
person from the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of hand
15.HANDLETTERING. Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately; also called hand printing.
16. LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.
17. LINE DIRECTION – Movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight
across the page.
18. LINE QUALITY - the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the
ending strokes. There are two classes: Good Line quality and Poor Line quality. The visible
records in the written stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding
the writing instrument is characterized by the term "line quality". It is
derived from a combination of factors including writing skill, speed rhythm, freedom of
movements, shading and pen position.
19. LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.
20. MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This
type of writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to
write.
21. MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
22. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any study or examination which is made with the
microscope in other to discover minute details.
23. MOVEMENT – It is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors
which are related to the motion of the writing instrument skill, speed freedom, hesitation,
rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is move
that is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.
24. NATURAL WRITING - Any specimen of writing executed normally without any
attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or execution.
25. NATURAL VARIATION - These are normal or usual deviations found between
repeated specimens of any individual handwriting.
26. PEN EMPHASIS - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surfaces. When the pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more
rigid writing points heavy point emphasis can occur in writing w/out any evidence of
shading; the act intermittently forcing the pen against the paper with increase pressure.
27. PEN HOLD – The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle
at which he holds it.
28. PEN POSITION - relationship between the pen point and the paper.
29. PEN PRESSURE - the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen
pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of average force involved in the
writing rather than the period increases.
30. PRINTSCRIPT – A creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
31. PROPORTION or RATIO - the relation between the tall and the short letter is
referred as to the ratio of writing.
32. QUALITY. A distinct or peculiar character. Also, “quality” is used in describing
handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.
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EXAMINATION
33. RHYTHM – The element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or
periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the
flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity,
alternation of movement.
34. SHADING - Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible
pen point or to the use of a stub pen.
35. SIGNIFCANT WRITING HABIT – Any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently
uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
36. SIMPLIFICATION – Eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook
model.
37. SIZE – May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.
38. SKILL - In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of
handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer's proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a
write proficiency.
39. SLOPE/SLANT - the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the
baseline. There are three classes: Slant to the left; Slant to the right; and Vertical Slant.
40. SPEED OF WRITING - The personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across
the paper.
41. SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING - Not everyone writes at the same rate so that
consideration of the speed of writing may be a significant identifying element. Writing speed
cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad
terms of slow, moderate, or rapid.
42. SYSTEM (OF WRITING) - The combination of the basic design of letters and the
writing movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through use
diverges from the system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training.
43. TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of
relaxation.
44. THREADY FORM – An indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy.
45. VARIABILITY – The degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.
46. VARIATION – The act or process of changing.
47. WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.
48. WRITING CONDITION – Both the circumstances under which the writing was
prepared and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It
includes the writer’s position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and
the writing instrument; writing ability may be modified by the condition of the writer’s health,
nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
49. WRONG-HANDED WRITING. Any writing executed with the opposite hand that
normally used; a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand.” It is one means of disguise. Thus, the
writing of a right-handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the
common terminology for this class of disguise as "left-hand writing".
50. WRITING IMPULSE – The result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving
across the page, until it is raised from the paper.
MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in actual
motion. Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as
the center of attraction.
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EXAMINATION
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the
table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting. i.e., blackboard
writing.
B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid
C. SPEED - Slow and drawn; Deliberate; average; and rapid
D. DIFFERENT MOVEMENTS EMPLOYED AFFECT WRITING IN – Smoothness; Directness;
Uniformity; Continuity of strokes; and Connecting or curves between letters
MOTOR COORDINATION
It is the special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to
produced written forms.
The Characteristics of Motor Coordination are:

1. Free, smelt rounded curves
2. Speed and gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
4. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas in writing
produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the shading often has a "bunchy"
appearance, in which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.
Faulty motor coordination’s are characterized by the following:

1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady progress. There is
no freedom of movement along the strokes of the letter-forms. The writing is obviously
very slow and is typical of the writing of a young child or for any one who painstakingly
draws a picture of an unfamiliar form.
2. Angular Line - a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small are not
smoothly rounded and there is no gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle
marks almost every change are direction in the line. Investigation has disclosed that
angles are accompanied by a lessening of writing speed.
RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING
Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in full coordination. This is
manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes, which increase and decrease in which like perfect
cones. Pressure is always in a state of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
A.LACK OF RHYTHM - Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly

directed and disconnected motions.
B.IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM - By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can
determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with hesitation as if he is
attempting to for another signature.
C.LETTER OF CONNECTIONS - Determine the essential expression of the
writing pattern. It is a mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by
connection letters to one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and
downward strokes. These types of connections are:
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EXAMINATION
Arcade - a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of connection
resulting from controlled movements.
Garland - Links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a flowing curve
swinging from left t right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
Angular connective form- When the downward strokes and upward strokes meet
directly, angular connection is formed. This type of connection imposes a check on the
continuity of movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each
turning point.
The threadlike connective form - the joining of downward and upward strokes is
slurred to a threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom
produce a double curve. These forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the
word.
HANDWRITING STROKE
STROKE is a series of lines or curves written in a single letter; one of the lines of an
alphabet or series of lines or curves within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.
1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. ARCH - any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches.
3. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. BASELINE - maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing; is
the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
5. BEADED - Preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters.
6. BEARD - is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. BLUNT - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation).
8. BODY - The main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes, terminal strokes and the
diacritic, of any. Ex: the oval of the letter "O" is the body, minus the downward stroke and
the loop.
9. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into "O".
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT - A loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in
small letter "k & b", or in capital letters "A", "K","P"; the horizontal end loop stroke that are
often used to complete a letter.
11. CACOGRAPHY - a bad writing.
12. CALLIGRAPHY - the art of beautiful writing.
13. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
14. DIACRITIC - "t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j". The matters of the Indian script
are also known as diacritic signs; an element added to complete a certain letter, either a
cross bar or a dot.
15. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE - the end stroke of a letter.
16. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP - a small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may
occur inside the oval of the letters "a, d, o"; the small loop form by stroke that extend in
divergent direction as in small letters.
17. FOOT - lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter "m" has three feet, and the
small letter "n" has two feet.
18. HABITS - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing.
19. HESITATION - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when
writing slows down or stop while the pen take a stock of the position.
20. HIATUS/PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen.
Such as occurrence usually occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form
of pen lift distinguish in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear in the writing.
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EXAMINATION
21. HOOK - It is a minute curve or a ankle which often occurs at the end of the terminal
strokes. It also sometimes occurs at the beginning of an initial stroke. The terminal
curves of the letters "a", "d", "n", "m", "p", "u", is the hook. In small letter "w" the initial
curve is the hook; the minute involuntary talon like formation found at the commencement
of an initial up stroke or the end terminal stroke.
22. HUMP - Upper portion of its letter "m","n","h" ,"k" - the rounded outside of the top of the
bend stroke or curve in small letter.
23. KNOB -the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal
of the pen from the paper (usually applicable to fountain pen).
24. LIGATURE/CONNECTION - The stroke which connects two stroke of letter; characterized
by connected stroke between letters.
25. LONG LETTER - those letters with both upper and lower loops.
26. LOOP - A oblong curve such as found on the small letter "f", "g", "l" and letters stroke
"f" has two. A loop may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink
having filled the open space.
27. MAJUSCULE - a capital letter.
28. MINUSCULE - a small letter.
29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES - this refer to the continuity of stroke, forged writing is usually
produced by disconnected and broken movements and more motion or
movement impulses than in genuine writing.
30. PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. Careful
patching is common defect on forgeries.
Take Note:
1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in
the same direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing
action.
3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES - The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is
referred to as their sequence.
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially covering the previous down strokes.
Originally taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school o handwriting analysis that assigns personality trait manners
to individual writing strokes.
QUALITIES OF THE STROKES

