I.

INTRO Sensor data sheet- A marketing document

typically designed to highlight a positive
Sensor- often defined as a “device that attributes of a particular sensor and
receives and responds to a signal or emphasize some of the potential uses of
stimulus.” sensor.

- Sensor 1 perceives the object without

a physical contact and, therefore,
is called a non contact sensor.
- Sensor 5 serves a different purpose.
It monitors internal conditions of a data
acquisition system itself.
-Some sensors (1 and 3) cannot be
directly connected to standard electronic
circuits because of inappropriate output
signal formats. They require the use of
interface devices (signal conditioners).
-Sensors 1, 2, 3, and 5 are passive.
- The sensor’s output signal may be They generate electric signals without
in the form of voltage, current, or charge. energy consumption from the electronic
These may be further described in terms of circuits.
amplitude, polarity, frequency, phase, or -Sensor 4 is active. It requires an
digital code. This set of characteristics is operating signal, which is provided by an
called the output signal format. excitation circuit. This signal is modified by
- The term sensor should be the sensor in accordance with the converted
distinguished from transducer. The latter is information.
a converter of any one type of energy into
another, whereas the former converts any
type of energy into electrical energy.

Stimulus- is the quantity, property, or

condition that is received and converted into
an electrical signal.

Actuator- Converts energy from one form

to another. Sensor Classification
-Converts electrical signals into
physical phenomena. ● Nature of Output.
- Analog Sensor
- Digital Sensor
 ● Requirement of power source. current signals in linear to the temperature
● Input being measured. levels. The usage of these devices is so
simple, and there is no need for complicated
Analog Sensor- are the devices that circuits to construct.
produce analog output in correspondence to
the quantity being calculated. These Digital Sensor- Digital sensors are the kind
sensors also observe the change in external of electrochemical or electrical sensors
factors such as light intensity, speed of the where the information is converted to digital
wind, and solar radiation, among others. form and then transmitted. The output of a
And the output ranges between 0V to 5V. digital sensor is the distinct digital signal of
the quantity which is being measured.
Types of Analog Sensors
Types of Digital Sensors
Accelerometers- Type of analog sensors ● Digital accelerometers
where those can be utilized to detect ● Digital Temperature Sensor
changes in acceleration applied on the
sensor. Requirement of Power Source
● Active Sensor
Light Sensors- These are the kind of ● Passive Sensor
photoelectric devices where the detected
light energy is converted to that of electrical Active Sensor- Sensors that require an
energy which means that photons are external power source for their function.
converted as electrons.

Light Sensors type:

● Photovoltaic
● Light Dependent
● Photo Diode
● Proximity

Sound Sensors- Sound sensors are

considered as the modules to find out sound Passive Sensor- Sensors that don't require
waves by the intensity and converting those an external power source to operate.
into electrical signals.

Pressure Sensors- Pressure sensors are

the devices used for the measurement of
pressure levels of either liquids or gasses.
This device is even utilized to measure a
few of the other parameters like the altitude,
flow of either gas or liquid, and water levels.

Analog Temperature Sensor- These

sensors deliver analog output voltage or
Input being measured stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent of the
● Displacement Sensors- Used to measurement conditions, whereas a relative
measure travel range between sensor produces a signal that relates to
where an object is and a reference some special case.
position.
● Velocity Sensors- A velocity or 3. Another way to look at a sensor is to
speed sensor measures consecutive consider some of its properties that may be
position measurements at known of a specific interest. Below are the lists of
intervals and computes the time rate various sensor characteristics that may be
of change in the position values. considered (Tables 1.1–1.7).
● Force Sensors- It converts an input
mechanical force such as load,
weight, tension, compression or
pressure into another physical
variable, in this case, into an
electrical output signal that can be
measured, converted and
standardized.
● Temperature Sensors- A
temperature sensor is a device that
detects and measures hotness and
coolness and converts it into an
electrical signal.
● Light Sensors- Light sensors are a
type of photodetector (also called
photosensors) that detect light.
Different types of light sensors can
be used to measure illuminance,
respond to changes in the amount of
light received, or convert light to
electricity.

1. All sensors may be of two kinds: passive

and active. A passive sensor does not need
any additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to
an external stimulus. That is, the input
stimulus energy is converted by the sensor
into the output signal.

