COUPLED REACTION PROCESSES

Endergonic Reactions (Anabolic Reactions)

 are nonspontaneous and usually occur in organisms, because they need to synthesize
complex molecules such as fats, amino acids, and sugars.
 describing a reaction that absorbs (heat) energy from its environment.

Exergonic Reaction (Catabolic Reactions)

 are spontaneous or favorable chemical reactions wherein the products are at a lower
energy level tan the reactants. In this case, the reactions release more energy than
what was required initially.
 describing a reaction that releases energy (heat) into its environment.

Coupled Reaction

 is a chemical reaction with a common intermediate in which energy is transferred

from one side of the reaction to the other.
 an example is the formation of ATP, which is an endergonic process and is coupled to
the dissipation of a proton gradient.
 a coupled biochemical reaction happens when free energy from an exergonic reaction
is used to initiate an endergonic reaction by coupling or “joining” the two reactions,
where they become complementary.
 the hydrolysis of ATP is actually involved in coupled reactions with numerous
biochemical processes, such as phosphorylation of glucose, which is an initial step to
its conversion to fructose.
 phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group to a certain biomolecule,
such as glucose.
 the hydrolysis of ATP is an exergonic reaction because it releases energy.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

 often referred to as the “energy currency of the cell”

 is the energy currency for cellular processes. ATP provides the energy for both
energy-consuming endergonic reactions and energy-releasing exergonic reactions,
which require a small input of activation energy.
 is comprised of the molecule adenosine bound to three phosphate groups. Adenosine
is a nucleoside consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine and the five-carbon sugar
ribose. The three phosphate groups, in order of closest to furthest from the ribose
sugar, are labeled alpha, beta, and gamma.

CHLOROPHYLL AND OTHER PIGMENTS

Photosynthesis

 is the process used by plants, algae and certain bacteria to harness energy from
sunlight and turn it into chemical energy.
 Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: The light-dependent reactions;
The light-independent reactions, or Calvin Cycle.

Light Dependent Reactions

 light-dependent reactions require sunlight

 energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and converted into stored chemical
energy, in the form of the electron carrier molecule NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate) and the energy currency molecule ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)
 it takes place in the thylakoid membranes in the granum (stack of thylakoids), within
the chloroplast.

Light Independent Reactions

 light-dependent reactions require carbon dioxide

 it does not use light as a reactant (and as a result can take place at day or night), they
require the products of the light dependent reactions to function.
 takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P
from CO2.
  It produces organic molecule from carbon dioxide

Chlorophyll

 is a green substance in producers that traps light energy from the sun, which is then
used to combine carbon dioxide and water into sugars in the process of
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is vital for photosynthesis, which helps plants get energy
from light.
 is a green photosynthetic pigment found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
 It absorbs mostly in the blue and to a lesser extent red portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, hence its intense green color
 chlorophyll A is the major pigment used in photosynthesis

THE LIGHT REACTIONS

Light Reactions

 use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis:
the energy storage molecule ATP and the reduced electron carrier NADPH.
 in plants, the light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes of organelles
called chloroplasts.

Photosystems

 large complexes of proteins and pigments (light-absorbing molecules) that are

optimized to harvest light, play a key role in the light reactions.
 there are two types of photosystems: photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII).
 photosystem I is called P700, while the special pair of photosystems II is called P680

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular Respiration

 it refers to metabolic processes and reactions that occur in cells or organisms to

convert chemical energy from nutrients and oxygen into ATP
  this process can be divided into 2 categories, namely aerobic and anaerobic
respiration

Basis for
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
comparison

is a process of cellular respiration

is a set of metabolic reactions that
where the high energy electron
take place in the presence of oxygen,
Definition acceptor is neither oxygen nor
occurring in a cell to convert
pyruvate derivatives.
chemical energy into ATPS.

Overall Equation

Anaerobic respiration takes place in a

Aerobic respiration takes place in condition where there is a low oxygen
Presence of Oxygen
the presence of oxygen. environment.

The exchange of gases doesn't take

There is an exchange of gases during
place during anaerobic respiration.
Exchange of Gases aerobic respiration where oxygen Is
However, some gases like sulfur and
absorbed, and carbon dioxide is
nitrogen gases are released by some
released.
organisms.

Aerobic respiration, after glycolysis,

occurs in the mitochondria of
Anaerobic respiration occurs only in
Location eukaryotes and cytoplasm of
the cytoplasm of a cell.
prokaryotes.

Aerobic Respiration

 a set of metabolic reactions that take place in the presence of oxygen, occurring in a
cell to convert chemical energy into ATPs.
 occurs in the presence of oxygen.
 glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
 it occurs in the mitochondria of the cytoplasm
  38 ATP are produced
 carbon dioxide gas and water are the two products
 it consists of 3 stages – Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and Electron Trans Chain

Glycolysis

 the first stage of aerobic pathway

 glycolysis, from glyco meaning "sugar" and lysis meaning "to split."
 it is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions that occur inside the cytoplasm.
 this particular stage does not require oxygen.
 it involves the splitting of 1 6-carbon sugar molecules into 2 3-carbon pyruvate
molecules yielding 2 ATP molecules.
 it begins by breaking down glucose from food, but only produces a small amount of
energy in the form of ATP molecules.
 the end product of glycolysis is (pyruvate) the three-carbon pyruvic acid produced in
the cytosol

Krebs Cycle

 the next stage of aerobic pathway is the Krebs Cycle

 also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid
 it starts with the end-product of glycolysis, pyruvate, and involves a series of enzyme-
controlled processes that occur inside the mitochondrial matrix
 is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that break down acetyl-CoA completely into
carbon dioxide and water
 there are two rounds of Krebs cycle.
 the end product of the Krebs cycle is an organic acid found in citrus fruits like
lemons, oranges, etc. known as citric acid.
 hence, the end products are 4 ATP, 10 NADH, and 2 FADH2 molecules

ETC (Electron Transport Chain)

  a series of oxidation processes where electrons (H2+) carried by NADH2 and FADH2
are transferred to electron acceptors.

Anaerobic Respiration

 is a process of cellular respiration where the high energy electron acceptor is neither
oxygen nor pyruvate derivatives.
 does not require oxygen
 occurs within the cytoplasm of the cell
 2 ATP are produced
 Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

 fermentation is another pathway for anaerobic respiration

 it consists of 2 types – Alcoholic and Lactic acid

Cellular Respiration and its ATP yield

Phase NADH FADH2 ATP Yield

Glycolysis 2 2

Krebs Cycle 6 2 2

ETC 10 30

2 4

Total 38 maximums