1. Expansion - whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both
vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination - whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky,
continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed - whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been
steady or variable.
4. Pressure- whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and downward
reach.
5. Direction- Left ward and right ward trend of the movement and its upward and downward
reach.
6. Rhythm - in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain similar
phases recur at more or less regular intervals.
Page 25 of 70
EXAMINATION
HANDWRITING PROBLEMS
1. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality is genuine
and corresponds perfectly to the ordinary, and habitual signatures of that person.
2. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by him but in
a way which was different from the ordinary manner and which is more or less different
from the common genuine signatures of that person.
3. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by a third
person and which is a forgery written in an attempted imitation of a model.
4. A spurious signature/handwriting written by somebody who did not attempt to imitate the
signature of a person and who uses a fictitious name and this to give his work the
appearance of a signature.
5. An uncontested signature/handwriting, in fact, genuine but written by an unknown person
whose name must be deciphered by the document examiner.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING

1. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to discard one’s own writing and
assume the exact writing personality of another person.
2. Those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to hide his own personality
without adapting that of another.
HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Writing Habits - Writing by all its thousand of peculiarities in combination is the most
personal and individuals thing that a man does that leaves a record which can be seen and
studies. This is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These characteristics refer to those habits are

part of basic writing system or which are modifications of the system of writing found among
so large a group of writes that have only slight identification value.
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which are the result of the
writer's muscular control, coordination, age, health, and nervous temperament, frequency of
writing, personality and character. They are found in Writing movement, Form and design of
letters, Motor Coordination, Shading, Skill, Alignment, Pen pressure, Connection, Pen hold,
Rhythm, Disconnections or pen lifts between letters, Speed, Slant as a writing habit,
Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit, Quality of stroke or line quality,
Variation and Muscular control or motor control -
a. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of
regulation. This is noticed especially in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you
the impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.
Indications of speed (speedy) writing

a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c. Marked uncertainty as to the location of the dots of small letters "I", "j" & crosses of
small letter "t".
d. Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected with the following words.
e. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.
f. Wide writing - width of letters is greater than the connecting spaces adjoining it.
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EXAMINATION
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down strokes.
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.
Indications of slow writing

a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small letters "I","j","or "t" crosses
with scarcely perceptible deviation from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters and retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke
h. Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines
C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

1. Ordinary copy-book form
2. Usual systematic slant
3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
4. Conventional spacing
D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Permanent characteristics - found always in his handwriting.
2. Common or usual - found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
3. Occasional - found occasionally in his handwriting.
4. Rare - special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one
hundred individuals.
E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by education,
by environment and by occupation.
F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of Greek "e"
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EXAMINATION
PRINCIPLE IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
1. When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination of corresponding or
similar and specifically oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to
preclude the possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are no
unaccounted for difference, it may be concluded that they are similar in writing
characteristics and therefore written by one and the same person.
2. Handwritings are fixed habits.
3. These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and unconscious that
even by the most strenuous effort, it is almost impossible to change them. It is one of the
most permanent of human habits.
4. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals.
CORRECT CONCLUSION
1. To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the same hand, characteristics or
"dents" and scratches" should be in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental
coincidence; to reach the conclusion that writings are by different hands, we may find
numerous likeliness in class characteristics but divergences in individual characteristics or
we may find divergences in both but the divergence must be something more than mere
superficial differences.
2. If the conclusion of identifying is reached, there must not remain significant differences
that cannot reasonably be explained. This ignoring of the differences or the failure
properly to account for them is the cause of the errors in handwriting identification.
3. Although there is no specific approach, the document examiner always observed:
Analysis; Comparison; and Evaluation.
POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING (Anonymous, threat, poison

letters)
1. Uniformity- Does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing
appearance?
2. Irregularities - Does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn
3. Size & Proportion- Determine the height of the over-all writing as well as the height of
the individual strokes in proportion to each other.
4. Alignment - Are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
5. Spacing - Determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between words. Width
of the left and right margins, paragraph indentations.
6. Degree of Slant- Are they uniform or not.
7. Formation and Design of the letters, "t" (-) bars, "i" dots, loops, circle formation.
8. Initial, connecting and final strokes.
HANDPRINTING
The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive handwriting. In block
capital and manuscript writings, personal individual rests principally in design, selection,
individual letter construction, size ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting
examination is to determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were
accomplished with:
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a
measure or skill in handwriting of conversely.
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or
disguise in the subject’s handwriting.
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EXAMINATION
STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS
STANDARD - They are known writings, which indicate how a person writes. A writer
manifests fixed habits in his writings that identify him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion
of conclusion regarding any writing identification problem.
EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars.
The term standards is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while
exemplars refers more especially to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or
obtained or request for comparison with the questioned writing.
SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text,
the term "sample" follows closely the statistical usage.
TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"

1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as
signature and endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial,
official, public and private document and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda,
etc. Written in the course of daily life, both business and socials.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an
individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or for
specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings
have come into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.
TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST

COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual case.
2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in questioned:
a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both victim and suspect's (as
much standards writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) - at least 3 writings
by the suspect/s and in some instanced by the victim.
SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL
TYPES OF QUESTIONED-DOCUMENT PROBLEMS
1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned
writings, lie; paper should be same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if
questioned document is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no
assistance in spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will
produce the subject natural writing habits.
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in consequence, date, time
and identify by initiating each, and request subjects to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and whether
subjects appears to be normally right or left handed, etc.
SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE

CHECKS FORGERY IS CHANGED OR SUSPECTED
1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned check/s.
2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a. Date - Same as shown on questioned check
Page 29 of 70
EXAMINATION
b. Payee - - do -
c. Amount- - do -
d. Signature- - do -
e. Any other handwriting shown on questioned check
3. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.
MISCELLANEOUS
1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and physical condition of the
time standards are written.
2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handle questioned documents with care.
3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature of writer as well as
witness of the handwriting.
SOME SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1. Canceled Checks
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.
3. Credit applications and cards
4. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and purchase slips.
5. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings,
divorce papers. Probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, etc.
6. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
7. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications
8. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services
9. Loan application and receipts
10. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop
11. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
12. Barangay registration, petitions
13. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
14. Church, club and professional society record
15. Veteran records
16. Fingerprint records
17. School or University class records and cards
18. Application for firearm and licenses
19. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
20. ID cards
HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS?

Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards:
A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN
B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get
hand printed standard or exemplar.
C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the standards writing standard signatures or
writing must be those written five (5) years before or five (5) after the date of the questioned
signature or writing.
The importance of contemporaneous standards are:

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s handwriting or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
Page 30 of 70
EXAMINATION
D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE
PREPARED. Look for standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper
rested on the knee; standing; sitting; lying down; and/or while on moving vehicle.
E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of the
questioned document must be obtained in the standards
HANDWRITINGS/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems are

complicated and harder to solve that includes:
Type of Signature Remedy (Required Standards)

1. Signature of the careless or highly Collected standards
erratic writer.
2. Receipt Signature. Other receipt signatures
3. Near - Illiterate Writer. Requested standards if writer is still living
4. Signatures of Physical Impaired a. Collect standards written in the same
Writer situation
a. The intoxicated signature b. Collect 2 or 3 times more standards
b. Old age deterioration c. Similar to old age deterioration
c. The sick bed signature.
5. Disguised signature or writing Specimen written in normal condition could
not be used therefore consider collected and
requested standards.
DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING
A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing.
2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in a single signature).
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice-versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one's handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS - Intoxication affects the physiological being of an
individual hence, the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING - Bizarre letter forms,
Greatly enlarged writing, Illegible forms and writing generally, Uneven baseline,
Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing, Inconsistency in slant of writing,
Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.
Page 31 of 70
EXAMINATION
ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS
The following are standard writings which are admissible for comparison purposes:
Standard writings witnessed, Standards writings admitted, Record Maintained in Regular

Course of Business as Standard Writings, Government Document as standard Writings, Ancient
writings, Other Writings Standards - Among writings admissible as standard are signature on
spelling motion or other instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may without further
proof of genuineness be used as a standard. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings.
Take Note
Opinion Evidence - The court seem to be in general agreement that proof of the
genuineness of a standard cannot be established by the opinion of experts testifying from a
comparison of the writing sought to be used as standard with another writing.
Genuineness of standard decided by court - The sufficiency of the proof of the
genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.
INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a
sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document
to attest that he is its author or that he ratifies its contents. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library
has these to say about signature: signed name, signing of name, distinctive characteristic.
SIGNIFICANT TERMS
A. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X.
This authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can
legally stand for a signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of
the common practice of marking with an X.
B. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a
particular time and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age,
in a particular physical and mental condition, using particular implements, and with a
particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
C. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a
signature by someone other than the person himself, without his permission, often with
some degree of imitation.
D. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation
rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
E. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is
steadied in any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a
legal document provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided
signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
F. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
G. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or
traced forgery.
H. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature in an inverted
position to weigh their identifying significance, the reason being that those we fail to see
under normal comparison may readily be seen under this theory.
THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
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EXAMINATION
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically.
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.
TYPES OF SIGNATURES
A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete correct signature for
an important document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized
C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.
FORGERY
Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document
but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with fraudulent signature or
spurious document.
CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES)