2. Depending on the selected reference,

sensors can be classified into absolute and
relative. An absolute sensor detects a
 Sensors Characteristics

Unit of Measurements Static Characteristics- The properties of

the system after all the transient effects
have settled to their final or steady state.
● Accuracy- is the capacity of a
measuring instrument to give results
close to the true value of the
measured quantity.
● Precision- The capacity of a
measuring instrument to give results
close to each other.
● Linearity- property of a
mathematical relationship or function
which means that it can be
graphically represented as a straight
line.
● Sensitivity- is defined as the ratio of
change in output value of a sensor
to the per unit change in input value
that causes the output to change.
● Resolution- is the smallest
detectable incremental change of
input parameter that can be detected
in the output signal. Resolution can
 be expressed either as a proportion ● Saturation- Every sensor has its
of the full scale or in absolute terms. operating limits. Even if it is
● Transfer Function- shows the considered linear, at some levels of
functional relationship between the input stimuli, its output signal no
physical input signal and electrical longer will be responsive. A further
output signal. Usually, this increase in stimulus does not
relationship is represented as a produce a desirable output. It is said
graph showing the relationship that the sensor exhibits a span-end
between the input and output signal, nonlinearity or saturation.
and the details of this relationship ● Excitation- Excitation is the
may constitute a complete electrical signal needed for the
description of the sensor active sensor operation. Excitation is
characteristics. specified as a range of voltage
● Calibration- If sensor’s and/or current. For some sensors,
manufacturer tolerances and the frequency of the excitation signal
tolerances of the interface (signal and its stability must also be
conditioning) circuits are broader specified. Variations in the excitation
than the required system accuracy, a may alter the sensor transfer
calibration of the sensor or a function and cause output errors.
combination of a sensor and an ● Reliability- Reliability is the ability of
interface circuit is required to a sensor to perform a required
minimize errors. function under stated conditions for
● Errors- is the difference between a stated period. It is expressed in
the result of the measurement and statistical terms as a probability that
the true value of the quantity being the device will function without
measured. failure over a specified time or a
● Span (Full-scale input) / Input number of uses. It should be noted
Range- A dynamic range of stimuli that reliability is not a characteristic
which may be converted by a sensor of drift or noise stability. It specifies a
is called a span or an input full scale failure, either temporary or
(FS). It represents the highest permanent, exceeding the limits of a
possible input value that can be sensor's performance under normal
applied to the sensor without operating conditions.
causing an unacceptably large
inaccuracy. Error- in measurement is the discrepancy
● Full-scale output- Full-scale output between the measured value and the actual
(FSO) is the algebraic difference value of the quantity being measured. It
between the electrical output signals arises from various sources, including
measured with maximum input limitations of instruments, imperfections in
stimulus and the lowest input measurement techniques, and
stimulus applied. This must include environmental factors.
all deviations from the ideal transfer
function.
Types of error of a model or theory and the actual outcome
● Systematic observed in the real world. It arises from the
● Random limitations of the model or theory itself, often
due to simplifications or assumptions that
Instrumental Errors- occur due to wrong do not perfectly reflect the complexity of the
construction of the measuring instruments. real world.
These errors may occur due to hysteresis or
friction. These types of errors include Hysteresis Errors- can occur in various
loading effect and misuse of the instruments, from thermometers and
instruments. In order to reduce the gross pressure gauges to electrical meters,
errors in measurement, different correction impacting diverse scientific and engineering
factors must be applied and in the extreme fields, when a value is being measured such
condition instruments must be recalibrated as pressure and it may not be the same in
carefully. both directions, hysteresis error arises.

Environmental Errors- The environmental Zero-Order Sensors

errors occur due to some external
conditions of the instrument. External
conditions mainly include pressure,
temperature, humidity or due to magnetic
fields. In order to reduce the environmental
errors Try to maintain the humidity and Zero-Order is the desirable response of a
temperature constant in the laboratory by sensor
making some arrangements. Ensure that
there shall not be any external electrostatic ● No delays
or magnetic field around the instrument. ● Infinite Bandwidth
● The sensor only changes the
Random Errors- Random errors are amplitude of the input signal.
caused by the sudden change in
experimental conditions and noise and First-Order Sensors- are characterized by
tiredness in the working persons. These one parameter called time constant (t) of the
errors are either positive or negative. An system.
example of the random errors is during
changes in humidity, unexpected change in Second-Order Sensors- is characterized
temperature and fluctuation in voltage. by two constant natural response and
These errors may be reduced by taking the damping ratios of the system.
average of a large number of readings.
Dynamic Characteristics- Behaviour of the
Observational Error- it is introduced by the sensor between the time the input is given
observer and most common, parallax error and time that the output value is given by
and estimation error while reading the scale. the sensor settles to a steady-state value.