A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY – executed purely by simulation
rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as freehand
imitation or simulated forgery. Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model
signature.
1. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER
a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE - forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT - forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with
ink.
2. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) - used by forgers who have a
certain skill in writing? After some practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model
quickly.
B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)

1. DIRECT TRACING - tracing is made by transmitted light.
2. INDIRECT TRACING - forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which he will
trace the forged signature under the document bearing the model signature with a
carbon paper between the two.
The types of Traced Signatures are:

1. CARBON PROCESS
2. INDENTATION PROCESS
3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS
C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) - Forger does not try to copy a model but
writes something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a false
(spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a
camouflage called disguise.
D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR MODEL

E. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING
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EXAMINATION
SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or slide-by-
side for simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a
genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors,
smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing
is made.
STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine
whether the appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness,
angularity and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses
are the often changed according to the whim of the writer.
CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

1. Pen pressure
2. Movement
3. Proportion
4. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
5. Inconspicuous characteristics
6. Repeated characteristics
7. Characteristics written with speed
INDICATIONS OF GENUINENESS
1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
4. Speed
5. Simplification
6. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
7. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
8. Rhythm
9. Good line quality
10. Variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED FORGERIES:

1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at which the
writer has temporarily struck.
2. no rhythm
3. carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. no contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. slow writing- angular writing
6. blunt beginning and endings
7. placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
8. absence of spontaneity - lack of smoothness of letters
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EXAMINATION
9. restrained writing - there is lack of freedom or "inhibited" movements THAT gives the
impression that every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
10. no variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY

1. Writing habits of the writer (forger) is evident in the forged signature.
INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE

SIGNATURE:
1. flat strokes
2. no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
3. deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
4. no variation - All signature will superimpose over each other.
PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMS

A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine. Generally presence
of tremors, remnants of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the
probability of genuineness.
B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this kind of signature is
confidently discover that the modification is only on the prominent features of the letter
designs that are pointed out by the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are
unnatural tremors and retouching. The minute details in genuine signatures are present.
FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

A. COUNTERFEITING - It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and
banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance
of, as money or stamps, with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is something
made to imitate the real thing used for gain.
B. FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended
content.
C. FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any
writing which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.
Take Note: In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another
person, or of fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes,
alters, forges or counterfeits any - checks, drag - due bill for the payment of money or property -
or counterfeits or forges the seal forged, or counterfeited, with intent the same to be fake,
altered forged, or counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any person.... is
guilty of forgery.
MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

A. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal
by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the
extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the
holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised above the
surface. The engraving process is used for the production of all genuine bank notes.
B. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of printing books, magazine,
letterheads and the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are made on
raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the
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EXAMINATION
same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note are usually
added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by an engraving.
C. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a photograph is taken of the desire material and a print
is made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with water. When
ink is applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminum
plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the papers. The
offset process is quite used in small printing plants. Because it was photographic process, it
is the most common modern used by counterfeiter to make false paper money.
BANK NOTE PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they would
soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso bill usually
wears out and has to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government buy the very best grade
of paper they can get, in order that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also
makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually the use of wrong paper that
causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by ultraviolet light.
Take Note: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added to make look whiter. These
chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have
this filler and does not show.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE/BILL

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
MAIN PRINT
Distinctive feel & embossed Generally smooth
effect
1. The fingers will readily feel the the 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main prints of the
main print on the front & back on front & back even on new notes.
fairly new notes. 2. This is brought about by offset print the most
2. This is due to the measurable common process employed by counterfeiters
thickness of the ink deposited on the 3. The prints are mere stains on the coating of the
paper which gives the prints an sensitized paper which is glossy.
embossed effect.
PORTRAIT
1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead.
2. The eyes sparkle. 2. The eyes do not sparkle.
3. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette) 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly
forming the details of the face, hair, printed.
etc. are clear, sharp and well 4. Hair is lifeless.
defined.
4. Each portrait stands out distinctly 5. The face and/or forehead are often naturally
from background. This is noticeable white or pale due to absence of most of the
along the shoulders. details.
5. The background is composed of 6. The concentric lines depicting the eyes often
multi-colored fine pattern of lines in merged into solid printed areas.
varying tones and shades interlacing 7. The background often blends with the
with each other. These shadings or portrait and is usually “scratchy.”
toning are intricately printed in such 8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
a way that the contrast or shifting of 9. The multi-colored prints on genuine notes
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EXAMINATION
colors creates the impression of life are extremely difficult to duplicate and as a
& vividness to the notes. result, counterfeit notes are usually off-color
& not of the right shade or tone.
WATERMARK
1. The watermark underneath the 1. This is imitated by printing white ink or dry
security lacework on the right hand block on the finished paper.
side of the note is the same on the
colored portrait.
2. The design is placed by means of 2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is
dandy roll during the manufacture of stamped to give transparency to the portion
the paper. where the designing appears.
3. Sharp details of the outline or the 3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheet
light & shadow effect are discernible where merely a paper cutout is placed
when viewed with the aid of inside. As a result course or harsh and
transmitted light. occasional irregular lines & sometimes-
4. The relief of the features can be felt opaque areas are very obvious.
by running the finger on the design.
METTALIC THREAD
1. This is a special thread placed 1. Counterfeit by means of printing on the
vertically on the paper during back of the note, on the inner side of the
manufacture. paper, insertion of twin thread or simply
2. On the surface of the paper where folding the note vertically where the thread
this thread is located are patterns of appears on the genuine bill.
short vertical lines.
COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS

1. These fibers are scattered on the On counterfeit, this is simulated by
surface of the paper (front & back) printed lines, cannot be picked off, but can be
at random & can be readily picked easily erased with ordinary rubber or by agitating
off by means of any pointed with wet fingers.
instrument.
2. The colors of these fibers are red &
blue.
LACEWORK DESIGN
The geometric pattern which On counterfeit, these geometric
looks like a delicate lacework along patterns are often blurred, round on the edges &
the border on both surfaces, blotch on the joints. Its continuity could not be
embellishing the portraits, value panel traced. The color appears faded.
& vignettes are multicolored &
composed of harp lines, which are,
continuous & traceable even at the
joints.
COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for each
denomination. You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.
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EXAMINATION
PhP 1,000.00- Blue - Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
500.00 - Yellow - Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another side)
100.00- Mauve- Manuel A. Roxas
50.00 - Red - Sergio Osmena
20.00 - Orange- Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 - Brown - Apolinario Mabini & Andres Bonifacio
5.00 - Green - Emilio Aguinaldo
SERIAL NUMBERS
1. The prefix letter/s & numbers (Six of 1. On counterfeit, the letters & numbers are
them except on replacement note) are poorly printed. They are usually of different
clearly printed. style.
2. They have peculiar style & are 2. Most often, they are evenly spaced & poorly
uniform in size & thickness. aligned.
3. Spacing of the numbers is uniform & 3. The numbers are too big or too small, too
alignment is even. thick or too thin & in certain cases shaded on
the curves.
VIGNETTE
1. The lines & dots composing the 1. On counterfeit usually dull & poorly printed.
vignettes are fine, distinct & sharp.
2. The varying color tone gives a bold 2. It appears dirty.
look to the picture that makes it 3. The lines are comparatively thicker with
stands out of the paper. rough edges.
4. There is no variation in color tone so that the
picture appears flat.
CLEARNESS OF PRINT
The registry of the different In general, a spurious not exhibits a
printed features is perfect. The lines are Second hand look. It is dirty due to the sputtering
very clear & sharp. There are no Burrs of ink on the interior area. Over-inked areas are
clinging to the sides. visible instantly. The shadings & ornamentations
of the letters & figures are thick & usually merged.
EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE

1. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light, the investigator should look at the banknote
with a hand lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in the bank note. This is
the one extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color of a genuine banknote. It is very
difficult for counterfeiter to match exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine
manufacturer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY

A. TYPES:
1. Federal Reserve note – with GREEN treasury seal and serial number.
2. United States Note – with RED treasury seal and serial number.
3. Silver Certificate – with BLUE treasury seal and serial number.
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EXAMINATION
B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES - Each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional seal at
the left of the portrait on the face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and bears the name
of the Federal Reserve Bank of issue. Numbers and letters representing the Federal
Reserve District in which that bank is located, are:
1 - Boston - “A” 7 - Chicago - “G”
2 - New York - “B” 8 - St. Louis - “H”
3 - Philadelphia- “C” 9 - Minneapolis - “I”
4 - Cleveland - “D” 10 - Kansas - “J”
5 - Richmond - “E” 11 - Dallas - “K”
6 - Atlanta - “F” 12 - San Francisco - “L”
C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: Portrait – every denomination has the
following:
$1 - Washington $50 - Grant
$2 - Jefferson $100 - Franklin
$5 - Lincoln $500 - McKinley
$10 - Hamilton $1000 - Cleveland
$20 - Jackson $5000 - Madison
COINS
These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or
collectively referring to metal currency.
MAKING OF COINS
CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an
image of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some
molds are used for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or metal blank by

pressure.
COIN CHARACTERISTICS
A. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile, the seal of
the Republic of the Philippines, letterings & numerals are of high relief, so that it can be
readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on these features. The beadings are regular &
the readings are deep & even.
B. Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny round dots
surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular & elongated depressions & are not sharp &
prominent as in the genuine. The letterings & numerals are low & worn out due to the lack
of sharpness of details. The readings are uneven & show signs of filing.
COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN

1. Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. Government kept their
gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and then issue papers for the value of gold.
2. Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face value. In most
countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden except for coin collectors.
EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – should be examined by a magnifying lens;

comparing it with a known coin
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EXAMINATION
DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY: formation of air bubbles, or
removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin. The best place to examine a counterfeit
coin is on the edge since there are usually special milling marks or designs which are added to a
genuine coin by machinery.
COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and
manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make change
in it. Many safety features are incorporated in passport and are easily detected by close
inspection. Ultraviolet light is very useful in this type of examination. The investigator should look
particularly at the photograph in any passport as identification card. This is always necessary
because sometimes forgers remove and change or substitute the picture. Hence, the position of
perforation caused by staples and another pasting device should be studied carefully.
LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes against Public Interests)
A. FOREGERIES - What are the crimes called forgeries?
1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive (Art. 161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164).
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166).
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172).
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171).
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art. 173).
10.Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174).
B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161: Forging the great seal of the Government of the
Philippines; Forging the signature of the President; Forging the stamp of the President.
C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are: Making and importing and
uttering false coins (Art. 163); Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated
coins (Art. 164); and Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165).
D. Reason for punishing forgery - Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the
integrity of the currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent the
imposition on the public and the government of worthless notes or obligations.
E. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;
2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they did
not in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other than
those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts; Altering true dates;
5. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning;
6. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original
document when no such original exists, or including in such copy a statement contrary to,
or different from, that of the genuine original; or
7. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry,
or official book.
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EXAMINATION
WRITING MATERIALS
A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the
forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was
supposed to have been written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose fibers from plants, but
sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and
causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.
C. WATERMARK - Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks
impressed in them during the course of their manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing or recording such as
papers, cardboard, board papers, Morocco paper, etc.
WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS - The common (probable) questioned

on paper is its age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of
preparation of the questioned document.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
A. PAPYRUS - This came into use about 3,500 B.C. - people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and
Southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like
herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B. PARCHMENT - writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or
goats - was probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with
papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM in
ANATOLIA.
C. VELLUM - writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name)
was often used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing
material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts. Almost every
portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a writing
material during the early period.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING

1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official,
CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed in making paper from
vegetable fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7th
century A.D.
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some
Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city
Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the
papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East, the
Moorish invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European
paper mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA.
5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th century, paper was
manufactured throughout most of Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.
7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
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EXAMINATION
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis
Robert. The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in
paper manufacture.
9. Robert's machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry
Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, who in 1803 produced the first of the machines that
bear their name.
10. The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by the
introduction of the groundwood process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the
chemical pulp processes approximately ten years later.
11. CHLORINE - This was introduced in the 19th century for bleaching and colored linen could
already be manufactured for paper.
12. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first
introduced in England in 1861.
13. STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800.
14. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called
SULPHITE (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.
15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT - Letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest
manuscript in England on cotton paper dated AD 1890.
TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)

The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases were reported by
Lucas where the age of the document was established from the compositor/composition of the
paper. In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) was found to be written
on paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this type of
paper was not introduced not until about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake one.
WATERMARKS
1. Definition – It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its
manufacture and appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted
light. The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the
WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper by the manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made? The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp
(mixture of cotton or other fibers) was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain
(woof) wires. Fine wires forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and
impressed into the pulp. This impression made the paper thinner, and therefore, more
transparent, where it appeared.
3. Origin. Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than
100 years after the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the
Middle East. Early in the 19th century, papermakers began to solder the watermark wires
to the grid frame, thus insuring uniformity of impression and aiding in the detection of
counterfeiting and forgery. The first British postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but
stamps of the United States were not so marked until 1895. When paper began to be
machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred to the grid cover of the
dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of
watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers
contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called “DANDY ROLL” that make
the paper, and these designs are changed from time to time.
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EXAMINATION
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent
office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper.
However, the questioned documents examiner's finding is limited only to the
APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the
owner of the watermark in question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the
manufacturer is determined, then consideration is given to changes in design and
defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous
changes in their watermark design in order to date their products.
h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark that was not in existence at the
time the document purports to have been executed.
5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:
a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the
paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is
also known as caused by WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and
more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of
the paper manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll's
damaged surface, will coordinate with the paper manufacture regarding when such
damage occurred on the dandy roll used.
DISCOLORATION
One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its
physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a
passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc.
In case of papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While RUG-
SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both in appearance and
distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and
compare. Consider the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard
documents such as the size, the thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the
general texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing
material used in the questioned document.
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EXAMINATION
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding
test, bursting test, etc.
WRITING INSTRUMENTS
A. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT - One quality of the nib pen is its pliability. This quality varies
which different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a
spreading of the nibs or a given degree of shading.
B. FOUNTAIN PEN - A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a
specially designed chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of
pages without refilling.
C. INK - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.
D. PEN - A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument
used to apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came from the Latin word "PENNA", meaning
feather.
E. PEN NIBS - The tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. QUILL PENS - It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used
for writing on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were the largest
producers of quill.
G. WRITING INSTRUMENTS (WRITING IMPLEMENTS) - Writing Implements, manual
devices used to make alphanumeric marks on or in a surface.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. REED PENS/SWAMP REED
1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the
shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several
months.
2. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush. About
2,000 years B.C., this reed pen was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on
parchment.
B. QUILL PEN
1. Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of
goose, swan, crow and (later) turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6th century
AD) to quill pens was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and
this tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by heating or letting it dry out
gradually. The hardened quill is then cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18th century,
the width of the edge had diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a
flexible point that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather than by
the angle at which the broad edge was held.
C. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)
1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of
"BRAZEN PENS" was in 1465. The 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR
mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of
metal pens did not become widespread until the early part of the 19th century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN in
1803.
3. The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT,
WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
D. FOUNTAIN PENS
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EXAMINATION
1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that
fed ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.
2. By the 1920's, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and
remained so until the introduction of the ball point pen after WORLD WAR II.
E. BALL POINT PEN:
1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its
point a small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the
socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a
rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor brothers LADISLAO and
GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink that could be used with such a pen.
Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
4. Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil-based
ink smudged easily. However, the ball-point pen had several advantages over the
fountain pen:
a. the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
b. the ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces;
c. could be hold in almost any position for writing; and
d. the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.
5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point
replaced the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.
F. FIBER TIP PENS -
1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since
challenged the ball point as the principal writing implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was
ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a
pointed ink brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber
tip pen can produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain
pen inks. The tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and
fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary
mechanism.
G. Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with a dye. These
markers can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A
modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball was introduced
in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS

1. Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot
or lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these
compositions are still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes.
2. Log wood Inks - These inks which were used extensively about a century ago, have now
because obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were made from an aqueous
extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate. These inks will be found only on old.
3. Iron Gallotanate Inks - This ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years.
Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added.
The ink was composed of suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
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EXAMINATION
4. Fountain Pen Inks - These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and
consisting of ordinary iron gallotannate inks with a lower iron content in most cases but
with a higher dyestuff content than normal inks.
5. Dyestuff Inks - These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to
which a preservative and a flux are added.
6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks - These inks are special group of dyestuff
inks. They consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by
means of borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate.
7. Alkaline Writing Inks - These are quick drying inks which possess a ph of from 9 to about
11. They penetrate quickly through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate
quickly into the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes,
sometimes combined with phthalo cyanide dyes.
8. Ballpoint Pen Inks - The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before
1945. The development of the present pen was accomplished during World War II
because the Army and the Air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at
high altitude and which supplied quick drying water resistant writing.
a. In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the same. The differences are
in the finish, the precision with which the instrument is made, the size and the
material of the ball, and the composition of the ink.
b. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lies between 0.6 and 1.0 mm, the cheapest
makes having the largest diameter. The ball is made of steel while the more
expensive makes of sapphire.
c. The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing angle. The best writing
angle for a ballpoint pen is 90 degrees, but a normal hand of writing seldom
uses this angle.
d. The cheaper makes have a minimum writing angle of 55-60 degrees. If one writes
at too small an angle, the brass socket holding the ball will scratch a lined into the
paper, parallel with the ink line.
9. Stamp Pad Inks - They are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol,
glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as coloring matter. For
quick drying stamp pad inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol,
etc. As a vehicle, dextrine, gum arabic, or tannin is sometimes added. Through
the addition of tannin, the stamp impression becomes water resistant after drying.
10. Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and
are exclusively made with basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several other substances
are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.
11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks - These inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes,
carbon black and oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no
dyes, but pigments suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to
bleed and would cause the sharp division between the differently colored halves of the
ribbon to merge.
12. Printing Inks - Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black
and a "base" which may consist of oil, resins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is
possible to remove printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an
aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface of
the ink and the detergent facilitates the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon
and other ingredients by the water.
13. Canceling Inks - These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind
when it is required to decipher faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers.
Carbon is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve the legibility of
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EXAMINATION
any marking affected by a carbon containing canceling ink. Erasure of canceling ink on
valuable stamps is usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the
surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that many canceling inks are manufactured
with media which offer resistance to attack so that the resistant carbon can simply be
swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by infrared photography which will reveal
the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the stamp.
14. Skrip Ink - These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The inks
contain a substance that is colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers
of the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out by
soaking on water.
THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK

1. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of
examination centers on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or of
alterations in a police blotter is identical with the ink found in the possession of the
suspect.
2. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative
examination of certain properties of these inks. However the examination carries with it
certain difficulties as the quantity of material available for examination is small and the
examination can be done only one.
3. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a
partial destruction of writing, an exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be
carried out.
4. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of a binocular
microscope as well as photographic examination. They should be used first before any
chemical examination is resorted to.
5. It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composition and developmental history,
method of manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating
can only be proven by identifying a component of the ink, which was not yet included in
inks at the alleged date of the document.
THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN
THE INK
1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also
possible to identify one or more of the components of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of
the various dyes used in the manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out by paper
chromatography.
5. Procedure:
a. Collection of the ink material
(1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke.
Dyestuff inks can as a rule can be extracted with water. Ball point ink can be
extracted with organic solvent such as ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine
is the best solvent for ball point inks.
(2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the chromatographic
paper into which the ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly pressed.
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EXAMINATION
b. The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled with the solvent; then the filtered
paper strip containing the ink material is lowered into the vessel with the ends just
touching the surface of the solvent and let it hang on the side of the vessel for 15-20
minutes.
c. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.
B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

1. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of
different writings, the document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing
which changes in the course of time. This selection of properties will be determined by
the composition of ink and the circumstances under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
a. Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the writing in question is bound
to date in all probability from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without exception based on oleic acid.
These inks will flow out when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to
them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols, which are
resistant to treatment with benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in question is
old for oleic acid is sometimes also used in modern ballpoint inks.
(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow out with the petroleum
ether because these inks, no water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead
pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink produced later
than 1954-1956.
(8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ballpoint inks. Neither it is
possible to determine the relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if they
are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly because the base is absorbed by
the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use the
copying power for age determination.
b. Dyestuff Inks
(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but the
presence of an obsolete or modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the document
to be dated prior to 1953.
c. Iron Gallotannate Inks - These inks show a remarkable change of color in maturing.
This based on the chemical change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The
following are the methods used to show the gradual change of inks:
(1) Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink – This method is useful in
those cases where the ink writing received for examination is too recent that the
process of maturing can be observed visually. The kind of ink must be known and
one or more writings of known age must be available for comparison.
(2) Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The solubility of iron gallotannate
ink decreases considerably as the ink matures. As with the color change, it can
only be applied successfully to a very recent writing. This method can establish a
difference in the age of writings on one and the same document. The solubility is
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EXAMINATION
determined by a visual estimate of the quantity of ink which can be withdrawn with
a drop of water from a stroke. It is necessary however that the drop of water be
applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.
(3) Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – In iron gallotannate
ink, the iron is mainly present in the complex bound ferrous form. As the
manufacturing process goes on, the ric gallotannate is formed. A drop of aa 1-
dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa1-dipyridyl in 0.5N HCL (normal hydrochloric acid)) is
applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left in contact with the ink for 1 minute and
then recovered with a piece of filter paper. If ferrous iron is still present in the ink,
the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-dipyridyl around the stain of blue
dyestuff. By repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the
ferrous iron in the ink by the changes in the coloration of this red zone. However,
this method is applicable when the questioned writing is not more than a few days
old.
(4) Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes – Iron gallotannate inks
contain an organic dye, (soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes
insoluble complete or partially as the ink ages. It is claimed that the organic dye
becomes completely insoluble in four to five years. However, the application of this
method appears to yield results in practice.
TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

TYPEWRITER - A writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures,
symbols and other resembling printed ones; a machine that can reproduce printed characters on
papers or that can produce printed letters and figures on paper; a machine designed to print or
impress type characters on paper, as a speedier and more legible substitute for handwriting. .
SIGNIFICANT TERMS
A. ALIGNMENT - Alignment defects include characters which write improperly in the
following respects: A twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-
alignment, and a character "Off its feet".
B. ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write improperly in the following
respects: A twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a
character special adjustment to the types block.
C. CARBON IMPRESSION- Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action
of the typefaces striking thought carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression.
Generally, carbon impressions are "carbon copies", but sometime original typewriting is
made directly through a carbon ribbon.
D. CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the term "Character" is used
to include letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation.
E. CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACES - With use the typefaces becomes filled with lint, dirty
and ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o,e,p, and g.
F. DEFECTS - The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter
which is reflected in its works and which leads to its individualization or identification.
G. NATURAL VARIATIONS - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
H. OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than
over the remainder of its outline.
I. PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a type-writer which cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon is
classified as a permanent defect.
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EXAMINATION
J. PLATEN - The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the
blow on the type face is known as a platen.
K. PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - A modern form of typewriting which
resembles printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the
conventional typewriter. For example, the "i" occupies two units. The "o" - three and the
"m" - five. A typewriter of this design is known as a proportional spacing machine.
L. REBOUND - A defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one
slightly offset to the right or left.
M. RIBBON IMPRESSIONS - Typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon is
called ribbon impression.
N. RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree
of determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.
O. TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory
defects. Clogged type is the most common defects in this class.
P. TWISTED LETTER - Each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle
to the base line, due to wear, and damage to the type bars and the type block, some
letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
Q. TYPE FACE - The printing surface of the type block is known as the type face, with most
modern typewriter this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar which
propels the type face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter impression.
R. TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
type face metal is known as type face defect. These defect may be actual breaks in the
outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away sometimes referred to as
broken type, or they may be distorted outlines of the letter where the type face metal
has become bent or smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type block.
EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
1. The first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL
in 1714 for a machine designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
2. In 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit, invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
3. In 1833 a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier Progin for a machine
that embodied for the first time one of the principles employed in modern typewriters: the
use for each letter or symbol of separate typebars, actuated by separate lever keys.
4. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a typewriter which prints
through a metal ring that revolved horizontally above the platen and was equipped with a
series of vertical keys or plungers having pieces of type at the bottom. The machine was
operated by revolving the wheel until the correct letter was centered over the printing
position on the platen, and then striking the key.
5. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to make embossed
impressions that could be read by the blind. One such machine, developed by the
American inventor Alfred Ely Beach in 1856, resembled the modern typewriter in the
arrangement of its keys and type bars, but embossed its letters on a narrow paper strip
instead of a sheet.
6. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and patented by
him in 1856, had a circular arrangement of type bars, a moving paper holder, a bell that
rang to signal the end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The keyboard arrangement of
Francis's machine resembled the black and white keys of a piano.
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EXAMINATION
7. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER
LATHAM SHOLES and was patented in 1868. He developed the first practical typewriter
in cooperation with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and SAMUEL SOULE'.
8. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered an agreement with
ELIPHALET REMINGTON AND SONS, GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES
MANUFACTURERS, the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I
9. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower and upper
case of the alphabet.
10. MARK TWAIN (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to
submit a typewritten manuscript to a publisher.
11. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he became
the first playwright to use it as a stage prop in Candida in 1897.
12. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that typewriters
would one day be operated by electricity.
13. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made
the machine cumbersome and too expensive to be marketed.
14. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F. SMATHERS of
Kansas City.
15. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM), introduced the first commercially
successful electric typewriter to the business world.
16. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type bars
and movable carriages but can use six interchangeable type of typefaces.
17. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961. Despite of the
revolutionary advances in typewriting capabilities, one essential element has remained
unchanged since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed QWERTY
for the top line of letters, was designed to make it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
18. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK. The
process of changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never even begun.
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

HAGAN in 1894, made the first comment on typewriting examination. He wrote that all
typewriter machines even when using the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by use
as to the work done by them. These peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done
by the machine.
This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900 by AMES
who wrote that the identity of writing by different operators as well as that done on different
machines can be done with considerable degree - Different operators have their own peculiar
methods which differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation, spacing,
signing as well as impressions from touch.
In several articles written between1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the foremost
document examiner of the early 20th century, defined the principles of typewriting identification
used today. He called it “THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENIFICATION.”
THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
1. The typefaces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated on the
basis of design and have dating significance.
2. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve to identify the typewriting
of a particular typewriter.
3. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface.
Cleanliness can be used to date a document of fix it written a period of time.
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EXAMINATION
4. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack of uniformity of impression (off-
footedness); type-face score, breadths, defects and deformities all serve to identify the
type writing of a particular machine.
5. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement,
punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be used to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
6. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous typing
done on the sheet of paper.
TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS
A. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE BARS
1. Pica Type - 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type - 12 Letters/inch
3. 6 Letters/inch
4. Teletype Machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch - specials typewriters
B. TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENT OR BALL - A machine, capable of typing
10 or 12 characters per inch. Change of horizontal spacing is done easily by the flip of a
switch.
C. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER) –This has a disc
type device called a print wheel, The printwheel contains all of characters represented on
the typewriter keyboard. This machine has the capability of typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per
inch.
CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEWRITERS BASED ON LETTER DESIGNS

A. The small “w” – depending on the presence or absence of a center serif, height of central
peak and design of the two central diagonals.
w-1 – central peak is the same height as the top of the outside stroke and is capped
by serif.
w-2 – same with w-1 but has no central serif.
w-3 – central joining is below the top of the sides.
w-4 – low center but the two central diagonals join the sides well above the base of
the letter.
B. Crossbar of small letter “t” – cross bar is either longer on the right or on the left side and or
equidistant on each side. The curved lower extension of the “t” is either turn upward at a
point the left of, to the right of, or about even with the right terminus of the crossbar of the “t”.
C. The small letter “g” – upper oval is either much smaller or the same and/or different or the
same in shape than the lower oval. Upper and lower ovals are either very closely spaced or
not.
D. Small letter “r” – right arm is either long with very small curve at its end or a long right arm
with full curve at the end and/or the right arm is short with its curve moderate to full.
E. Small letter “y” – has three distinctive designs:
lower stroke has a broad turn which forms a very shallow trough.
lower stroke has a deep full curve which clearly curves right ward.
Lower stroke turns sharply upward like forming a narrow trough.
F. Small letter “i” – has two distinctive designs:
center of the dot is aligned with the central line of the vertical staff.
Center of the dot is set off to the left of the central line of the vertical staff.
G. Upper and Lower Strokes of Capital Letter “E” – maybe equal or the bottom stroke maybe
longer than the upper stroke. The serif is either vertical or oblique. The small “e” may have
its straight stroke either horizontal or oblique.
Page 52 of 70
EXAMINATION
H. Figure “7” – horizontal stroke is either straight or curve.
I. Figure “5” – horizontal stroke is either straight or slightly or fully curved.
J. The comma “,” – tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very slightly to the left of the
dot.
K. Parentheses – may vary in curvature.
Take Note: Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one and the same typewriter if
they agree in type face style, design, spacing, alignment and three or four scars or damaged type
faces.
IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER BY THE DEFECTS OF THE STROKE

Each typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one to differentiate the
typed characters from a similar machine of the same make. Typewriter of the same make and
model but of different age have differences attributed to wear.
WHAT TO CONSIDER?
1. A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some defects which give its
own personality. Whatever the quality of the manufacture, a typewriter is never absolutely
perfect.
2. Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter will acquire a stronger
individuality by new defects which become more and more prominent and in time,
progressively overcome the initial ones.
PROCEDURE
1. Conduct preliminary examination of the questioned document to determine the make and
model of the typewriter.
2. Then study the defects of the stroke which will distinguish the suspected typewriter from
the others.
The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congenital
deformation while its translation on the paper be compared to symptoms of the defects.
This comparison has the advantage of sorting out the exact conditions of the control of
questioned typewritten documents as follows:
1. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and consequently that the aspect of the
stroke is not immutable but evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the
comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent period.
2. The health of a typewriter tends to change and the defect become more and more
numerous and characteristics. From time to time, an overhead or repairs may help the
ailment definitely or at least give a temporary or partial healing.
3. It will show that the expert does not see the defect of the typewriter right away but only its
translation on the paper by a writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause
4. Lastly it will explain that certain anomalies are not even ascribable to an organic cause of
the type writer but to a phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by
the typist may give some anomalies of the stroke and have no connection with the
mechanism of the typewriter itself. Others are due to a temporary sickness such as a torn
ribbon which will give an incomplete impression of the character or dust which may choke
the mechanism of the stroke. It is only the permanent faults which permit of a positive
identification.
DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER
Page 53 of 70
EXAMINATION
Defects of the Character:
a The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a "break" which is shown by an
alteration of the design. Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often,
the break occurs when the machine is working. The metal is locally damaged by the
continued striking of the letter against hard surfaces and according to the general
direction of the striking will dented or deviated. In the first case the altered sign will
print an incomplete design with broken or interrupted lines, in the second case it
prints a deformed sign. The predominant cause of the defect is that corresponding
bars one behind the other; the character of corresponding bars strikes the back of the
first and crashes on it.
b Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing. Irregular
tempering gives an abnormal contraction of the metal for the bearing of the character
again the plated and gives a local impression more intense and more heavily inked.
c Misalignment of the two signs engraved on the same character so that they are not set
exactly one under the other. This defect may be due to a bad engraving of the mold.
Positioning of the Character on the Type-bar:
a A bad position of the bar on the plate of the soldering apparatus, results in a bad
portioning of the character. It will be bent forward, backward or sideways.
b Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing. The character turns over the slides
along its support. The changes of alignment become greater and greater growing in
frequency in proportion with the collar of the solder. This defect is detected in the
writing by the fact that the top and the bottom of the letter are not printed with the
same intensity and mostly, the vertical misalignment has a tendency to vary at each
stroke and becomes so important that often a part of both signs of the deficient
characters are impressed at the same time.
Defects of the Type-bar - The deformations of a type-bar modify the position of the
character in connection with the platen and alter the originally correct writing.
a Any error of place position of the bar in the basket gives an incline to its head and to
the character.
b The type-bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect of an intensive working, the bends
are modified, so that the type-bar elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or
backward. This deformation causes a misalignment of the character and no longer
allows a uniform impression of its surface.
c Twist of the type-bars is caused by mistakes of the typist. In depressing, by error, two
neighboring keys, two corresponding bars are moved towards the type-bar guide 1,
each bar undergoes the lateral strike of the other and bends along its longitudinal axis.
One error in manipulation does not great damage but its repetition certainly develops
the defect. The type-bar thus bent no long offers a perfectly vertical surface to the axis
of the platen and the character strikes the paper more or less off its feet.
Defects of the Ring - On a worn type writer it is not exceptional to find that the
more active type-bars have depressed the metal of the ring at their point of contact. It no longer
has any effect on the type-bars corresponding to the depression, it no longer stops them in their
travel and it does not send them back to their original position.
These bars strike directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and fall back by their own
weight giving by this very slow motion a vibration to the character in the vicinity of the platen. At
this time the escapement has already moved and the character gives two impressions instead
of one. The second impression, displaced in connection with the first and much paler
seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is 'veiled stroke'.
Page 54 of 70
EXAMINATION
Disorder of the Type bar guide - If the position of the type bar guide is modified for some
reason, the result is a complete disorder of the writing. A guide moved to the right will raise all
signs on the right of the keyboard and will lower all the signs on the left. If it is moved to the left, it
will cause the opposite effect.
Alteration of the Platen - The rubber of the platen gets old and hardens, the surface
formally smooth becomes more and more irregular and rough and does not offer anymore
intimate contact with all surface of the sign. The writing becomes inconsistent and the same sign
will print itself partially or entirely and with a greater intensity and more intensively on the tight or
the left, on the bottom or the top.
General Wear of a Typewriter - The type bars are subjected to a lateral play particularly
felt at the top. This gives poor accuracy at the point of impact of the character. The same signs
print themselves on the right or on the left of their theoretical point of impact.
TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS – synonymous to “alignment defects:

1. Vertical Misalignment - A character printing above or below its proper position. Possible
causes are:
a. a character soldered too high or too low on the type bar;
b. an unsoldered character;
c. a type bar having lost its correct curvature;
d. a type bar having an oval of axis bearing;
e. misalignment of the type bar guide to the right or to the left; and
f. disorder of the capital letter shift lock.
2. Lateral or Horizontal Misalignment - An alignment defect in which the character prints
the right or left of its proper position is known as horizontal alignment.
3. Oblique Misalignment – The character leans towards the right or towards the left.
TYPEWRITING STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS – the procurement of typewriting exemplars are

grouped as follows:
1. Study of the questioned document by the investigator;
2. Procurement of the regular course of business typewriting;
3. Preparation of exemplar typewriting by the suspected writer;
4. Preparation of typewriting exemplar by the investigator on suspected typewriter; and
5. The procurement of the suspected typewriter itself by the investigator.
OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS - Properly prepared known typewriting

samples not only facilitate the examination in the laboratory but they aid immeasurably in the
demonstration in the court room.
HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING?

1. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove it from the typewriter and send it to the
laboratory with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon.(the text of the
material in question may still be discernible of the ribbon)
2. Use paper of about of about the same size as the questioned material, type out a full
word for word copy of the message in question, typographical errors, using as nearly as
possible the same degree of touch as that used in typing the questioned material.
3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the cloth ribbon, obtain
samples of each character on the keyboard by typing through carbon paper which has
been inserted carbon side down over a piece of white bond paper.
4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the
typewriter from which it was produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
Page 55 of 70
EXAMINATION
5. Typewriter specimens should be taken from suspected typewriter/s. It is usually
not necessary to forward the typewriter to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are
obtained.
6. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspected typewriter, the
investigation should insure that the typewriter is kept in its current condition.
7. With evidence thus obtained from typewritten documents, the laboratory experts is in
position to lend valuable assistance to the solution and subsequent prosecution of
many cases.
PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS

METHODS OF PRINTING
A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)
In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above the level of the non-
printing areas. The ink is applied to a raised surface that in turn is applied to paper. The
letterpress process is the oldest of all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and sharper
letters.
After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing which is made on one of
three principles:
1. The platen or “flatbed press” opens and closes like a clam shaft; it has raised type on one
flat surface and paper on another flat surface and the two are pressed together. Small
hand presses are generally platen presses.
2. Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder and then across the flat surface of inked
type.
3. Rotary presses pass the paper between two cylinders, one of which holds the curved
printing plates.
B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING) – There are four types of printing which employ the
Intaglio principle of placing ink in an area, which has been cut out or etched.
1. Gravure – This is a process in which the ink in recessed or sunken letters is drawn out or
sucked out under pressure. The process produces high quality reproduction of
photographs and half-tone illustrations, but the letters of type reproduced have slightly
fuzzy edges. The printing is done from large copper plates or copper covered cylinders on
presses of two kinds; sheet-fed gravure presses and web-fed rotogravure presses for
longer runs. The copper plates or cylinders are produced by making film positives of the
art work to be reproduced.
2. Engraving – The paper her is forced into the sunken areas of a metal plate where the ink
is. A special plate is made by the artist who removes or scratches areas in the metal itself
into which the ink is placed. The actual printing process is very slow, and after the paper is
removed from the plate, time must be allowed for the drying of the ink to prevent
smudging.
3. Planographic – Lithography is the most well known printing process which employs the
principle of putting ink on a chemically treated surface. The commercial application of
lithography is known as offset. In this process, the copy is placed in front of a big camera
and photographed so that the film is the exact size that the final result is to be. The film is
in turn placed over a sensitized plate make of paper, albumen or chemically treated metal)
and exposed to a strong light.
4. Stencil – Stencil sheets on which the copy is typed or drawn are made of a porous lease
tissue, covered with a coating which is impervious to ink. The typing or drawing pushes
the coating aside and exposes the porous tissue. This stencil wrapped around an inked
cylinder and the cylinder is rolled across the paper, forcing the ink through the porous
parts of the stencil.
Page 56 of 70
EXAMINATION
C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING) – In Planographic printing, the image
characters are in the same general plane as the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a
dead level plate which has been chemically treated such as lithograph and offset.
D. STENCIL – It is a process where the letters or image are holes cut in a sheet, or a sheet is
made more porous in the area of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes or
porous areas such as mimeograph.
E. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING – This is offset-related and is used for the reproduction of
pictures and illustrations in little covers. To prepare a halftone block, the model is
photograph and its image is transferred to a metal surface by photo-printing.
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

A. LETTERPRESS
1. Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more sharply defined than
offset printing.
2. Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different “runs” of letterpress
printing which have been made from the same set-up; the “y” type face may exhibit
evidence of damage and the spacing and alignment may be different due to pressure
applied by the frame.
B. OFFSET
1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of the same density; and
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed letters as is sometimes
found in letter press printing.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING – The identification of printing is based on the general

principles which consider the existence of an adequate combination of class and individual
characteristics exceeding the limits of an accidental coincidence.
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – maybe grouped under body size and type face designs.
1. Body size of a type – responsible for the width of a line and depth of a column.
2. Unit measurement – six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – varies from six points up to seventy points, larger ones
being made mainly in wood.
4. According to the type face – there are eight main designs
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – These come into existence as a result of:
1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of typefaces; or
2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