Theoretical Errors- is a discrepancy

between the predicted or expected outcome
 response along the time axis may be
II. delayed.

Dynamic characteristics- A sensor Dynamic Error- defined as the algebraic

characterized by a time-dependent difference between the indicated value of
characteristic possesses Dynamic the measurement and its true value at any
Characteristics. instant, when the measurement is a function
of time.
The dynamic characteristics of any - It represents the inability of
measurement system are: the system to adequately reproduce the
amplitude of the input signal for a particular
● Speed of response and Response input frequency.
time
● Lag Out of the above four characteristics, the
● Fidelity Speed of Response and the Fidelity are
● Dynamic error desirable in a dynamic system, while Lag
and Dynamic error are undesirable.
Response Time- This is the time that
elapses after a constant input, a step input, Signal Conditioning- is an electronic
is applied to the transducer up to the point circuit that manipulates a signal in a way
at which the transducer gives an output that prepares it for the next stage of
corresponding to some specified processing. Many data acquisition
percentage. applications involve environmental or
mechanical measurements from sensors,
Time Constant- A measure of the inertia of such as temperature and vibration.
the sensor and how fast it will react to
changes in its input. THERE ARE A NUMBER OF KEY
FUNCTIONS THAT THE INSTRUMENT
Rise Time- This is the time taken for the NEEDS TO PERFORM, WHICH ARE
output to rise to some specified percentage OFTEN ASSIGNED AS SIGNAL
of the steady-state output. CONDITIONING FUNCTIONS:

Fidelity- the ability to reproduce the ● provide sensor excitation (for

changes in the input signal faithfully. It is those requiring it)
defined as the degree to which an ● provide an input stage with
instrument indicates the changes in the characteristics matched to the
measured variable without dynamic error. sensor
● detect the input signal
Settling Time- This is the time taken for the ● translate the input signal to a
output to settle to within some percentage. range and magnitude compatible
with later signal processing and
Lag- The delay in response of a device to a data conversion tasks
change in input. Because of lag, the output ● linearize the signal to simplify
information extraction
 ● reject noise to improve the our daily lives, be it in the form of domestic
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) water heaters, thermometers, refrigerators,
● afford protection to limit damage or microwaves.
to the instrument from
electrostatic discharge (ESD) The four most common types of
temperature sensors, ranging in
responsiveness and accuracy from high
to low are:

● Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) Thermistors.
● Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
● Thermocouples.
● Semiconductor-Based Sensors.

Thermocouple- a sensor that measures

temperature. It consists of two different
types of metals, joined together at one end.
Amplification- a two-way process that is When the junction of the two metals is
needed for digitalization or processing heated or cooled, a voltage is created that
can be correlated back to the temperature.
Filtration- most often performed to remove
unwanted signals and noise from the data. Types of Thermocouples:

Isolation- most often performed to remove There are several types of thermocouples,
unwanted signals and noise from the each made of different metal combinations
data.used to pass the signal from the with varying temperature ranges and
source to the measuring device without a characteristics. The most common types
physical connection. include Type K (chromel-alumel), Type J
(iron-constantan), Type T
Excitation- Depending upon the sensor and (copper-constantan), and Type E
measurement required, signal conditioners (chromel-constantan). The selection of the
can provide voltage or current source. type depends on factors such as the
temperature range, environmental
Linearization- a type of signal conditioning conditions, and accuracy requirements.
in which software linearizes the voltage
levels from transducers, so the voltages can III. Thermoresistive Sensors
be scaled to measure physical phenomena.
Sensors can be divided into three
Temperature Measurement Sensors- Are groups:
devices that detect and measure coldness ● RTD’s
and heat and convert it into an electrical ● PN-Junction Detectors
signal. Temperature sensors are utilized in ● Thermistors
Thin-film RTDs- are often fabricated
of thin platinum or its alloys and
deposited on a suitable substrate
such as a micromachined silicon
membrane. The RTD is often made
in a serpentine shape to ensure a
sufficiently large length/width ratio.

Wire-wound RTDs- where the

platinum winding is partially
supported by a high-temperature
glass adhesive inside a ceramic
tube. This construction provides a
detector with the most stability for
NTC Thermistors- When a
industrial and scientific applications.
thermistor is used as a temperature
sensor, we assume that all its
Thermistors- is a contraction of
characteristics are based on the
words thermal and resistor. The
so-called zero-power resistance,
name is usually applied to
meaning that electric current passing
metal-oxide sensors fabricated in
through a thermistor does not result
forms of droplets, bars, cylinders,
in any noticeable temperature
rectangular flakes, and thick films.
increase (self-heating) that may
affect accuracy of measurement.
All thermistors are divided into
two groups:
Fabrication of Ceramic NTC
● NTC
Thermistors
● PTC

The NTC thermistors can be

Conventional metal-oxide thermistor
classified into three major groups
has a NTC, that is, its resistance
depending upon the method by
decreases with the increase in
which they are fabricated.
temperature.

Chip thermistor with surface

contacts for the Leadwires. Usually,
the chips are fabricated by a tape
casting process, with subsequent
screen printing, spraying, painting,
or vacuum metallization of the type of a sensor, that is, it does
surface electrodes. require an excitation signal for its
operation. The signal is usually
either a dc or ac passing through the
thermistor.

PTC Thermistors

● All metals may be called PTC

materials.
The third type of thermistors is ● Their temperature
fabricated by the deposition of coefficients of resistivity
semiconductive materials on a (TCR) are quite low thus
suitable substrate such as glass, making them not very useful
alumina, silicon, etc. for temperature sensing that
require high sensitivity.
Germanium and Silicon NTC ● Even though the PTC
Thermistors thermistors are not
appropriate for accurate
High-quality NTC thermistors may measurement of
be successfully fabricated from temperature, there are
monocrystalline or polycrystalline several applications where
germanium or silicon. These the self-regulating effect of a
thermistors have several PTC thermistor may be quite
advantages, some of them are very useful.
high sensitivity, tight manufacturing
tolerances, very small sizes, low Circuit Protection
cost, and ability to operate at
cryogenic and high temperatures, 1. A miniature self-heating thermost
from as low as 1 mK to as high as for the microelectronic, bio- medical,
500C. chemical, and other suitable
applications can be designed with a
Printed Thermistors- The process single PTC thermistor.
involves screen-printing on a
ceramic substrate. The ink for 2. Time delay circuits can be created
printing contains a powder with with the PTC thermistors thanks to a
thermistor characteristics, glass relatively long transition time
powder, and organic binder. between the application of electric
power in its heating and a
Self-Heating effects on NTC low-resistance point.
Thermistors
3. Flowmeter and liquid-level
A self-heating effect should not be detectors that operate on principle of
overlooked. A thermistor is an active
heat dissipation can be made very Differential Pressure
simple with the PTC thermistors.
Static Pressure- The statements
PRESSURE are explicitly true for a fluid that is
not moving in space, that is not
Industrial Pressure Measurement being pumped through pipes or
flowing through a channel. The
● The Measurement and pressure in cases where no motion
Control of Pressure is very is occurring is referred to as static
important in almost all pressure.
chemical and Petrochemical
Industries, Power Plants And Dynamic pressure- If a fluid is in
other Industries. Many of the motion, the pressure that it exerts on
Processes in these Industries its surrounding depends on the
use liquids, gasses, steam, motion. Thus, if we measure the
etc. which requires highly pressure of water in a hose with the
accurate measurement and nozzle closed, we may find a
control of pressure for pressure of, say, 40 1b per square
Trouble Free and Safety inch (note : force per unit area). If
Operation. the nozzle is opened, the pressure in
● Pressure is defined as Force the hose will drop to a different
Applied Per Unit Area. value, say, 30 1b per square inch.
● Mathematically, pressure is For this reason, a thorough
expressed as; P = F/A description of pressure must note
● Where P – Pressure, F – the circumstances under which it is
Force, A – Area measured. Pressure can depend on
flow, compressibility of the fluid,
Types of Pressure external forces, and numerous other
factors.
Gauge Pressure- Pressure above
atmospheric pressure. Hence, the Mechanical Sensors
zero of the Gauge Pressure scale
depends on the Atmospheric Working Principle
Pressure at that location.
System or line pressure is applied to
Absolute Pressure- Pressure the internal volume of the bellows.
above the absolute Zero. As the inlet pressure to the
Instrument varies, the bellows will
Atmospheric Pressure or expand or contract. The moving end
Barometric Pressure of the bellows is connected to a
mechanical linkage assembly.
Vacuum- Pressure less than
atmospheric Pressure.
 Disadvantages
● It needs ambient
temperature
compensation.
● It is unsuitable for high
pressures.
● The availability of
construction metals is
limited
● It is not useful to measure
high value pressure
(applications usually less
than 30 psi)
● Bellows joints can fail
catastrophically.
The bellows will usually be used in ● No in place maintenance or
expansion. The process pressure is repair can be performed –
then introduced to the inside of the they must be replaced if
bellows and causes the bellows to damaged.
extend.

Absolute Pressure Sensors- are Diaphragm Type Sensor- uses the

generally used to measure low elastic deformation of a diaphragm
pressures, the bellows are not (i.e. membrane) instead of a liquid
equipped with calibrated springs and level to measure the difference
they are used in expansion. The between an unknown pressure and
bellows will stretch with increasing a reference pressure.
process pressure.
There are two main types of
Advantages construction and operation of
● Its cost is moderate. diaphragm sensors:
● It is able to deliver high
force. Motion Balanced- Motion balanced
● It is adaptable for absolute designs are used to control local,
and differential pressures. direct reading indicators.
● It is good to
low-to-moderate range. Force Balance- Force balanced
● It is used to measure designs are used as transmitters.
absolute & differential
pressure. Advantages
● It is used to measure low ● Provide Isolation from
or medium pressure rang. process fluid
● Wide range
 ● Good for low pressure -The pressure input is given to a
● Used to measure gauge, socket which is soldered to the tube
atmospheric and at the base.
differential pressure.
-Tip is connected to a segmental
Disadvantages lever through an adjustable length
● Seismic, impact resistance link. The lever length may also be
is not good adjustable.
● Low measurement
pressure -A hair spring is used to fasten the
● Difficulty in maintenance spindle of the frame of the
instrument to provide necessary
Bourdon Tube Sensor Type- The tension for proper meshing of the
Bourdon tube is the namesake of gear teeth.
Eugéne Bourdon, a French
watchmaker and engineer who
invented the Bourdon gauge in
1849.Force balanced designs are
used as transmitters.

C-Type Bourdon Tube Sensor-

C-Type Bourdon Tube works on a
simple principle that a bent tube will
change its shape when exposed to
variations of internal and external
pressure.

Advantages
● Inexpensive
● Wide operating range
● Simple in construction
● Fast response
● Good sensitivity
● Direct pressure
measurement
● Can be modified to give
electrical outputs.
● Safe even for high
pressure measurement.
● Accuracy is high especially
at high pressures.
 ● The tip movement of the
Disadvantages spiral equals the sum of the
● Primarily intended for tip movements of all its
indication only individual C- bend arcs.
● Hysteresis on cycling
● Sensitive to temperature Advantages
variations
● Limited life when subject to ● A spiral-type bourdon tube
shock and vibration provides more tip
● They respond slowly to movement.
changes in pressure ● The spiral-type tube works
under the same observed
Spiral Type Bourdon Tube principles as the C-type,
but as the applied pressure
Principle of operation increases, the spiral
uncoils.
● The spiral Bourdon tube ● Increased accuracy and
makes a few windings in one sensitivity
plane around the fixed shaft ● Higher over range
of the pointer. protection
● When the tube is being
uncoiled by the process Disadvantages
pressure, the free end will ● Very expensive
have a larger displacement
compared to the C-shaped Helical Type Bourdon Tube
tube. The more windings, the
larger the displacement will Working principle
be.
● A transmission mechanism is ● Helical is a bourdon tube
therefore no longer wound in the form of helix. It
necessary. allows the tip movement to
● Using a fixed link avoids be converted to a circular
transmission losses due to motion.
friction or backlash in the ● By installing a central shaft
transmission mechanism. inside the helix along its axis
and connecting it to the tip,
Construction of Spiral type the tip movement become a
circular motion of the shaft.
● Spiral Bourdon Tube is made
by winding a partially
flattened metal tube into a
spiral having several turns
instead of a single C- bend
arc.
Advantages
● Helical tubes can be Change in resistance of
manufactured in very much Conductor
smaller sizes than the ● The resistance of a
equivalent C-Type tubes. conductor is proportional
Hence, they can be fitted to its length so stretching
into smaller spaces. increases the resistance.
● As the conductor is
Disadvantages stretched, its
● They respond slowly to cross-sectional area is
changes in pressure reduced, which also
● They are sensitive to increases the resistance
shocks and vibrations. ● The inherent resistivity of
● Amplification is a must as some materials increases
the displacement of the when it is stretched
free end of the bourdon
tube is low. Piezoresistive strain gauge
● It cannot be used for measurements are made
precision measurement using a Wheatstone bridge
circuit.

Transducer

Piezoresistive strain gauge

● Piezoresistive strain
gauges are among the
most common types of
pressure sensors. They
use the change in electrical
resistance of a material
when stretched to measure Basic Construction and Materials
the pressure.
● These are suitable for a ● One or more strain gauge
variety of applications sensors made from a
because of their simplicity length of wire can be
and robustness. They can attached to the surface of a
be used for absolute, diaphragm.
gauge, relative and ● Semiconducting materials,
differential pressure most commonly silicon,
measurement, in both can also be used to make
high- and low-pressure piezoelectric strain gauge.
applications. The characteristics of the
sensing element,
particularly the size of the
 piezoresistive effect, can sensor in fuel injection
be adjusted by doping; in systems.
other words by adding
carefully controlled Advantages
amounts of impurities
(dopants) to the ● Piezoresistive strain gauge
semiconductor. pressure sensors have the
● More lightly doped silicon advantage of being robust.
results in a higher ● Metal film sensing
resistivity and a higher elements have the
gauge factor. However, this advantage of simple
also increases the thermal construction and durability.
sensitivity of both the ● Can be made much smaller
resistance and gauge than metal wire sensors
factor. and can be integrated with
electronics for signal
processing, which can
control for non-linearity
and temperature
dependence.

Disadvantages

● Temperature Variation
● Humidity
● Small errors could be
Applications caused due to
● Silicon strain gauges thermoelectric effects.
provide a much larger
output signal, making them Capacitive Pressure Transducer-
well-suited to low-pressure It is a pressure measurement
applications, down to device, which converts applied
around 2 kPa. pressure into a current signal, like
● Can be used as a knock 4-20mA. Capacitive type pressure
sensor in automotive transmitter is a differential pressure
engine management type sensor.
systems for noticing knock
of the engine. ● Capacitive pressure
● The load of the engine can transmitter works under the
be determined by principle of differential
calculating diverse capacitance.
absolute pressure, that can ● Capacitive pressure
be done by using these measurement involves
transducers as the MAP sensing the change in
 capacitance that results from Disadvantages
the movement of a ● Temperature sensitivity
diaphragm. ● Stray capacitance problem
● A linear change in ● Vibration
capacitance with changes in ● Limited overpressure
the physical position of the capability
moving element, may be ● Cost
used to provide an electrical
indication of the element’s PIEZOELECTRICTRANSDUCER-
position. Generaly the are a type of electroacoustic
capacitance is defined by the transducer that convert the electrical
equation: charges produced by some forms of
solid materials into energy. The word
C = Aε/d "piezoelectric" literally means
electricity caused by pressure.
C- Capacitance between two
conductors Piezoelectric Transducer works with
A- Area of overlapping between the principle of piezoelectricity. The
those conductors faces of piezoelectric material, usual
d- Distance separating the quartz, is coated with a thin layer of
conductors conducting material such as silver.
ε-Dielectric permittivity of the When stress has applied the ions in
insulating medium the material move towards one of
the conducting surface while moving
● The permittivity of the away from the other. This results in
medium and the area of the generation of charge. This
overlapping will be constant charge is used for calibration of
in this case, the only varying stress. The polarity of the produced
parameter, in this case, is the charge depends upon thedirection of
distance between the the applied stress.
conductors which varies
when the pressure varies, Types of Piezoelectric Materials
which changes the
capacitance. So the pressure Naturally Available Ones
variation results in the ● Quartz, Rochelle salt,
capacitance variation. Topaz, Tourmaline Group
minerals, and some
Advantages organic substances such
● Inaccuracy 0.01 to 0.2% as silk, wood, enamel,
● Linearity bone, hair, rubber, dentin.
● Fast response
● Range of 80Pa to 35MPa Artificially manufactures
● Polyvinylidene difluoride,
PVDF or PVF2, Barium
 titanate, Lead titanate, the change in resistance of a
Lead zirconate titanate potentiometer.
(PZT), Potassium niobate, ● The wiper of the
Lithium niobate, Lithium potentiometer is
tantalate, and other mechanically connected to a
lead-free piezoelectric pressure-sensitive element,
ceramics. such as a Bourdon tube, a
bellows, a capsule or a
There are certain requirements to diaphragm. The deflection of
be met by the piezoelectric the pressure-sensitive
materials to be used as element determines the
transducers. position of the wiper on the
potentiometer.
● Frequency stability ● As a result, the resistance
● High output values value changes between the
● Insensitive to the extreme wiper and one end of the
temperature and humidity potentiometer. This
conditions and which can resistance value is a
be available in various measure of the pressure
shapes applied to the sensing
● Should be flexible to be element.
manufactured into various
shapes without disturbing Advantages
their properties. ● Simple technology or
simple instrumentation ,
Advantages have high electrical
● Self-generating efficiency and are
● Accessible inexpensive
● High-frequency response ● Easily customizable to
● Flexibility application
● High output signal
Limitations ● High range and have high
● Small electric charge ruggedness
● Affected by various
environments and Disadvantages
conditions ● Sensitive to vibration
● Natural low output ● Short lifespan
● Low accuracy
Potentiometric Pressure ● Poor frequency to
Transducer response and have
● The principle of the tendency to develop noise
potentiometric pressure
measurement is based on Accessories
Snubber- A pressure snubber is a Piston type Snubber:
device used to suppress excessive ● A piston-type damper has a
pressure or rapid movement in slightly more advanced
mechanical systems. design that is often
-The pressure snubber are self-cleaning.
designed to dampen the effect of ● Often designed in two
pressure pulses and spikes to pieces, the piston inside the
ensure longer life and readability of shock absorber moves freely,
pressure gauges in difficult acting as a barrier to the
applications. rapid increase in pressure.
-It is offered in a selection of ● When the pressure increases
porous, piston or regulating designs; too quickly, the piston is
forced against the hole that
leads to the manometer,
stopping the flow for
milliseconds.

Adjustable Snubber
● Many use a combination of a
control ball to block surges
and a kind of throttle valve to
soften the flow of material in
Porous Disk Snubber
the meter.
● The control of the ball acts
● At the low cost end of the
much like the piston- type
damping spectrum is the type
damper, since it is a passive
of porous disk (also known
element until a rapid change
as the “filter type”).
of pressure puts it into action.
● The fixed disc creates a
semipermeable barrier
Advantages
between the incoming
● Cost effective solution to
pressure and the manometer
protect expensive sensors
hole.
and gauges used in
● The pressure is with that disk
pressurized application.
and has its force distributed
● Improves gauges
through the metal mesh,
readability smoothing out
decreasing it so that it does
pressure spikes, surges,
not damage the meter.
and pulsation.
● The pressure increases
gradually, so that the meter
Disadvantages
does not jump a gear or
● Some type of pressure
explode a bourdon tube.
snubber can become
clogged, depending on the
process being measured.
 coil or pigtail portion of the
Oil Filled- In a liquid-filled pressure siphon.
gauge, usually the case is filled with ● The condensate prevents the
a non-aqueous fluid that effectively hot media from coming in
dampens vibration, pulsation and direct contact with the
pressure spikes. pressure instrument. When
the siphon is first installed, it
Types of Liquid-filled Gauges should be filled with water or
any other suitable separating
Glycerin- are a good value and liquid.
provide good vibration dampening ● Coil Siphon - used primarily
for applications at room temperature. for horizontal installations
These gauges work well in ● Pigtail Siphon - used
temperatures between -4°F and primarily for vertical
+140°F (-20°C and +60°C). installations.

Silicone- Have lower viscosities Applications

even at very low temperatures; ● Used to protect the
better for applications with extreme pressure gauge from the
temperature variations, especially in effect of hot pressure
colder climates and when icing may media, temperature above
be expected. Their working 65°C
temperature range extends from ● Used to reduce rapid
-40°F to +140°F (-40°C to +60°C). pressure rise, which can
affect the gauge.
Halocarbon- Better suited to ● Used at the inlet and outlet
applications that involve oxidizing steam flow measurement
agents Such as chlorine, oxygen of boiler
and hydrogen peroxide. They work
within the same temperature range
as glycerin-filled gauges, that is from
-4°F to +140°F (-20°C and +60°C).

Pressure Gauge Siphons

● Pressure gauge siphons are
used to protect the pressure
gauge from the effect of hot
pressure media such as
steam and also to reduce the
effect of rapid pressure
surges. The pressure
medium forms a condensate
and is collected inside the