HANDWRITING
Graphology, the study of handwriting to determine one's personality traits, is not
handwriting analysis. It's not even considered a science; more like a parlor trick. True
handwriting analysis involves painstaking examination of the design, shape and structure of
handwriting to determine authorship of a given handwriting sample. The basic principle
underlying handwriting analysis is that no two people write the exact same thing the exact same
way. Every person develops unique peculiarities and characteristics in their handwriting.
Page 57 of 70
EXAMINATION
Handwriting analysis looks at letter formations, connecting strokes between the letters,
upstrokes, retraces, down strokes, spacing, baseline, curves, size, distortions, hesitations and a
number of other characteristics of handwriting. By examining these details and variations in a
questioned sample and comparing them to a sample of known authorship, a determination can be
made as the whether or not the authorship is genuine.
Graphology systems tend to be one of three (3) types: (1) those based on individual letter
formations; (2) those based on stroke analysis; and (3) those based on an holistic/gestalt method.
Over 3000 private business companies use it routinely (to screen employees), and it enjoys a
growing sense of scientific respectability. The courts appear to be waiting to see college
psychology courses on it. It probably has the most validity with the following domains: (1)
intelligence; (2) attitude toward work; and (3) interpersonal skills. Recent developments have
focused on "profiling" of uncaptured criminals and sex offenders (where handwriting analysts say
they can spot a "perversion", not exactly the best word for it).
There's some precedent in art therapy and projective psychological testing for
graphology. Many convictions of child sex offenders have occurred because of what the child
victim portrayed in a drawing, and with psychological testing, there's the famous "Draw a Pig"
assignment, which apparently contains everything you need to make a subjective personality
assessment from: where placed on paper; the size of the pig; the pressure applied; the direction
the pig is facing; attention to details; line quality; angular or curved strokes; and emphasis on
head of pig.
Page 58 of 70
EXAMINATION
TYPEWRITING
All typewriters of a particular make and model are pretty much the same but, through use,
the develop defects that translate to paper when the machine is used. These defects on the
typed page can be matched back to the typewriter that was used to create it.
These defects in the type face are revealed in a number of ways. If the type bar is bent
(the bar on which the letter element is attached and hammered down to the page) the letter is
misaligned or 'off its feet.' Misalignments can also cause non-printing areas of a specific letter,
such as losing the loop on the bottom of a ‘g.’ The letter can be displaced horizontally or
vertically. Little clumps of plastic can adhere to the type key during manufacture and are made
permanent by the coating process. This defect is called 'flashing.' As wear and tear increases,
the defects become more exaggerated.
Just looking at the type style, or font, the spacing (horizontal and vertical) and type size
allows for determining the make and model of the typewriter. Ribbons are a major evidentiary
component. It is possible to read a ribbon to see what it has been used to type.
HANDWRITING AND FINGERPRINT EXPERTS

Illustrations Concerning Forged Signatures in thumb impressions, typed matter, alleged
alterations & interpolations etc.
The upper disputed signature marked Q is a forged signature in 'Devnagari Script' of

Hon'ble Ex-Prime Minister " Sh. Chandrashekhar" on a cheque as compared with his admitted
signature marked A-1.
Page 59 of 70
EXAMINATION
The disputed signature marked Q-3 across the revenue stamp is a forged signature
as compared with the genuine signature marked A-1.
The upper signature marked Q-2 is a forged signature as compared with the admitted
signature marked A-2.
The upper signature marked Q across the revenue stamp is a forged signature in
'Telugu Script' as compared with the specimen signature marked S-4.
The upper fingerprint marked Q is a latent fingerprint developed from the object of
burglary and found to be identical with the specimen fingerprint (S-78) of the suspect on
scientific comparison.
Page 60 of 70
EXAMINATION
The fingerprint marked X developed with Chemical Powders from the object of
burglary was found to be identical with the specimen fingerprint D-5 of the suspect.
A highly enlarged photograph of a clear rolled fingerprint
References:
Books:
1. Sally S. Kalalang, M.S. Crim. & Avelino P. Kalalang, Jr., LI.B : Questioned
Document Examination: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.: 2009 edition.
2. Dr. Gregorio Bacay Mendoza, Jr.: The Questioned Document Examination and
Practices: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.: 2012 edition.
3. Jonas Arabejo Gonzales: Forensic Questioned Documents Examination:
Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.: 2008 edition.
4. Dean Ricardo M. Guevara, M.S.Crim. Criminal Detection Investigation and
Prevention.: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.: 2009 edition.
5. Atty. Juan L. Cagas; Dean Felipe S. Bautista; Dean Ricardo M. Guevarra;&
Dean Ma. Paulina Corazon S. Tatoy: Criminalistics: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.:
2009 edition.
6. Dr.Edwin T. Montalba: Montalba’s Compilation in Criminalistics “A Review Notes
for Criminology Board Examination: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.: 2014, 1st edition.
Page 61 of 70
EXAMINATION
Websites:
1. http://www.forensicevidence.com
2. http://www.forensicpage.com
3. http://www.forensic.gov.uk
Activity Worksheet in Questioned Document Examination.
Republic of the Philippines

SULTAN KUDARAT STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
CRIMINOLOGY DEPARTMENT
Tacurong Campus
Alunan Highway, 9800 Tacurong City
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Name:_________________________________ Date Performed:____________

Course &Year:___________________________ Ratings:___________________
Q.D. EXERCISE NO. 1

FORM AND STYLE OF WRITING
Instruction: Execute individual writing styles in 2 or more sentences.
Objective: To familiarize one’s self with the different individual writing styles and forms.
A. CURSIVE STYLE
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
B. SCRIPT STYLE
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
C. BLOCK STYLE
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Page 62 of 70
EXAMINATION
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Tacurong Campus

Name:_________________________________ Date Performed:____________

Course &Year:___________________________ Ratings:___________________
Q.D. EXERCISE NO. 2

THE HANDWRITING MOVEMENT
Instructions:
1. Execute finger, hand, forearm and whole arm writing movement.
2. Execute the handwriting movement under the following speed:
a. Slow
b. Moderate
c. Fast
3. Execute each in 2 or more sentences.
Objective: Recognize handwriting movement and the speed of execution employed in
writing.
A. FINGER MOVEMENT
Slow:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Moderate:
Page 63 of 70
EXAMINATION
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Fast:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
B. HAND MOVEMENT
Slow:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Moderate:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Fast:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
C. FOREARM MOVEMENT
Slow:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Page 64 of 70
EXAMINATION
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Moderate:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Fast:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
D. WHOLE ARM MOVEMENT

Slow:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Moderate:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Fast:
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________
Page 65 of 70
EXAMINATION

Tacurong Campus

Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:____________

Course &Year:________________________ Ratings:___________________
Q.D. EXERCISE NO. 3

ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOME INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING
Instructions: 1. Illustrate the following in at least 3 letters/words.

2. Draw an arrow to indicate the illustrated word.
Objective: Familiarization of individual characteristics in handwritings.
1. Eye/ Eyelet
2. Diacritics
Page 66 of 70
EXAMINATION
3. Foot
4. Baseline
5. Hiatus
6. Hook
7. Initial Stroke
Page 67 of 70
EXAMINATION
8. Loop
a. Upper Loop
b. Lower Loop
c. Blind Loop
9. Retrace
10. Spur
11. Terminal Stroke
12. Buckle/Buckle knot
Page 68 of 70
EXAMINATION
13. Shoulder/ Hump
14. Staff or Stem
15. Oval
16. Beard
17. Arc/Garland
18. Connecting Strokes
Page 69 of 70
EXAMINATION
19. Body
Page 70 of 70

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A.Y.

2016-2017 NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

DEFENITION OF TERMS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

Questioned Document Timeline:

Other terms to ponder:

LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS

WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on some Supreme Court

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

2. Questioned Documents Alleged to have been containing Fraudulent Alterations

3. Questioned or Disputed Holographic Wills

Areas in Questioned Document Examination:

DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

REASON FOR QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in determining the author of

FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

The criteria of scientific examination of documents are:

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

A.THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

B.Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of questioned

C.Who Conducts the Preliminary Examination? – It should be conducted by a

E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

In the hand of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by

III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

IV. VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING

V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A.SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting

B.SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis in the

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS:

The Characteristics of Motor Coordination are:

Faulty motor coordination’s are characterized by the following:

A.LACK OF RHYTHM - Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly

QUALITIES OF THE STROKES

GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These characteristics refer to those habits are

Indications of speed (speedy) writing

Indications of slow writing

C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED

F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING (Anonymous, threat, poison

Name:_____________________ Date Performed:

Name:_____________________ Date Performed: