O-level I.G.C.S.

E
Chemistry
Edexcel
2023
Dr: John
01553147485

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Contents: Page number
1. States of matter 3

2. Separation of mixtures 10

3. Atomic structure and bonding 22

4. Equations 47

5. Group one and Group seven 50

6. Redox reactions 57

7. Acids and Bases 60

8. Preparation of salts 64

9. Test for gases and test for ions 74

10. Electrolysis 79

11. Reactivity series ,metals extraction, uses of metals and rusting. 84

12. Air and pollution 93

13. Energy 98

14. Rate of chemical reaction 102

15. Reversible reactions and equilibrium 112

16. Chemical calculations 117

17. Organic chemistry 137

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 States of matter
 Matter exists in three states : Solid (s) , Liquid (l) ,and Gas(g)

Comparison between the three states of matter :

Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g)
Diagram

Arrangement of particles Regular Irregular Irregular

Distance between particles Close Close Far apart

Small gaps between particles large gaps (distance) between particles
Strong forces of attraction Strong forces of attraction very weak forces of attraction

Type of movement Vibrate in fixed postion Move randomly , flow Move randomly , freely ,Very quickly
Cannot move from its place Sliding over each other

Energy Low Medium High

Changes of state:

↑ Temperature: Particles gain kinetic energy (move faster)

↓ Temperature: Particles lose kinetic energy (move slower)

 Melting Solid → Liquid (Heating)

Example : Melting of Ice H2O (s) H2O (s) H2O(l)

Melting point : is the tempertaure at which solid turns to liquid) , which is unique for each pure substance.

Describe the changes in the energy ,in the arrangement , and movement of the particles :
when a solid is heated to become a liquid
Particles gain kinetic energy , have irregular arrangement , and move randomly .

 Freezing Liquid → Solid (Cooling) (Freezing is the reverse of melting)

Example : freezzing of liquid water H2O (l) H2O(s)

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 Boiling liquid → Gas (Heating)

What happens when a liquid is heated to form a gas ?

 When a liquid is heated, particles gain energy and move faster.

 The forces of attraction between particles (molecules) are broken ‫السالسل اتكسرت‬
and so Particles move further apart. Particles escape from the liquid .

Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid turns to gas, which is unique for each pure substance

 Evaporation is a change from liquid to gas, it is different from Boiling

Some very fast particles at the surface of the liquid will have enough energy to break the forces of
attraction between the particles; they will escape to form gas.

Boiling Evaporation
Boiling can only happens when liquid reaches specific temp Evaporation happens over a range of temperatures.
(boiling point)

Volatile liquid: liquid with low boiling point, and so evaporate easily (more quickly) at room temperature.

 Condensation Gas → liquid (Cooling)

When a Gas is cooled; particles lose kinetic energy , particles move more slowly, and particles get closer
Boiling or Evaporation
H2O (l) H2O (g)
Condensation

 H2O (g) is called Water vapour or Steam

Sublimation
Sublimation is when a solid changes directly to a gas without passing through liquid state

Iodine I2 (dark grey solid when heated sublimes turns to purple gas)

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 Data for Pure Water :

Melting point : 0 °C

Boiling point : 100 °C

 Room temperature: around 20 °C

Working out the physical state of a substance at a given temperature, using the melting point and boiling point

Liquid

Solid Melting point --------------- Boiling point Gas

First compare the given tempertaure with the melting point :

Predicted state
Temperature < Melting point Solid

Melting point < Temperature < Boiling point Liquid

Temperature is between melting point and boiling point

Temperature greater than melting point but less than boiling point

Temperature > Boiling point Gas

• Note : comparing negative temperatures values. For e.g : - 95°C > - 120°C

- 200 °C is higher than melting point (-218 °C ) , but less than boiling point ( -183 °C).so Oxygen is liquid at- 200 °C

-200 °C is between melting point and boiling point

 High melting and Boiling points → strong forces of attraction between particles

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Substance Melting point °C Boiling point °C State at 25 °C State at - 100°C

A ―259 °C ―253 °C

B 0 °C 100 °C

C 3700 °C sublimes

D ―116 °C 34.5 °C

E 801 °C 1413 °C

 Write down the physical states of all substances at 25 °C and - 100°C

 Which substance has strongest attraction forces

 Which substance has weakest attraction forces

 Which substance has greatest distance between particles at 25 °C

 Why no boiling point for substance C

 Which liquid evaporates most quickly at 25 °C

 Which substance is pure water

 Write down the state of substance D at 80°C

Substance Melting point Boiling point

A 1110°C 2606°C
B -266°C -252°C
C 40°C 94°C
D -14°C 60°C

 Which substance is liquid at room temperature ...………………….

 Which substances is Solid at room temperature …………………....

 Which substance is gas at room temperature …………………….

 Which substances is a gas at 72°C …………………….

 Which substance is liquid at - 260 °C …………………….

Diffusion
What is meant by Diffusion?
 Diffusion is the random movement of particles

 Particles move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration

 Diffusion occurs in Gases and Liquid only (solids cannot move from its place)

 Diffusion is faster in Gases as there very weak forces of attraction between particles in gas, so gas particles can
move freely ,randomly ,and very quickly to fill available space.

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Factors affecting the rate (speed) of diffusion :
1. Temperature :

as the tempertaure increases ,particles have more kinetic energy and so particles diffuse faster

2. Relative molecular mass Mr: As the mass of particles increases, slower diffusion

ligher gas particles diffuse more quickly and so move further distance than heavier particles.

Experiment 1: Relative molecular mass Mr of gases affects speed of diffusion

 Process is Diffusion. • Type of reaction : Neutralisation

 Observation: White solid of Ammonium chloride NH4Cl (s) is formed where they meet and react.

Ammonia particles diffuse faster than hydrogen chloride ‫ازاي عرفت ؟ و ليه ؟‬

 White solid appear closer to hydrochloric acid end

Ammonia particles have moved further distance in the same amount of time.

 NH3 has lower Mr and so diffuse faster than HCl. Ammonia is lighter than Hydrogen chloride
Mr of NH3 = 14+3 =17 Mr of HCl = 1+35.5= 36.5 Mr of NH3 < Mr of HCl

Safety precaution
1. Hydrochloric acid is corrosive (burns ,eat away skin ,mucus membrane and cloth )
so wear Goggles to protect eyes and Gloves to protect skin

2. Ammonia is a toxic gas : use fume cupboard

Although gas particles move at a speed of hundreds meters per second at room
temperature , yet it took 5 minutes for the white ring to form . Give two reasons :
1. Gas particles collide with air particles

2. Gas particles collide with the walls of the tube

If the experiment was repeated at higher temperature

 It takes shorter time for the white ring to be formed (< 5 minutes)

 as Particles have more kinetic energy and diffuse faster .

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Experiment 2: Diffusion in gases e.g Diffusion of Bromine

Bromine gas is a reddish brown gas and toxic (precaution: fume cupboard)

 Bromine particles (molecules) move randomly (process Diffusion)

 Bromine molecules collide with air molecules

 Brown colour spreads throughout both gas jars

Some of coloured liquid is place at the bottom of sealed gas jar

1. Coloured liquid evaporates at first

2. Coloured vapour diffuses to fill out the jar as gas particles move freely

Experiment 3: Diffusion in liquids

Potassium Manganate has Purple colour and is soluble in water

Place a Crystal (solid) of Potassium Manganate KMnO4 in a beaker of water . Two process occur

1. The crystal dissolves (Dissolving) : Observation : the crystal get smaller or disappear

2. Purple colour spreads throughout the water (Diffusion)

After short period of time after few days

only bottom of liquid turns purple all the liquid turns purple

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 Process : Diffusion

Particles spread out evenly throughout water

‫ متوزعه علي كله‬, ‫مش متمركزه في حته واحده‬

 Change in appearance of water : Water turns from colourless to purple

If the experiment is repeated at higher temperature (warm water)

 Crystal dissolves faster in hot water

 Purple colour spreads faster at hot water

 Particles have more kinetic energy

 Particles diffuse faster

 Water turns purple more quickly

Pure substance and impure substance (mixture)

 Pure substance has sharp (fixed ) melting point and sharp boiling point

 Impure (mixture) melts and boils over a range of tempertaures

How to differenate between pure solid and impure solid How to differenate between pure liquid and impure
liquid
 Meaasure melting point  Measuring boiling point
 Pure solid has sharp melting point  Pure liquid has sharp boiling point
 impure solid melts over a range of temperatures  Impure liquid boils over a range of temperatures

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 Methods of separation
Solid + liquid mixtures:
a) Solid insoluble in liquid

Method of separation: Filtration Filter paper

Filter funnel

The mixture is poured to filter funnel with filter paper.

 The solid remains on filter paper and is called residue.

 The liquid passes through filter paper and is called filtrate.

Example : Sand + Water (sand is insoluble in water )

b) Solid soluble in liquid

 Solute: a solid which dissolves in a liquid (solvent)

 Solvent: a liquid in which solid (solute ) dissolves

Examples of solvents : • Water : substance dissolves in water forming aqueous solution ( aq)

• Ethanol (Organic solvent) ethanol is more volatile than water

 Solution : mixture of solute and solvent

How to speed up the dissolving of solids ?

1. Stir well the mixture using glass rod or also called stirring rod

Beaker

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2. Heating the mixture: as the tempertaure increases the solids dissolve more quickly

Bunsen burner Tripod

3. Crush the solid to decrease particle size (increase surface area) using Mortar and Pestle

Pestle

Mortar

What is meant by Saturated solution ? ‫ جاب اخره‬, ‫مش هاينفع يدوب اي حاجه تانى‬

Is the solution that contains maximium amount of solute that dissolves in a given volume of solvent

at particular tempertaure.

No more soute can dissolve at particular temperature

How to obtain soluble solid (solute) from solution ? )solvent ‫هضحي بحد فيهم (هطير ال‬
Solution is heated ,water evaporates completely and leaves the solid behind .

Method of separation : Evaporation

Heating to evaporate all the solvent leaving the solid behind

Example : Sodium chloride solution NaCl (aq) is heated ,water is evaporated and the salt appear in the
evaporating dish

Safety precaution :

• Wear Goggles eye protection as solution may get to your eyes.

 Leave the dish to cool before removing it as it is too hot. Do not use hands(to avoid burning hands)

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 How to obtain soluble solid (solute) from solution ?

Crystallisation. Steps of Crystaliation

1. Heat the solution till crystalisation point or till the solution becomes saturated
The solution is heated to evaporate part of the water. (DO NOT REMOVE ALL THE WATER) .

2. Leave the solution to cool ,crystals form

The tempertaure is decreased and so the solubility of solids decreased and crystals start to form in the solution.

3. Filteration to obtain the crystals

4. Crystals are dried between filter papers or left in warm place or oven

What is meant by crystallisation point ?

The point at which the solution is highly saturated that when left to cool to room temperature crystals form

How to know when the solution reached crystalisation point ? glass rod test
• Dip glass rod in the hot solution and leave in cold air

• If crystals starts to form quickly on tip of glass rod ,then the whole solution ready for crystalisation .

Simple distillation or distillation

Simple distillation used to separate the solvent from solution

Example : Simple distillation of Sodium chloride solution NaCl (aq)

To separate water from aquesous sodium chloride solution

 Sodium chloride solution is heated ,water boils(changes to water vapour)

 Water vapour enters Condenser ,Water vapour H2O (g) is cooled and condeneses to liquid water H2O (l)

Water is collected in the beaker . Solid sodium chloride(salt) remains in the flask

 Simple distillation involves Boiling then Condensation..

 Role of condenser : to cool the vapours so that they condenseto liquid

Water enters near the bottom of the Liebig Condenser and leaves near the top :Why?
To keep the condenser (jacket) full of water for better cooling

 Role of stopper or rubber bung : to prevent escape of vapours

 Imporatant use of simple distillation : Pure water can be obtained from sea water
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Fractional distillation:
 Used to separate Liquid mixtures

 Method of separation depends on difference in Boiling points.

 Example: Water + Ethanol mixture

Boiling point of Ethanol :78 °C and Boiling point of Water:100 °C

1. Heat the mixture

2. At 78 °C , Ethanol begins to boil (also some water molecules evaporates)

3. At fractionating column : ethanol vapour will continue rising up while any water vapour condenses and drop
back to the flask

4. Ethanol vapour enters the condenser ,where it is cooled and liquid ethanol is collected in the beaker

5. Once the thermometer reading rises above 78°C ,this indicates all ethanol has been separated

Some important notes:

 Ethanol has lower boiling point than water ,so Ethanol is collected first

(At fractional distillation, the liquid with lower boiling point is collected first)

 How to know when Ethanol starts to be collected or separated?

When the temperature reaches 78 °C

 How to know when all Ethanol has been collected ?

When the temperature rise above 78°C

 Safety precaution: Alcohols are flammable liquids may catch fire.

So do not heat the mixture through Bunsen burner. Instead use Electric heater or heated through water bath

Water bath : Water boils at 100 °C

Temperature Cannot exceed 100 °C

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Outline how a sample of pure propanone can be obtained from mixture of propanone (B.P 56 °C) and
Water ( B.P 100 °C) → Fractional distillation

• Heat the mixture • Propanone collects first

• Stop collecting liquid above 56 °C

Solid + Solid mixtures

For example: Sand + Salt mixture.

Sand is insoluble in water and Salt is soluble in water

How to separate a mixture of sand and salt?

1. Addition of hot water and stir well using glass rod to dissolve the salt

2. Filtration to remove insoluble sand

3. Heat the filtrate (salt solution) to evaporate the water, leaving behind the salt.

Sand

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 Chromatography

 Chromatography is used to separate coloured substances e.g. dyes, or inks

Inks are mixture of several dyes (colours).

Steps of chromatography to know the components of black ink

 Bring a Chromatography paper

 Draw a line with a pencil, near the bottom of the paper. This line is called Baseline or Start line.
 Put a spot of the black ink on the base line

Before
Lid

Chromatography paper

Spot of ink

Base line or start line

Solvent (Solvent level must be below baseline)

 The paper is then placed in a beaker containing small amount of solvent,

the solvent level is below the baseline

The type of solvent used depends on the solubility of the substance .

If you have water soluble ink, water is used as suitable solvent. If you have water insoluble ink: do not use water

 The use of lid or evaporating dish on the chromatography apparatus :

1. Prevent the evaporation of solvent. 2. Vapours may be toxic or catch fire

After
Solvent front

Dye C

Dye B

Dye A

Baseline (original position of ink spot)

The solvent gradually rises up the paper, until reaching near the top of paper forming the solvent front.

The solvent gradually moves up the paper, the dyes are carried with it and begin to separate.

Conclusion: 3 spots above baseline appear on chromatogram. This indicates that the ink is composed of 3 dyes
The dyes separate at different heights
Dyes (colours ) separate : because they have different solubilities in the solvent.
The more soluble a substance in a solvent, the further the distance it travels on the paper

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Dye C is the most soluble dye as it moves the furthest distance from the baseline

Dye A is the least soluble dye ,as it moves the shortest distance from baseline

 Why was the baseline drawn by a pencil not ink ?

Pencil is insoluble, and so it will not interfere with the results.

If ink was used ,it would dissolve and so interferes with the results.

 Why is the baseline above the surface of solvent?

To stop dissolving of the spots or dyes in the solvent

 When is the paper removed from the solvent?

When the solvent reaches near the top of the paper

 A pure substance produces one spot on the chromatogram

 If a substance did not move up (stayed at the baseline) ,then it is insoluble in the used solvent

How to solve this problem? → use a different solvent

Steps of chromatography
1. Draw a pencil line near the bottom of the chromatography paper (baseline)

2. Put a spot of ink sample on the baseline

3. the paper is placed in a beaker containg small amount solvent

4. the solvent level must be below the baseline (or spots )

5. the paper is removed from the solvent when the solvent reachs near the top of the paper

6. dyes separate at different heights

7. remove the paper and leave it to dry

Observation during chromatography :

1. solvent rises up the paper 2. dyes separate at different heights

Calculating Rf value :
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑒 Distance from Baseline to the spot
Rf = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
= Distance from Baseline to solvent front

 Using ruler to measure the distance units: Cm and mm (Cm x 10 → mm)

 The value of Rf is between 0 and 1 ( less than 1)

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To prevent dissolving of the spots in the solvent

B , because P and B have a spot which is at the same height

Insoluble in the used solvent

Method of separation Used for Example

filtration Insoluble solid from liquid Calcium carbonate (insoluble in water) from
mixture of calcium carbonate + water
Crystallisation Soluble solid (solute) from solution Copper sulfate from Copper sulfate solution
Simple distillation Solvent from solution Water from Copper sulfate solution
Fractional distillation Mixture of different liquids Water + Ethanol
Chromatography Coloured mixtures Inks ,dyes and food colourings

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Measuring mass Measuring Temperature Measuring time

Top pan balance

Thermometer
Mass in grams (g) Time in sec

Measuring volume of solutions: Units of volume Cm3

Measuring cylinder Pipette Burette

Least accurate Measure accurate fixed volume of solution e.g. 25Cm3 NaOH Measure accurate volume of solution nearest to 0.1 cm3
e.g. 13.7 Cm3 HCl
Fast More accurate than measuring cylinder Used in Titration

Gauze

Rounded bottom flask Conical flask Tripod Evaporating dish or evaporating basin

Test tube Measuring cylinder Beaker Fliter finnel Pipette

Pestle Diagram shows Bunsen burner

Mortar

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 ②Solubility
What is meant by solubility ?
Maximum amount of solute in gram in that dissolves in 100 gram of water (solvent) at particular temperature

1. Weigh an empty evaporating basin

2. Heat a boiling tube full of water to about 40°C

3. Add solid potassium nitrate to water and stir well ,add potassium nitrate until no more dissolves
where undissolved solid left over .

4. Filtration to remove undissolved solid potassium nitrate

5. transfer potassium nitrate solution (saturated solution) in to evaporating basin

6. Weigh the evaporating basin + potassium nitrate solution

7. Heat gently to evaporate all water leaving behind the solid

 Heat till constant mass to ensure all water has evaporated

8. Record the final mass of the evaporating basin and its contents

Basin only

Basin + Solid + Water

Basin + Solid

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The solubility of solid in 100 g of water will be as follows :
12.28 g solid : 20 g water cross multiplication
61.4 g solid : 100 g water

Solubility curve for Copper II sulfate in water

 The solubility of Copper II sulfate at 50°C

 The maximum mass of solid Copper II sulfate that would dissolve in 50 g of water at
40°C

 What will occur if 100 g of saturated solution of copper II sulfate is cooled from 80°C
to 30°C ?
Solubility at 80°C = 58 gram in 100 gram of water

Solubility at 30°C = 23 gram in 100 gram of water

Cool from 80°C to 30°C = 58 ―23 = 35 gram of copper II sulfate crystals will form

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 Which solid A,B ,C has greatest solubility in g per 100 g of water at 40 °C?

 State the temperature at which solid A and solid C have same solubility ?

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 Atomic structure (inside the atom)
 Atoms are made of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons (sub atomic particles)

The Protons and Neutrons are found in the center of the atom which is called the Nucleus.
The Electrons are found in Electron Shells at a distance from the nucleus (around the nucleus)

Differences between a Proton, a Neutron, and an Electron

Particle Relative mass Relative charge Location in the atom
Proton P 1 +1 Nucleus
Neuron N 1 0 (Neutral) Nucleus
Electron E 1/1840 -1 Electron shells

A Proton and a Neutron have the same mass. Electrons have negligible mass (almost zero).

Protons are Positive charged Neutrons carry no charge (Neutral)

 Atomic number: is the number of Protons in the nucleus of the atom

 Mass number: total number of Protons and Neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

 Number of Neutrons = Mass Number ― Atomic number

Number of Electrons in an atom

Number of Electrons in an atom Equals to the number of Protons

So the Number of Electrons for an atom is known from the Atomic Number

The atom is electrically neutral (carry no charge) why?

Because the number of positively charged Protons equals to the negatively charged Electrons, so charges cancel
each other .

Each element has a Certain Symbol and found in a square in Periodic table

Na is Chemical Symbol for Sodium Element. Each element has two numbers.

Bigger number is the Mass number (Relative atomic mass Ar). Smaller number is the Atomic number.

Number of Protons in Sodium (Na) atom = 11

Number of Neutrons in Sodium (Na) atom = 23―11=12

Number of Electrons = 11

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The arrangement of Electrons in the Electron Shells (Electronic configuration )
1St shell holds up to maximum 2 Electrons

2nd shell holds up to maximum 8 Electrons

3rd shell holds up to maximum 8 Electrons

Examples :

𝟕 𝟗 𝟏𝟒
𝐋𝐢 𝐁𝐞 𝐍
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕
Lithium Beryllium Nitrogen

Atomic number = 3 atomic number = 4 atomic number = 7

Number of electrons =3 number of electrons = 4 number of electrons = 7

Electronic configuration = 2,1 electronic configuration = 2,2 electronic configuration = 2,5

𝟐𝟒 𝟑𝟓 𝟒𝟎
𝐌𝐠 𝐂𝐥 𝐀𝐫
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟖
Magnesium Chlorine Argon

Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 2 electronic configuration = 2,8,7 electronic configuration = 2,8,8

𝟑𝟗 𝟒𝟎
𝐊 𝐂𝐚
𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟎
Potassium Calcium

Electronic configuration = 2,8,8,1 electronic configuration = 2,8,8,2

 An Elements is identified by its Atomic number (number of Protons). Atomic number is fixed
An element is composed of atoms with same atomic number.
For example, if an atom has 8 protons, it must be Oxygen.

 Chemical properties depend on the number of electrons in outer shell

 Mass number may vary. An element may have more than one mass number.
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Isotopes . what is meant by isotopes ?
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number.
Regarding numbers of subatomic particles (protons ,neutrons, electrons) 2 same + 1 different

Isotopes have same number of Protons and same number of Electrons.

Isotopes have different number of Neutrons.

Examples : There are two isotopes of Chlorine (Cl) found in nature.

Isotope No of Protons No of Neutrons No of Electrons

17 35―17=⑱ 17

17 37―17=⑳ 17

Three isotopes of Hydrogen

Isotope Protons Neutrons Electrons

𝟏 1 1―1=0 1
𝐇
𝟏
𝟐 1 2―1=1 1
𝐇
𝟏
𝟑 1 3―1=2 1
𝐇
𝟏

All hydrogen isotopes contain one proton (and one electron), but they can contain different numbers of neutrons.

 Isotopes have same chemical properties (react in a similar way ,do same reactions),
because isotopes have same electronic configuration
Isotopes have slightly different physical properties such as density

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Relative atomic mass Ar of an element :
It is the average of mass numbers of isotopes, measured on a scale where an atom of Carbon-12
has mass of 12 units
 Relative atomic mass Ar takes in consideration the percentage % abundance of each isotope.

Relative atomic mass Ar =

Mass number of Isotope 1 × % of Isotope 1 + Mass number of Isotope 2 × % of Isotope 2

𝟏𝟎𝟎

% Abundance 75% : % Abundance 25%

Or ratio 3 : 1

Ar of Chlorine = 35 x 75 + 37 x 25 Or 35 x 3 + 37 x 1 = 35.5
100 4

Explain why the relative atomic mass (Ar) of some elements is not whole number?
Because some elements have more than one isotope .

Atomic number of Silver Ag = 47 .

Silver has two isotopes

Isotope Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons

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26
 Introduction to Periodic table
Elements are identified by their atomic number.

Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

As you go from left to right, the atomic number increases by one

Periodic table is divided into: • Vertical columns are called Groups • Horizontal rows are called Periods.

Groups of periodic table

Group Transition metals

 Elements with similar chemical properties are found in same group. • There are 8 vertical Groups.

 Group number indicates the number of electrons in outer shell

 Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties as they have same number of electrons in outer
shell

 Group 1 is called Alkali Metals first column from left

 Group 7 is called Halogens

 Group zero or Noble gases (Inert or Unreactive)

 Group I : elements in group 1 have 1 electron in outer shell

 Group 2: elements in Group 2 have 2 electrons in outer shell

 Group 3: elements in group 3 have 3 electrons in outer hell.

 Group 4: elements in group 4 have 4 electrons in outer shell

 Group 5 : elements in group 5 have 5 electrons in outer shell

 Group 6 : elements in group 6 have 6 electrons in outer shell

 Group 7 : elements in group 7 have 7 electrons in outer shell

 Group zero, or called Noble gases (Inert = do not react) (do not form ions or compounds)
All Noble gases have complete outer shell of electrons

Noble gases are Unreactive as do not easily gain or lose or share electrons
Noble gases have 8 electrons in outer shell except Helium

Helium 2 He→2e→②
Neon 10 Ne→10e→2, ⑧
Argon 18 Ar→18e→2, 8, ⑧

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Periods (rows) of Periodic table
There are 7 horizontal Periods

 Period number indicates the number of occupied electron shells

 Period one: contains Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He) only
Potassium 19 K→19e→2, 8, 8, 1 Potassium is in Group 1 and Period 4

Fluorine 9 F→9e→2, 7 Fluorine is in Group 7 and Period 2

Magnesium 12 Mg→12e→2, 8, 2 Magnesium is in Group 2 and Period 3

Mention an element:
 Located at group 4 and Period 4 ………………… ….

 Located at Group 6 and Period 5 ………………………

 With Atomic number 15 ……………………….

 With Relative atomic mass 70 ………………………..

Metals and Non-Metals

Boron (B) zig zag line, Boron is at top of Group III
This line divides elements into metals (in the left, before the zig zag line) and non metals (in the right, after the zig zag line).

Physical properties of all Metals (Physical= apart from chemical reactions):

 All metals are good conductor of electricity and heat.

 Metals are Malleable (can be shaped upon using force)Metals are Ductile (rulled into wires)

 All metals are shiny.

Physical properties of Non metals

 Non metals are poor conductor of heat and electricity (insulator)

 Non metals are brittle

 Non metals have dull appearance.

Ion formation and valency

 number of protons = number of electrons → neutral atom

 number of protons > number of electrons → positive ion +

 number of protons < number of electrons → negative ion -

 loss of electrons → positive ion

 gain of electrons→ negative ion

28
Group no ion Valency
1 +1 ( lose 1 electron ) 1
2 +2 ( lose 2 electrons) 2
3 +3 ( lose 3 electrons) 3
4 Share of electrons 4
5 -3 ( gain of 3 electrons) 3
6 -2 ( gain of 2 electrons) 2
7 -1 (gain of 1 electron) 1
0 Do not gain or lose electrons 0
Hydrogen (H) 1
Transition metals Have more than one valency
Valency has to be stated between brackets

Transition metal ions

Silver Copper II Iron II Iron III Lead II Zinc

 Metals have small number of electrons in outer shell (1e, 2e, or 3 e)

 When metals form ions, metals lose electrons forming positive ions.

 The ion will have the name of metal e.g. Sodium ion Na+, Calcium ion Ca2+, and Aluminum ion Al3+

 Nonmetals have larger number of electrons in outer shell 4e, 5e, 6e, or 7e

 When non metals form ions, gain electrons forming negative ions

 The name of the negative ion ends with ide E.g. Chloride ion Cl- , Oxide ion O2- , Nitride ion N3-

How to write the chemical formula of a compound?

1. Write the symbols for each of the elements found in the compound.

2. Determine the valency of each element from the Group number.

3. Valency 1 is not written

4. Switch the valencies

5. Simplify is a must when required

Write the chemical formula for the following compounds

𝐍𝐚 → Group 1 → Valency 1
 Sodium Iodide
𝐈 → Group 7 → Valency 1

𝐍𝐚 I
NaI
𝟏 1
𝐊 → Group 1 → Valency 1
 Potassium oxide
𝐎 → Group 6 → Valency 2

𝐊 𝐎
K2O
𝟐 𝟏

29
 𝐀𝐥 → Group 3 → Valency 3
 Aluminum oxide
𝐎 → Group 6 → Valency 2

𝐀𝐥 𝐎
Al2 O3
𝟐 𝟑
𝐌𝐠 → Group 2 → Valency 2
 Magnesium oxide
𝐎 → Group 6 → Valency 2

𝐌𝐠 𝐎
Simplify MgO
𝟐 𝟐
𝐅𝐞 → 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟑
 Iron (III) chloride
𝐂𝐥 → Valency 1
Iron (Fe) is a transition metal; it has more than one valency. The number between brackets indicates the valency of Fe

The valency of transition metals will be stated in brackets .Except for Zinc (Zn) you have to know valency of Zinc which is 2.

𝐅𝐞 𝐂𝐥
FeCl3
𝟏 𝟑
𝐂𝐮 → 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟐
 Copper (II) Bromide
𝐁𝐫 → 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝟕 → 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟏

CuBr2

𝐏𝐛 → 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟐
 Lead (II) Iodide
𝐈 → 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝟕 → 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟏

PbI2

𝐁𝐚 → 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝟐 → 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟐
 Barium Oxide
𝐎 → Group 6 → valency 2

BaO
𝐇 → 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝟏
 Hydrogen Chloride
𝐂𝐥 → valency 1

HCl

Write the formula for the following compounds ?

 Iron III Oxide

 Aluminum fluoride

 Calcium sulfide

 Zinc chloride

30
 Chemical Bonding
Ionic bond:
 Ionic bond occurs between Metal and Non Metal to form ionic compound

 Transfer of electrons from metal to non metal

 Metal loses electrons forming positive ion

 Non metal gains electrons( from metal) forming negative ion Last shell of non metal ‫الي فيها كل الشغل‬

Sodium chloride NaCl

What occurs in the formation of Sodium chloride in terms of electron transfer?

Sodium loses 1 electron

11Na →11e →2, 8, ①
-
→ Na+ 2 ,8

17 Cl → 17e- →2, 8, ⑦ → Cl- 2,8,8

Chlorine gains 1 electron

Magnesium oxide MgO

Magnesium ion Mg+2 Oxide ion O-2

2,8,2 2,6 2,8 2 ,8

 Transfer of electrons from Magnesium to Oxygen

 Magnesium atom loses two electrons

 Oxygen gains two electrons

31
Magnesium chloride MgCl2

2,8 2,8,8

+2 -
Magnesium ion Mg Chloride ion Cl

• Transfer of electrons from Magnesium to Chlorine

 Magnesium atom loses two electrons

 Each Chlorine atom gain one electron

Sodium oxide Na2O

 Transfer of electrons from Sodium to Oxygen 2,8 2,8 2,8

 Each Sodium atom loses one electron

 Oxygen atom gains 2 electrons

Electronic configuration of K = 2,8,8 ,1

Electronic configuration of Cl = 2,8,7

Draw dot and cross diagram for potassium ion and chloride ion in outer electron shell (last shell)

32
What is meant by “ ionic bond “ ?
Strong Electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions

Metal
+ → Ionic compound Giant ionic structure
Ionic bond
Non Metal

A giant ionic structure contains huge number of positive and negative ions.

Lattice = regular repeated arrangement of alternating opposite charged ions

Alternating = +-+-+-
This diagram can be drawn to shown the arrangement of ions in any ionic compound

Any + ion is surrounded by – ions ,any – ion is surrounded many + ion

Properties of ionic compounds (metal + non metal) = Giant ionic structures:

1. Solid at room temperature with High Melting and Boiling points

Explain why ionic compounds (Metal + non metal) has very high Melting point refer to bonding and structure

 Giant ionic structure(very large number of Positive and Negative ions)

 Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive and negative ions = Strong ionic bonds

 Which requires large amount of heat energy to overcome these forces of attraction between ions

2. Conduction of electricity
For a substance to conduct electricity, it must have Free moving ions or free moving electrons (delocalised electrons)

Ions and electrons are called electrical charge carrier.

 At Solid state, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity

At solid state : Ions are in fixed position in lattice , ions cannot move

 But when ionic compounds are Molten (heated till melting point) or in aqueous solution (dissolved in water),
the ions can move freely

Ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or aqueous solution (at liquid state ) as the ions can move

33
Covalent bond
 Co = Company ( Share ) Valent = valency sharing according to valency

 Covalent bonding occurs between Non Metal + Non Metal

 Covalent bonding involves Sharing of electrons( no gain or loss of electrons no ion formation ) Equal sharing

 When non metals are joined by covalent bond, a Molecule is formed. Molecule = presence of covalent bond

Definition of Molecule: Group of atoms (two or more atoms) joined by covalent bond

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

Cl2 =Chlorine molecule, where 2 chlorine atoms are covalently bonded together

Cl → Group 7 →Valency 1→ needs 1 electron Equal sharing

Pair of electrons is shared between 2 Cl atoms (1 electron from each atom)

Do not forget the rest of electrons in the outer shells

― Single covalent bond (Pair of electrons = 2 electrons in the middle ,one electron from eah atom ) Cl―Cl

Cl = Chlorine atom, = Cl - = Chloride ion, Chlorine molecule = Cl2

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in a Hydrogen Molecule (H2)

H → Valency 1 → needs 1 electron

Hydrogen is the only element that its outer shell is full by 2 electrons only

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in an Oxygen Molecule (O2)

O→ Group 6 → Valency 2 → needs 2 electrons

= Double covalent bond 2 pair of electrons (4 electrons shared between 2 O atoms) 2 electrons from each atom

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Nitrogen Molecule (N2)

N→ Group 5→ Valency 3→needs 3 electrons

Triple covalent bond 3 pair of electrons (6 shared electrons between 2 N atoms)3 electrons from each atom
34
 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Hydrogen chloride HCl

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Water molecule H2O

 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Carbon dioxide molecule CO2

O=C=O
 Dot and cross diagram to show outer electrons in Ammonia molecule NH3

 Dot and cross diagram to show valency electrons in Methane molecule CH4

Draw a dot and cross diagram for a molecule of CH3Cl ,Show only the outer electrons of the atom

Single bond ― Double bond Triple bond

35
The diagram shows the structure of Ethene molecule

Draw a dot and cross diagram to show arrangement of outer shell electons in Ethene .

36
What is meant by “ Covalent bond “ or in other words describe Covalent bonding ?

Electrostatic forces of attraction between shared pair of electrons and nuclei of both atoms
involved in the bonding .

How does the covalent bond hold hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms together in water molecule H2O?

There are strong electrostatic forces of attraction between shared pair of electrons and nuclei of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms

Covalent structures :a) Simple molecular structure b) Giant covalent structure

a) Simple molecular structure

Non Metal
+ → Molecule
Covalent bond
Non Metal

Molecule --------------Molecule------------------Molecule

Weak forces of attraction between molecules called Intermolecular forces

Covalent bond

Weak forces of attraction between Chlorine (Cl2) molecules

Properties of Covalent compounds (non metal + non metal) = Simple molecular structures
Examples of covalent compounds : Water H2O ,Carbon dioxide CO2 , Ammonia NH3,and Ethanol C2H5OH

1. low melting and boiling points

 due to weak intermolecular forces of attraction

 which require little amount of heat energy to overcome

2. Conduction of electricity: Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity at Solid or liquid

 Because there are No delocalised electrons(all the electrons are tightly held in covalent bonds)
 Covalent compounds do not contain ions
Covalent compounds only composed of molecules which are neutral (uncharged)

37
Comparison between Ionic compound and covalent compound
Ionic compound Covalent compound
Metal + Non metal = Giant ionic structure Non metal + Non metal = Simple molecular structure
e.g. Calcium fluoride CaF2 e.g. Silicon fluoride SiF4
Composed of Positive (+) and Negative ions (-) Composed of Molecules
Higher melting and boiling points Lower melting and boiling points
Due to Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between Due to weak intermolecular forces of attraction
oppositely charged ions
Poor conductor of electricity at Solid state Poor conductor at Solid and Liquid state
Ions cannot move No ions . composed of Molecules are neutral (not charged)
No delocalised electrons
Good conductor at liquid state
Ions can move freely(ions are mobile)

b) Giant covalent structures

Huge number of atoms which are joined together by strong covalent bonds

 Covalent bonds are strong • Many covalent bonds have to broken

 Large amount of heat energy is required to break the bonds

Examples of Giant covalent structures: Diamond and Graphite

1. Diamond
Structure of Diamond:

 Diamond is Carbon element, as made of Carbon atoms only

 Diamond is a giant covalent structure ,has 3D rigid lattice

 Each Carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral shape arrangement

 These covalent bonds are strong bonds.

Diagram to show part of Diamond structure:

Properties of Diamond :

1. Diamond is very hard and has very high melting point (or Sublimation point) why?
refer to bonding and structure
 Diamond has giant covalent structure

 Each carbon is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral shape arrangement

 Covalent bonds are very strong

 Many covalent bonds have to be broken

 Large amount of heat energy is required to break the bonds

38
2. Diamond does not conduct electricity :
 Due to absence of delocalised electrons

Each carbon atom uses its four outer electrons

All the electrons in the outer shells of carbon atoms are tightly held in covalent bonds.

Uses of Diamond:

1. Cutting tools : because diamond is very hard

2. Jewellery :because diamond has an attractive appearance

2. Graphite
Graphite is another form of Carbon element. Graphite has different giant covalent structure.

Structure of Graphite

 Graphite has a layered structure.

 Each Carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms in a hexagonal shape arrangement
 There are weak forces of attraction between the layers.

Diagram to show part of Graphite structure

Properties of Graphite:

1. Graphite has a very high sublimation / melting point

 Covalent bonds are strong bonds
 Many covalent bonds have to broken
 large amount of heat energy is required to break the bonds

2. Graphite is a Soft
 because the layers of carbon atoms can slide over each other due to weak forces of attraction
between the layers.

Graphite is soft and has high melting point

3. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity

Due to the presence of delocalised electrons(free moving electrons)which are free to move through the
structure.

 Each carbon is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atom.

 One electron per Carbon atom is delocalised
 So free to move between layers
Graphite is the only non metal that is a good conductor of electricity.

39
Uses of Graphite:
1. Graphite is used as Lubricant to reduce friction as the layers of carbon atoms can slide over each other due to
weak forces of attraction between layers.
2. Graphite is used in making Pencils leave marks on papers
as the layers of carbon atoms can slide over each other due to weak forces of attraction between layers.
3. Graphite is used to make electrodes in electrolysis as it is good conductor of electricity due to the presence
of delocalised electrons

Differences between the Structures of Diamond and Graphite:

 Graphite is a layered structure but Diamond is not a layered structure

 In Diamond each C atom is covalently bonded to four other C atoms.
While in Graphite each C atom is covalently bonded to three other C atoms.
 Graphite layers have hexagonal shape arrangement. Diamond is a repeated tetrahedral shape.

Compare between diamond and graphite, referring to the structure and bonding of each
substance, explain why diamond is used in cutting tools and graphite is used in making pencils.

At diamond

 Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms

 In a giant tetrahedral structure
 The covalent bonds are very strong ,lot of energy needed to break the covalent bonds
 Therefore diamond is very hard and so used in cutting tools

At Graphite

 Each carbon is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms

 The structure is in layers
 Weak forces of attraction between layers
 Layers can slide over each other
 This makes graphite soft and so it can make marks on paper

Diamond Graphite
Hard Soft
Poor conductor of electricity Good conductor of electricity

60 carbon atoms in a molecule arranged in a spherical shape

 Type of structure of C60 fullerene: simple molecular structure

 Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms

40
C60 Fullerene Sublimes at lower temperature, compared to diamond and graphite Why??

 Diamond or Graphite has Giant covalent structure

 In melting , Diamond or graphite Covalent bonds are broken (Covalent bonds are Strong )

 C60 has Simple molecular structure

 In melting C60 ,intermolecular forces of attraction are broken (Weak intermolecular forces of attraction)

Heat energy required to break covalent bonds in diamond or graphite is greater than intermolecular forces in C60

Do you expect C60 to conduct electricity?

No, although each carbon atom uses only three of its outer electrons in bonding ,it has a delocalised electron per
each atom ,yet the electrons cannot move from one sphere to another .

Another example of Giant covalent structure

Silicon IV oxide SiO2 (silicon dioxide)

Similar to structure of diamond (tetrahedral shape)

SiO2 is a Compound : two different elements chemically bonded together

Each Silicon atom is bonded to 4 Oxygen atoms Each Oxygen is bonded to 2 Silicon atoms

Silicon IV Oxide has High melting point . Why ?

 Covalent bonds are strong

many covalent bonds have to be broken
large amount of heat energy is needed to break the bonds
Silicon IV Oxide is poor conductor of electricity. Why ?

 Due to absence of delocalised electrons

41
 ②Metallic structure and Metallic bonding
Describe the Structure of Metals:

 Giant metallic structure :

 Layers of Positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons.

Sea of delocalised electrons

Positive ion

What is meant by Metallic bond:

Electrostatic force of attraction between positive ions and the negative delocalised electrons.

1. Most metals have high melting point and are Hard . Why ??
Due to strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions and delocalised electrons

Large amount of heat energy required to overcome these forces of attraction

2. Why metals conduct electricity ?

Due to presence of delocalised electrons which are free to move throughout the structure

Metals are good conductor electricity at Solid and Liquid state

3. Why are metals malleable (can be bend ito shape ) ?
Layers of postive ions can slide over each other without breaking the structure.

②Alloys
What is meant by an Alloy ?

Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements , one of which is a metal.

Alloy can be a mixture of two or more metals

or mixture of metal and nonmetal (e.g Carbon) alloy is not a compound (no chemical bonding)

Most of the metals are used in the form of Alloys not pure metals
(as Alloy are harder than pure metal and more resistant to corrosion )

Structure of an alloy

In an alloy, the different metals have different sized atoms

Regular arrangement irregular arrangement

42
Why are alloys harder and less malleable than pure metals?

 In pure metal ,the metal ions are the same size ,(regular arrangement)

So layers of ions can slide over each other easily

 In an alloy, the metal ions have different sizes , this disrupts the arrangement of the ions

So it will be more difficult for the layers of ions to slide over each other.

Summary of Chemical structures and bonding

Types of bonding:
1. Ionic bond (between metal and non metal)
2. Covalent bond (between non metal and non metal)
3. Metallic bond found in metals only
4. Weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules (simple molecular structure)

↑ Melting point = strong forces of attraction ↓ Melting point = weak forces of attraction

Types of chemical structures:

1. Giant ionic structure 1. Solid at room temp

Metal + Non metal → ionic compound 2. High melting and boiling point

Composed of ions 3. Soluble in water

4. Conduct electricity when

Molten or dissolved in water only

Examples : Sodium chloride NaCl , Lithium fluoride LiF ,and Calcium Oxide CaO

 Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions = Strong ionic bond

2. Simple molecular structure

Non metal + Non metal 1. Solid ,Liquid or gas at room temp

Molecule - - - - Molecule Low melting and boiling points

Weak intermolecular forces of attraction 2. Does not conduct electricity

Composed of molecules

Examples: (Nitrogen N2, Hydrogen H2, Chlorine Cl2, Bromine Br2, Iodine I2, CO2, H2O, NH3, CH4, , Ethanol C2H5OH
PCl3 , SCl2 and C60 Fullerene → Non metals in the formula + low M.P and B.P

 Weak intermolecular forces of attraction In melting and boiling, theses weak forces of attraction are broken
NO covalent bonds are broken

Simple covalent molecules

43
Due to presence of weak intermolecular forces of attraction
which require little amount of heat energy to overcome these forces of attraction

Because B has stronger intermolecular forces of attraction

3. Giant covalent structure

Very large number of atoms 1. Solid at room temp

Joined by covalent bonds 2.High melting and boiling points

3. Insoluble

4.Does not conduct electricity

Except graphite

Examples: Diamond, Graphite

 Many strong covalent bonds must be broken

Carbon dioxide CO2 and Silicon dioxide SiO2 Both are covalent structures

 CO2is a gas at room temperature, low melting and boiling points

 SiO2 is a solid with high melting point

 Both do not conduct electricity

 CO2 is simple molecular structure

CO2 has weak intermolecular forces of attraction, which require little amount of heat energy to overcome.

 SiO2 has giant covalent structure, covalent bonds are strong bonds ,many covalent bonds must be broken ,
large amount of heat energy is required to break the covalent bonds

 Both CO2 and SiO2 do not conduct electricity due to absence of delocalised electrons

4. Giant metallic structure

Metallic elements 1. High melting and boiling points

2. Conduct electricity when solid

and when molten (Liquid)

3. Malleable

Examples: Sodium, Calcium, Iron, Copper, Aluminum

44
What is an Element? ‫نوع واحد‬
Element is composed of only one type of atom

What is a Compound? ‫نوعين مختلفين ماسكين في بعض‬

Compound is composed of two or more different elements chemically bonded together
Examples of Compounds: • Water molecule (H2O) • Sodium chloride (NaCl)

What is a Mixture? ‫نوعين مختلفين و لكن مش ماسكين في بعض‬

A mixture contains two or more different elements mixed together without chemical bonding .
Examples of mixtures • Air • Sea water • Alloys • Crude oil

Element Compound
Only one type of atom Two different elements chemically bonded together

Mixture
Two different molecules
45
Element Compound mixture Compound

Mixture Compound Mixture

46
Important ions:
ion Formula
Hydroxide ion OH -
Nitrate ion NO3-
Sulfate ion SO42-
Carbonate ion CO3 2-
Ammonium ion NH4+

Write the formula of the following compounds:

 Potassium carbonate • Copper II sulfate

 Copper II carbonate • Iron III hydroxide

 Zinc hydroxide • Ammonium carbonate

 Magnesium nitrate • Sodium sulfide

 Aluminum sulfate • lead II nitrate

 Ammonium chloride • Lithium hydroxide

 Ammonium sulfate

How to balance a chemical equation?

 Reactants are on the Left (before the arrow) .Products are on the Right (after the arrow)

 Work across the equation from left to right ,checking one element after one another

 Count the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants and products

 If you have a group of atoms (like sulfate SO4), which is unchanged from one side of the equation to the other.
Count it as a whole group rather than counting individual sulfurs and oxygens. It saves time .

 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → NaCl (s) Symbolic equation

Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium Chloride Word equation

 N2 (g) + O2 (g) → NO(g)

 Ca (s) + O2 (g) → CaO (s)
Calcium + Oxygen → Calcium oxide

 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l)

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

 Na (s) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)

47
 Li (s) + HCl (aq) → LiCl (aq) + H2 (g)
 Al + Cr2O3 → Al2O3 + Cr
 O3 → O2
 H2O2 → H 2O + O2
 NO (g) + O2 (g) → NO2 (g)
 Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
 K + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + H2
 AgNO3 + CaCl2 → AgCl + Ca(NO3)2
 CaCO3 + HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
 PBr3 + H 2O → HBr + H3PO3
 Pb(NO3)2 + KI → PbI2 + KNO3
 N2 + H2 → NH3
 …..NH3 + …..Cl2 → …….. N2 + …..HCl

 …. P2 O5 + … H2O → … H3 PO4
 … NaN3 → …Na +…N2

48
Rewrite the following word equations to balanced chemical equation:
 Some elements exist as diatomic molecules

Hydrogen H2, Oxygen O2, Nitrogen N2 , Halogens (Fluorine F2 ,Chlorine Cl2, Bromine Br2, Iodine I2)
 Take care : Sulfide is not sulfate Sulfide S-2 / Sulfate SO4-2 Nitride N3- / Nitrate NO3-

 CO2 = Carbon dioxide CO = Carbon monoxide SO3 = Sulfur trioxide

 Zinc + Oxygen → Zinc Oxide

 Calcium + water → Calcium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

 Sodium + Magnesium chloride → Sodium chloride + Magnesium

 Copper II sulfate + Potassium hydroxide→ Copper II hydroxide + Potassium sulfate

 Magnesium + Carbon dioxide → Magnesium oxide + Carbon

 Potassium carbonate + Zinc nitrate→ Potassium nitrate + Zinc carbonate

 Sodium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide → Sodium carbonate + water

49
Group I elements (Alkali metals)

Electronic configuration
 All elements in group one have one electron in outer shell and so they have similar chemial properties

Trend of Chemical properties of group I metals

As you go down across group I, chemical reactivity increases

most reative : Francium Least reative : Lithium

Comparing the chemical reactivities of Li ,Na, and K :

Potassium > Sodium > lithium

Chemical reactions of group I metals :

1. Reaction with air ( or oxygen ) burn in air Burn = + O2
Group one metals react rapidy with air to form metal oxide(white solid)

 Lithium + oxygen → Lithium oxide (word equation)

4Li (s) + O2 (g) 2Li2O (s) white solid

 Potassium + Oxygen → Potassium oxide

4K + O2 2K2O
 Rubidium ( Rb) + Oxygen → Rubidium oxide

4Rb + O2 2Rb2O
2. Reaction with cold water H2O (l) :

Group one metals + Cold water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas

(s) (l) (aq) (g)

The reaction is exothermic releases a lot of heat energy.

 Lithium + water :

Lithium + water lithium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Li (s) + 2H2O (l) 2LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Observations(what do you see) when a piece of lithium is put in water
1. Lithium floats and moves across water

Lithium floats on the surface of water as lithium has lower denisty than water.

2. Bubbles of a gas as Hydrogen gas produced. 3. Lithium get smaller or disappear

50
 Sodium + water :

Sodium more reactive than lithium ,so it reacts more vigorous than lithium

Sodium + water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Observations :
1. Sodium floats and moves. 2.Bubbles. 3. Sodium get smaller /disappear

4. Sodium melts and forms a ball. Sodium melts because its melting point is low and a lot of heat is produced.

5. White trail of sodium hydroxide

 Potassium + water :

Potassium + water Potassium Hydroxide + Hydrogen

2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Observations :
1. Potassium floats and moves. 2. Bubbles 3. Potassium get smaller or disappear 4. Melts and form a ball.
5. White trail of Potassium hydroxide 6. Potassium Catchs fire (lilac flame produced )

 Rubidium and Caesium with water : Observations

1. Melts , flame produced

2. Faster bubbles and moves rapidly and strongly

3. Very vigorous reaction and explosion may occur

2Rb + 2H2O 2RbOH + H2

Rubidium hydroxide

2Cs + 2H2O 2CsOH + H2

Caesium hydroxide

 Group I metals are called Alkali metals because when they react with water they produce metal hydroxide
solution , which is alkaline. (Metal hydroxide = alkali solution ,as contains hydroxide ionOH- ) PH = 13

51
 Group I metals are highly reactive metals, and so they are stored under oil (Parafin or Kerosine) to prevent
contact with air and water.

 Safety precaution : care must be taken to touch these metals with bare fingers.

Wear gloves : as your skin may be wet ,or enough sweat on your skin will react with these metals to produce
metal hydroxides (corrosive = burns the skin) and heat is produced.

 All compounds (salts) of group I are soluble in water forming colourless solutions
 When group I salts exist in solid state they are white solids

Nacl (s) → Nacl (aq)

White solid colourless solution.

② Explaining the trend of chemical reactiivity of Group I in terms of electronic configuration

As you go down the group 1 , reactivity increases … Why ???

‫ الشدة بتكون اضعف و بيكون سهل اجري‬, ‫ كل لما ابعد‬, ‫عايز اجرى و في حبل ماسكني‬
K > Na > Li Why is Potassium more reactive than Sodium and Lithium ?

 Group one metals react by losing one electron forming ion with charge +1
Easier to lose an electron = more reactive

there is attraction force between nuclues (+) AND electron (-) in outer shell
Li
3Li → → 2,①

11Na → N → 2 ,8 ,①
a

19K → K → 2,8,8,①

 Potassium has more electron shells than Sodium and Lithium

(the electron in outer shell gets further from the nucleus )

 Potassium has weaker attraction between the nucleus and the electron in outer shell

 as a result ,the electron in outer shell can be more easily lost in Potassium.

52
Group seven VII ( Halogens )
F Flourine
Cl Chlorine
Br Bromine
I Iodine
At Astatine

 Group VII exist as diatomic molecule e.g F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , and At2 (simple molecular strctrue )

 Diatomic means : each molecule is composed of two atoms.E.g Cl + Cl → Cl2

 All group VII elements are non metals

Physical properties of Halogens :

Halogen State at room temp. Colour

Flourine ( F) Gas Pale Yellow gas
Chlorine (Cl) Gas Pale Green gas
Bromine (Br) Liquid Red-brown liquid / Orange liquid
Iodine ( I) Solid Dark grey solid
Astatine (At) Solid Black solid
 Trend of physical properties of group 7 As you go down the group :

1. Gradual change in the state of matter at room tempertaure Gas then liquid then Solid

2. Melting and boiling points increase.

3. Colour darkens : Halogen with Palest colur (‫ ) فاتح‬: Flourine Halogen with Darkest colour : Astatine

Trend of chemical properties of group 7 :

As you go gown group 7 ,chemical reactivity decreases
Flourine (F) is the most reactive halogen Astatine (At) is the least reactive halogen

F > Cl > Br > I > At

 Halides ( ions of halogens )

𝐅 – ( flouride) , 𝐂𝐥 – (chloride) , 𝐁𝐫 – (bromide) , 𝐈 – (iodide) , 𝐀𝐭 – (Astatide)

 Reactions of halogens :

1. Halogens + metals : to form ionic compounds (salts) ( Halogen= salt maker)

Metal + Chlorine → Metal Chloride Metal + Bromine→ Metal Bromide Metal + iodine → Metal Iodide

 Potassium + Chlorine → Potassium chloride

2K(s)+ Cl2(g) → 2KCl (s) white solid

 Sodium + Fluorine →

53
 Calcium + Bromine →

 Iron + Chlorine → Iron III Chloride

2. Halogens + Hydrogen :
Halogens react with Hydrogen ,they share electrons(covalent bonding ) forming Hydrogen halides

 Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen Chloride

H2 (g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl (g) Hydrogen chloride HCl (g) gas is a colourless gas.

Observation: Colour changes from Green to Colourless

 Hydrogen + Bromine → Hydrogen Bromide

H2 + Br2 → 2HBr
3. Displacement reaction involing halogens :

The higher reactive halogen will displace the lower reactive halogen F
Cl
Br

Chlorine is bubbled through Potassium bromide solution I

Cl2 (g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl (aq) + Br2(aq)

Chlorine Potassium bromide Potassium chloride Bromine

( Colourless ) ( Orange)

Chlorine is more reactive than bromine ( higher up in the group) , so chlorine displaces bromine

 Observation : solution turns Orange as Bromine is released (bromine is displaced)

 Type of reaction : Displacement reaction

Bromine + Potassium chloride

Br2 + KCl NO reaction

Bromine is less reactive than chlorine ,so bromine cannot displace chlorine . No colour change is observed

54
Br2 (l) + 2NaI (aq) 2NaBr(aq) + I2(aq)
Bromine Sodium iodide Sodium bromide Iodine

Colourless brown

Bromine is more reactive than iodine, Bromine displaces iodine

I2 + NaBr No reaction.

Iodine is less reactive than bromine ,so iodine cannot displace bromine

 A halogen will not displace itself.Cl2 + KCl → Not done

 A halogen cannot displace another more reactive halogen. → Br2 + NaCl → No reaction

 A halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of a salt .

②Explaining the trend in reactivity of halogens in terms of electronic configuration

F > Cl > Br > I ‫ضيف جديد و عايز حد يمسك فيه‬

9 F→ 2,⑦
17Cl→2, 8, ⑦

35Br→2, 8, 18, ⑦
Why bromine is less reactive than chlorine and fluorine in terms of electronic configuration ?

 Group seven elements react through gaining an electron forming ion with charge -1

 Bromine atom has more electron shells than Chlorine and Fluorine

The outer shell electrons get further from the nucleus

 Bromine has weaker attraction between the nucleus and outer shell electrons than Cl and F

 So as a result Bromine has less tendency to gain an electron and so less reactive than Cl and F
55
As you go down across group

Greater atomic number ,and so greater number of Electrons

Greater number of electron shell

Weaker attraction force between nucleus and electron(s) in outer shell

Group 1 : it will be easier to lose an electron Group 7 : it will be more difficult to gain an electron

Some imortant colours :

 Most of metals are grey solids

Eg : Magnesium Mg (s) , Lead Pb(s) : grey solid

 Copper Cu (s) : Brown solid

 Copper II Oxide CuO (s) : Black solid

 Copper II Carbonate CuCO3 (s) : Green solid

 Copper II sulfate CuSO4 (aq) : Blue solution

‫اي حاجه تانيه‬

 Group one , Group two , Aluminium , Zinc , and ammonium compounds : are White solids (s)

when dissolve in water form Colourless solutionn (aq)

e.g Sodium chloride NaCl (s) white solid

e.g Potassium oxide K2O (s) white solid

e.g Calcium oxide CaO (s) , Magnesium oxide MgO: white solid

e.g ammonium chloride NH4Cl (s) : white solid

e.g Zinc sulfate solution ZnSO4 (aq) , Magnesium sulfate solution MgSO4 (aq) : Coloruless solution

56
 Redox reactions
 Redox reaction is where Oxidation AND Reduction take place together in same reaction

Oxidation Reduction

1. Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen

2. Loss of electrons Gain of electrons

Oxidation is loss of electrons OIL Reduction is gain of electrons RIG

 Oxidising agent : oxidises other substances

Oxidising agent itself is reduced ‫اسمه عكس الي بيحصله‬

 Reducing agent : reduces other substances

Reducing agent itself is oxidised ‫اسمه عكس الي بيحصله‬

1. Redox reactions in terms of Oxygen transfer :

Aluminum + Iron(III)oxide Aluminum oxide+ Iron

Loss of oxygen = Reduction = Oxidising agent

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 +2Fe

Gain of oxygen = Oxidation = Reducing agent

• Aluminum Al is Oxidised (as gained oxygen), so it is Reducing agent

• Iron (III) oxide is Reduced (loss of oxygen),so it is Oxidising agent

Magnesium + Carbon dioxide Magnesium oxide + Carbon

Loss of Oxygen = Reduction = Oxidising agent

2Mg(s) + CO2 (g) 2MgO (s) + C (s)

Gain of Oxygen = Oxidation = Reducing agent

 Mg is oxidised as Mg has gained oxygen , so Mg is reducing agent

 CO2 is reduced as CO2has lost oxygen , so CO2 is oxidising agent

57
All burning reactions (+ O2) are Redox reactions Burning = heat in air

Burning of Magnesium (Mg) in air to form Magnesium oxide (MgO)

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

Mg Gains Oxygen = Oxidation

Burning of Carbon in air to form Carbon dioxide is a Redox reaction

C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

2. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer

 Oxidation is loss of electrons.

 Reduction is gain of electrons

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

This reaction is a Redox reaction, although there is no oxygen transfer, How?

 The electronic structure of Na atom is 2, 8, ① Na loses one electron

 The electronic structure of Cl atom is, 2, 8, ⑦ Cl gains electron from Na

 Na loses an electron →Na is oxidised , so Na is the reducing agent

 Cl gains an electron→ Cl is reduced, so Cl is the oxidising agent.

Ionic bonding and Redox

Metal + Non metal → Ionic compound

Lose electrons Gain electrons

Oxidised Reduced

Reducing agent Oxidising agent

58
Identify the oxidising agent and reducing agent at the following reactions, in the terms of electron transfer:

Gained electrons = Reduction = Oxidising agent

Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)

Lose electrons = Oxidation =Reducing agent

 Zn (Zinc) is the reducing agent as it has lost electrons

 Cu 2+ (Copper II ion) is the oxidising agent as it has gained electrons

Zinc is more reactive than copper, so zinc displaces copper

Loss of electrons = Oxidation= Reducing agent

Cl2 + 2Br- 2Cl- + Br2

Gain of electrons = Reduction =Oxidising agent

 Cl2 (Chlorine) is oxidising agent as gains electrons

 Br- (Bromide ion )is reducing agent as loses electrons

Chlorine is more reactive than bromine ,so chlorine displaces bromine

Complete the following ionic equation

Cl2 + I -

59
 Acids and Bases
What is an Acid?

 Acid is H+ (Proton) donor

Three common Acids: Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq), Nitric acid HNO3(aq), and Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

What is a Base?

 A base is H+ (Proton) acceptor.

 Alkali : is a base which is soluble in water producing OH- (Hydroxide ions)

Examples of Alkalis : Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) and Ammonia NH3

A solution which contains H+ = Acidic solution

A solution which contains OH – = Alkaline solution

PH scale: Scale from 0 to 14, used to show if the solution is acidic, or basic, or neutral

 A substance with PH less than 7 is Acidic

 A substance with PH greater than 7 is Basic (Alkaline)

 A substance with PH of exactly 7 is Neutral (neither acidic nor alkaline).

Examples: Water H2O (l) and Sodium Chloride aqueous solution NaCl (aq).

PH Example
0-3 Strong acidic Hydrochloric acid HCl
4-6 Weak acidic Carbonic acid H2CO3
7 Neutral Sodium chloride NaCl , Water
8-10 Weak alkaline Ammonia NH3
11-14 Strong alkaline Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Hydrogen chloride gas HCl (g) dissolved in water→ Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq)

How to measure the PH of a solution ?

Indicators
Indicator : substancewhich changes colour when added to acid or alkali (different colours at acid and alkali).

Indicators can be used either as solutions or in paper form.

Examples of indicators

 The most common indicator used is Litmus ( Paper or solution).

 Methyl orange solution. • Phenolphthalen solution .

60
 Indicator Colour in Acidic PH Colour in Neutral PH Colour in Alkaline PH
Litmus
Paper or Solution Red Violet Blue
Methyl Orange Red Orange
Phenolphthalen

Acid turns blue litmus paper red Alkali turns red litmus paper blue

Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Universal indicator : measure approximate PH

You can find the PH of a solution by using universal indicator ,which changes colour in a gradual way over a
range of PH. Universal indicator show how strongly acidic or how strongly alkaline a solution is .

 Universal indicator turns Red at acidic solutions

 Universal indicator turns Blue at alkaline solutions

Advantage of using universal indicator over methyl orange or phenolphthalein in comparing

different acidic solutions
Universal indicator has more than one colour in acid

and universal indicator measures the PH, so it shows if the solution is strong or weak acidic.

Safety precaution at lab

 Strong acids and strong alkalis are corrosive (burn, irritant, can eat away skin, and cloth), Wear goggles to
protect eye. Wear gloves and lab coat ( protective cloth ). Also in heating, gentle and careful heating

61
Acid reactions:
1. Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

2. Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water

3. Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water

4. Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

5. Acid + Ammonia solution → Ammonium salt

Salt: is an ionic compound where Hydrogen of acid is replaced by a metal

 If Hydrochloric acid before arrow → Salt ends with Chloride

 If Sulfuric acid before arrow → Salt ends with Sulfate

 If Nitric acid before arrow → Salt ends with Nitrate

1. Metals + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

(S) + (aq) → (aq) + (g)

 Sodium + Hydrochloric acid → Sodium chloride + Hydrogen gas

2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)

It is an example of Displacement reaction where Sodium displaces hydrogen (as sodium is more reactive than hydrogen )

Observations: 1. Bubbles (fizzes) and 2. Sodium (metal) dissolves or disappears

 Zinc + Sulfuric acid → Zinc sulfate + Hydrogen

Zn (s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

2. Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

(S) + (aq) → (aq) + (l)

Type of reaction: Neutralisation
 Copper(II) Oxide + Sulfuric acid → Copper(II) sulfate + Water

CuO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Black solid Blue solution

Observations: Copper oxide (Black Solid) dissolves forming blue solution

 Magnesium oxide + Nitric acid → Magnesium nitrate + Water

MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O (l)

62
3. Metal hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Type of reaction: Neutralisation Acid + Base (or Alkali ) = Neutralisation reaction

 Sodium hydroxide + Sulfuric acid → Sodium sulfate + Water

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

4. Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

(S) + (aq) → (aq) + (l) + (g)

Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid → Calcium chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) +CO2 (g)

Observations: 1. Calcium carbonate dissolves and 2. Bubbles

5. Ammonia + Acid → Ammonium salt

Type of reaction: Neutralisation

 Ammonia + hydrochloric acid → Ammonium chloride

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

A proton or H+ is transferred from HCl (acid ) to NH3 (base)

 Ammonia + sulfuric acid → Ammonium sulfate

2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

 Calcium + Hydrochloric acid →

 Ammonia + Nitric acid →

 Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid →

 Aluminum oxide + Sulfuric acid →

 Copper II carbonate + Nitric acid →

Chemical Test for an Acid :

 (use an indicator ) : Blue litmus paper turns Red

 (apart from using an indicator) Add Magnesium metal .

observation : Bubbles appear Acid + Metal hydroxide

Donates H+ Acid + Metal oxide Acid + Ammonia

Neutralisation reaction

H+ is transferred from acid to base

Acid Base
63
 Types of Oxides Oxide = compound containing oxygen O ‫مين قبل ال‬

Basic oxide Acidic oxide

 Metal oxide (metal + O )  Non metal oxide (non metal + O)

 Examples :  Examples :
Sodium oxide Na2O Carbon dioxide CO2
Calcium oxide CaO Sulfur dioxide SO2
Copper II oxide CuO Silicon dioxide SiO2

 Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide  Non metal oxide + Water → Acidic solution

Magnesium oxide MgO (s), white solid is a basic oxide

Magnesium oxide + Water → Magnesium hydroxide

MgO (s) + H2O (l) → Mg(OH )2(aq) alkaline solution PH > 7 turns universal indicator blue

Carbon dioxide gas CO2 (g) is an acidic oxide when reacts with water to form acidic solution

CO2(g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq) acidic solution PH < 7 turns universal indicator red

Preparation of Salts
Salt is an ionic compound composed of Positive ion and Negative ion

The positive ion (+) is either metal ion or ammonium ion NH4+

Salts are neural (PH = 7) and salts made from Acids

Salt name ending Acid

Chlorides Hydrochloric acid HCl

Sulfates Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Nitrates Nitric acid HNO3

Soluble in water (aq)

Solubility of salts

Insoluble in water (s)

General rules for the solubility of salts in water:

 All Sodium and Potassium salts( or compounds ) are soluble in water

 All Ammonium salts are soluble in water

 All Nitrates are soluble in water

 All Chlorides are soluble except( lead (II) chloride PbCl2 (s) , Silver chloride AgCl (s) )

 All Sulfates are soluble except( lead (II) Sulfate PbSO4 (s) ,Barium Sulfate BaSO4(s) , Calcium Sulfate CaSO4(s) )

 All Carbonates are insoluble except (Sodium carbonate , Potassium carbonate , Ammonium carbonate )

 All metal oxides are insoluble except ( Sodium oxide and Potassium oxide )
all metal hydroxides are insoluble except ( Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq) and potassium hydroxide KOH (aq) )

64
Preparation of Salts: (Three methods of preparation)

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

Soluble salts apart from Na, K ,NH4 salts Na, K, NH4 salts

1. Excess of Solid + Acid 2.Titration 3. Precipitation

 Metal (s) Alkali + Acid

 Metal oxide (s)

 Metal hydroxide (s)

 Metal carbonate (s)

1. Excess Solid (s) with an Acid (aq):

Preparation of pure dry hydrated Magnesium sulfate crystals starting from solid Magnesium Mg (s)
and Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

Magnesium sulfate is a soluble salt., we can directly react solid Magnesium Mg(s) with an acid to make the salt.

You can use Magnesium oxide MgO (s), or Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 (s) ,or Magnesium carbonate MgCO3(s)

Sulfate so we use Sulfuric acid The following reaction below occurs between Magnesium and Sulfuric acid:
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Steps :
1. In a beaker put Sulfuric acid • Heat the acid to speed up the reaction
Add solid Magnesium to the acid using a Spatula (one spatula at a time) and Stir by glass rod after each addition.

 What will you observe when Magnesium is added to dilute sulfuric acid?

1. Magnesium dissolves or disappears 2. Bubbles of a gas

2. Solid Magnesium is added until it is in excess Excess : means more than enough to react ‫كبشه او زيادة‬
• Why excess of solid Magnesium was added to the acid?

To make sure all the acid has been used up or reacted.

 How will you know that all the acid has been used up? Or When can you decide that excess solid is added ?

1. Solid Magnesium stops dissolving (remains as solid unreacted) 2. No more bubbles

Mg (s)

Magnesium sulfate solution

Heat Excess solid Mg

Now you have Magnesium sulfate aqueous solution MgSO4 (aq) + Excess of solid Magnesium Mg(s)
65
3 Excess of solid Magnesium is removed by filtration
Excess magnesium =residue Magnesium sulfate solution = filtrate

Transfer Magnesium sulfate solution (filtrate) to evaporating dish

How to obtain pure dry Magnesium sulfate crystals from Magnesium sulfate solution?

4 Heat magnesium sulfate solution(filtrate) till crystallisation point or till solution becomes saturated
to evaprate part of water DO NOT heat till till dryness (do not remove all the water)
5 Leave the the solution to cool

6 Filteration to obtain the crystals (or to remove excess liquid)

7 The crystals are driedusing filter paper

Notes:

 Stirring was through glass rod not metal spatula Why?

As Metal spatula may react with the acid but glass rod does not react with acid

Stirring is essential for mixing reacting substances and allows the solid to dissolve more quickly

 Metal oxide + warm acid.

Metal hydroxide + warm acid

Metals + warm acid

Why was the acid heated? To speed up the reaction (to increase the rate of reaction)

 Metal carbonate. + acid no need to warm the acid

Because the reaction between metal carbonate with acid is rapid at room temperature
(no need to warm the acid as the reaction is rapid with cold acid)

 Why excess of solid must be added to the acid?

To make sure all acid has reacted

 It is not necessary to measure the volume of the acid precisely .Why?

Because the solid is added in excess or in other words all the acid is used up

 How could you know if excess of solid or excess of acid is present in solution?
If excess of solid: remains at the bottom of beaker as solid (Solid stops dissolving)

If excess of acid: measure PH of the solution, blue litmus paper turns red

 excess of unreacted solid removed from the solution through filtration

Heat the filtrate till crystallisation point (till crystals starts to form)

 Why is the solution heated ?

66
 How will you know the crystallisation point is reached ?

 Explain why a glass rod is dipped into heated solution ?

To see when crystals form and indicates crystallisation point (when solution is saturated) and to know when to
stop heating

 Why do crystals form when the hot saturated solution is cooled ?

Solubility decreases with temperature ,crystals are less soluble in cold water than hot water

Why not simply evaporate the solution to dryness?

It would seem much easier to just evaporate off all the water by boiling rather crystallising the solution slowly.

 The formula of Magnesium sulfate crystal is MgSO4 • 7H2O (s)

Water of crystallisation

When many salts form their crystals , some water molecules from the solution are part of the salt crystal
structure this called water of crystallisation.

 Hydrated crystal means that the crystal contains water molecules

 Direct strong heating (evaporate all the water ) produces anhydrous solid (powder)

 Anhydrous means without water.

Key steps for preparation of soluble salt using a Solid and Acid
 Heat the acid
Note : if the solid is Metal Carbonate + Acid no need to heat the acid

 The solid (Metal or Metal oxide or Metal hydroxide or Metal carbonate ) is added until it is
in excess and stir
 Filtration to remove excess solid
 Heat the filtrate till crystallisation point
 Leave to cool
 Filtration to obtain crystals
 Crystals are dried using filter paper.

67
Preparation of pure dry sample of Hydrated Copper II sulfate crystals from solid Copper II oxide CuO (s) and
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

Heat sulfuric acid to speed up the reaction

Filtration to remove excess solid copper II oxide

Heat the filtrate till crystallisation point

⑥ Filter to obtain the crystals and then dry

 You get could use solid Copper II Carbonate CuCO3(s) or solid Copper II Hydroxide Cu(OH)2 (S) + Sulfuric acid

 Copper Cu (s) could not be used as copper is less reactive than hydrogen ,so does not react with sulfuric acid

White anhydrous copper sulfate powder Blue hydrated copper sulfate crystal

How to prepare hydrated Zinc chloride crystals from solid zinc carbonate ZnCO3 (s) added to an acid
 Write the formula of the acid :

 Outline the steps

68
Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid but does not react with sulfuric acid

CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) ✓

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) x !! Why?

In reality, the calcium carbonate reacts normally with hydrochloric acid, fizzing of carbon dioxide gas occurs.

But in the case of sulfuric acid , nothing seems to happen, , why?

 When calcium carbonate reacts with the sulfuric acid, insoluble calcium sulfate forms

 Which forms a layer or coating on calcium carbonate, which prevents the acid from getting to
the calcium carbonate and reacting with it (stopping the reaction )

Calcium carbonate reacts with Hydrochloric acid.

Calcium carbonate reacts with Nitric acid

Calcium carbonate does not react with Sulfuric acid

69
 ②Titration
Making Sodium, Potassium, and Ammonium salts
The need for a different method why?

The problem here is that all sodium, potassium, ammonium compounds are Soluble in water.

The solid you added to the acid would react with the acid and any excess of the solid will dissolve in water so
nothing will be filtered

Sodium, potassium, ammonium salts are prepared through Titration method.

How to make Sodium Chloride NaCl crystals?

 Sodium hydroxide solution NaOH (aq)(alkali)

 Hydrochloric acid (salt is chloride so suitable acid is HCl )

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Alkali Acid Salt (neutral)

 Type of reaction: Neutralisation

 Both reactants are aqueous solutions(No solids)

 In a titration, one reactant is slowly added to the other in presence of indicator.

The indicator changes colour when the reaction is complete = End point
So you can know how much reactant is needed for a complete reaction.

Steps of making Sodium chloride crystals

Pipette Conical flask

1. Measure 25 cm3of Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq) using pipette and add to a conical flask.
(known measured volume of alkali in a flask)

2. Few drops of indicator are added to the flask. Indicator used could be Phenolphthalein or Methyl orange

Universal indicator could not be used as an indicator in titration.

 Phenolphthalein turns Pink when added to the flask containing NaOH

3. Fill burette with Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq). Add the acid from the burette slowly and swirl(shake) the flask
carefully to help the acid and alkali mix

70
4. The acid is added till indicator changes colour

 Phenolphthalein turns from Pink to Colourless. = end point = neutralisation =All the alkali has been used up.

The solution is now neutral. No more acid is added. Endpoint reached

Initial and final burette reading

5. Record the volume of acid needed to neutralise 25 cm3 NaOH

Volume of acid = Final burette reading ― Initial burette reading

???????? Acid needed to neutralise 25 cm3 Alkali

6. Repeat the experiment same volumes of acid and alkali determined from titration but without indicator .

 Now you have Sodium chloride aqueous solution

Heat the solution from the flask to evaporate part of water (till crystallisation point) .

Leave the solution to cool and filter the crystals. Crystals are dried by filter paper or left in warm place .

Notes :

 Why pipette is used in measuring volume of alkali not measuring cylinder?

Because pipette is more accurate than measuring cylinder

 Why universal indicator is not used as an indicator in titration?

Universal indicator shows gradual colour change .No sharp or clear colour change at the end point

 Why a beaker is not used in titration? conical flask is used instead

Difficult to shake the solutions at a beaker

 After addition of each drop of acid from burette to the flask swirling Why?

1. to mix the contents of the flask so that they can react

2. to make sure that the colour changes permanently

 Add the acid dropwise near the endpoint .Why?

To find accurate point of neutralisation

So as not to add more acid than is needed (so as not to overshoot the end point ‫)علشان متعديش‬

71
  A white tile is put under the flask To see the colour change more easily

 Repeat the titration and take average why ?

1. to increase reliability of the results (to increase accuracy ) to identify anomalous results

2. and to get concordant results

Describe the experimental procedure to carry out a titration to find the exact volume of sulfuric acid needed to
neutralise 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution and obtain pure, dry crystals of sodium sulfate.

 Measure alkali using a pipette into a conical flask and place flask on a white tile.
 Add a few drops of indicator/suitable named indicator, e.g. methyl orange.
 Fill the burette with acid and read volume of acid in the burette.
 Add acid from the burette to the flask slowly, swirling the flask until indicator just changes colour.
 Read the volume of acid in the burette at the end of titration.
 Repeat experiment until you get concordant results.

Mix the same volume of alkali with the volume of acid determined from the titration but without indicator

 Pour neutralised solution into an evaporating dish then heat solution to evaporate part of water and
then the solution to cool . Filter off the crystals and Dry crystals using filter paper.

②Making insoluble salts (Precipitation method) :

 What is meant by “Precipitate “?

Precipitate is a solid that is formed from chemical reaction involving solutions

A (aq) + B (aq) →C (s) + D (aq)

Example: How to make Silver chloride AgCl (s) insoluble salt

AgCl
Ag+ Cl-
Silver ion Chloride ion

Bring Soluble salt containing Ag Bring Soluble salt containing Cl

E.g. Silver nitrate AgNO3 (aq) E.g. Sodium chloride NaCl (aq)

(Attach NO3to metal) (Attach Na or K to – ion)

Key:

All Na, K compounds are soluble in water

All nitrates are soluble in water

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To prepare Silver chloride AgCl (s) , mix aqueous Silver nitrate AgNO3 (aq) and aqueous Sodium chloride NaCl (aq)

Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride → Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation : Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)

Type of reaction: Precipitation reaction

 Steps
1. Mix the two solutions ( Silver nitrate solution + Sodium chloride solution) in a beaker ,stir well by glass rod

Observation: White ppt of Silver chloride AgCl (s)

2. The mixture is filtered to get the precipitate

3. Wash the solid (Silver chloride) with distilled water to remove remaining sodium nitrate solution
(residue or ppt washed to remove soluble impurities)

4. Dry using filter paper or left in warm place

Remember:
1. Filter 2. Wash solid with distilled water 3. Dry using filter paper

 Washing must be done through distilled water (NOT tap water)

because distilled water is pure and does not contain any dissolved impurities

How to make Pure Barium sulfate BaSO4 (s) insoluble salt ?

BaSO4

Ba2+ SO42-
Soluble salt containing Ba2+ Soluble salt containing SO42-

e.g. Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 (aq) e.g. Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 (aq)

Also you can use Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

Barium nitrate + Sodium sulfate → Barium sulfate + Sodium nitrate

Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

73
 Test for gases
Hydrogen gas H2 : • Hydrogen is colourless, and has low density (less dense than air )

• Hydrogen is a flammable gas

burning of Hydrogen in Air : Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

H2 (g) + O2 g) → H2O (l)

Test for Hydrogen gas : lighted splint (when mixed with air or flame )

Result: burns with squeaky pop sound ( Pops )

Oxygen gas O2:

Test for Oxygen gas: approach a glowing splint (Not lighted splint)

Result: Relights a glowing split

Carbon dioxide gas CO2 : • Carbon dioxide gas is Denser than air and does not support combustion

Test for Carbon dioxide gas : pass through lime water Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Result : limewater turns milky (cloudy )

Change in appearance of lime water : lime water turns from Colourless to milky

 Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas (non metal oxide ) ,

so Carbon dioxide reacts with bases such as NaOH ,Ca(OH)2.

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

Colourless solution White ppt of Calcium carbonate Responsible for Cloudiness of Lime water

 CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form Calcium Carbonate CaCO3(s) (White ppt) and water

 Reaction between CO2 and Ca(OH)2 is Neutralisation reaction (as CO2 is an acidic oxide and Ca(OH)2 is a base)

Ammonia gas NH3 : • Ammonia is an alkaline gas . • Pungent charachteristic odour

Test for Ammonia gas : damp red litmus paper

Result: turns blue

Litmus paper has to be damp ,because water is needed to form OH-

 Ammonia also turns universal indicator blue

Chlorine gas Cl2 : • Chlorine is a pale Green gas

Test for Chlorine gas : damp litmus paper

Results : Chlorine bleachs (whitens) damp litmus paper

 Chlorine also bleachs universal indicator

Safety preacution :
Halogens (Chlorine ,Bromine ,and Iodine) and Ammonia are toxic gases : use fume cupboard

74
Water H2O is colourless ,neutral liquid (PH = 7 ) and covalent compound (simple molecular structrue )

Chemical test of water:

Test : Add to white Anhydrous Copper (II) sulfate

Result : turns Blue (as Hydrated Copper II sulfate is formed )

Water

White Blue
Anhydrous Copper II sulfate + Water → Hydrated Copper II sulfate

CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l) → CuSO4.5H2O (s)

Physical test of pure water:

Measure boiling point : it boils at 100 °C (Sharp boiling point )

Gases can be collected in different ways as shown below:

Delivery tube Gas jar

 Downward delivery: • Upward delivery:

Downward into tube or gas jar Upward into tube or gas jar

Used for collection of gases denser than air Used for collection of gases less dense than air e.g. H2 ,He

• Collection over water: Measuring cylinder

Water
Collection over water where delivery tube carrying the gas is put in a trough of water with an inverted measuring cylinder full of water

Used to collect and measure volume of Insoluble gases

 Gas syringe Used to collect and measure volume of gases ‫الحل السحري ينفع في اي حاجه‬

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 Test for ions
A salt is an ionic compound composed of Positive ion (Cation) and Negative ion(Anion)
The positive ion is either Metal ion or Ammonium ion NH4+

Test for + ions (Cations) :

1. Flame test :
Some positive metal ions such as (Group one) are tested by changing the colour of the flame.

Steps of flame test: How is flame test done? Done on solid salt or solution

 Clean platinum wire is dipped in the salt or compound

 The wire is approached near to the non luminous flame (blue or roaring )and observe colour of the flame

Metal ion Colour of Flame

Li+ Lithium ion Red
Na+ Sodium ion Yellow
K+ Potassium ion Lilac
Ca+2 Calcium ion Orange-red or Brick red
Cu2+ Copper II ion Blue -green
Why is it important that the platinum wire must be clean?
Because the presence of any chemicals or impurities may affect the colour of the flame (interfere with the
results)

The wire is cleaned through dipping in Concentrated Hydrochloric acid

Suggest why is the wire made from Platinum?

 Platinum is inert

 Platinum has High melting point

 Platinum does not change the colour of the flame

Why is it important to use a non-luminous flame? )‫االزرق (الشفاف‬

Colour change can be easily seen in a non-luminous flame

Luminous flame (is already coloured) mask the colour change of the flame

Li+ Na+ K+ Ca+2 Cu2+

76
2. Precipitation reaction
To test for the rest of positive metal ions

This test is done on aqueous solution of salt

If you add Sodium hydroxide solution NaOH (aq) or ammonia solution (introducing OH-) to a solution containing
metal ion, a Precipitate of metal hydroxide is formed.

Metal ion Addition of Sodium hydroxide solution NaOH (aq)

Fe2+ Green ppt Iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 (s)

Fe3+ Brown ppt Iron(III)hydroxide Fe(OH)3 (s)

Cu 2+ Blue ppt Copper(II)hydroxide Cu(OH)2 (s)

Ammonium ion NH4+ Warm with Sodium hydroxide solution

Ammonia gas released
Test the gas through passing through damp red litmus paper turns blue

 Iron (III) chloride FeCl3 (aq) with Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq)

Iron (III) chloride + Sodium hydroxide → Iron (II) hydroxide + Sodium chloride

FeCl3 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s) + 3NaCl (aq)

Observation: Brown ppt due to formation of Iron III hydroxide Fe(OH)3 (s)

 Iron (II) chloride FeCl2 (aq) with Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq)
Iron II chloride + Sodium hydroxide → Iron II hydroxide + Sodium chloride

FeCl2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Fe(OH)2 (s) + 3NaCl (aq)

Observation : Green ppt due to formation of Iron II hydroxide Fe(OH)2 (s)

Green ppt Fe(OH)2 (s) : when left in air , is oxidised to form brown Fe(OH)3 (s).

 Copper (II) sulfate CuSO4 (aq) with Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq)

Copper (II) sulfate + Sodium hydroxide → Copper(II) hydroxide + Sodium sulfate

CuSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq )→ Cu(OH)2 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)

Observation: Blue ppt

77
Test for – ions (Anions):
Anion Test and result
Carbonate ion CO32- Test: add hydrochloric acid

Result: effervescences ,or bubbles (Carbon dioxide gas released)

Pass through lime water
Lime water turns milky

Sulfate ion SO42- Test : add dilute hydrochloric acid and Barium chloride solution BaCl2
Precipitation reaction
Result : White ppt of Barium sulfate BaSO4 (s)

Why is Hydrochloric acid added?

To remove or react with any carbonate ions
Barium carbonate BaCO3 (s) white ppt
To remove any ions which may form white ppt

Halides Test :add dilute nitric acid and Silver nitrate solution AgNO3
Precipitation reaction

Chloride Cl- Result :White ppt of Silver Chloride AgCl

Bromide Br- Result : Cream ppt of Silver bromide AgBr

Iodide I- Result: Yellow ppt of Silver iodide AgI

Why is Nitric acid added ?

To remove any carbonate ion
Silver Carbonate Ag2CO3 (s) white ppt

Silver nitrate is acidified using Nitric acid ,why hydrochloric acid cannot be used
Because hydrochloric acid HCl already has chloride ions .

 NaOH → Fe2+ , Fe3+ ,Cu 2+, NH4+

 Acidified Silver nitrate → Halides Cl- ,Br-,I-

 Acidied Barium chloride or Barium nitrate → SO42-

 Hydrochloric acid → CO32-

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 ②Electrolysis
What is meant by Electrolysis ?

“It is the decomposition of a compound into elements by the passage of electricity “

 Electrolyte: is the substance which undergoes electrolysis. ‫المفعول به‬

 Electrolyte: is an ionic compound in molten or aqueous solution due to presence of free
moving ions
Electricity: is the flow of electrons

 Hints on Electrolysis :

― +
1. Power source ( Battery ) source of electricity

( ― +) Negative pole Positive pole

2. Electric wires

Electric wires

Electric wires are made mainly of Copper. Why?

Copper is excellent conductor of electricity, ductile and has high melting point

3. Electrodes and Electrolyte :

Electrolyte

Two electrodes

 Positive electrode connected to + pole called Anode

 Negative electrode connected to –pole called Cathode

PANC = Positive Anode Negative Cathode.

Electrodes are made of substances which must have the following properties:

1. Good conductor of electricity

2. Inert: Unreactive to prevent reaction with the products of electrolysis.

 Electrodes are made of Graphite (Carbon) or Platinum (Unreactive metal)

The electricity is passed into an out of the electrolyte via two electrodes.

Why do covalent compounds such as water do not conduct electricity

 Covalent compounds have no ions ,only composed of molecules which are neutral .

 Covalent compounds have no delocalised electrons (all the electrons are tightly held in covalent bonding )

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1. Electrolysis of molten electrolyte Example: Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide PbBr2 (l)

Bulb -+

Heating

 Nothing occurs till Lead (II) Bromide melts, where ions are free to move.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as ions cannot move.

 The ions present are Pb2+ and Br- . The ions move to the electrode of opposite charge.

 Pb2+moves to negative electrode (Cathode)

 Br-moves to positive electrode ( Anode)

What occurs at (-) cathode and anode (+)? (ion is discharged = ion changes to neutral atom)

 Half ionic equation at the Negative electrode :

Pb2+ (l) + 2e - Pb(l) Reduction

Lead ion Pb2+is Positive ion and moves to negative electrode
Pb2+ is Reduced as gains two electrons and forms neutral lead Pb element
Positive ions → Negative electrode → Gain electrons

 Half ionic equation at the Positive electrode:

2Br-(l) ― 2e- Br2 (g) Or 2Br-(l) Br2(g) + 2e- Oxidation

Bromide ion Br- is negative ion and so moves to Positive electrode
Bromide ion is oxidised as has lost electron form neutral Bromine molecule Br2 (Br + Br→ Br2)
Negative ions → Positive electrode → Lose electrons

Products: Lead (Pb) at the negative electrode and Bromine (Br2) at the positive electrode

80
 Observations

1. Bulb lights up: showing electrons are flowing in the external circuit
from anode to cathode.

 If you stop heating : the bulb goes out as ions stop moving .
No gain or lose of electrons at electrodes

2. Reddish brown vapour at the positive electrode: Bromine formed.

3. Shiny grey liquid at the negative electrode : molten lead formed

Negative ions move to anode called Anions Positive ions move to the cathode called Cations
Molten ionic compound → Metal at Cathode + Non metal at Anode
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐬

Oxidation at the Anode and Reduction at the Cathode Both products are elements

1. Electrolysis of Aqueous solutions(Aqueous electrolytes )

Difference is the presence of Water H2O.Water ionises to give H+ and OH- (Hydroxide ion) H2O → H+ + OH-

 Electrolysis of concentrated Sodium chloride solution NaCl (aq) 4 Ions present: 2 + and 2 –

Na+ Cl- from Sodium chloride

H+ OH- from water

Na+ , H+attracted to (―)Cathode Cl- , OH- attracted to the (+)Anode

Which positive ion will be discharged? Which negative ion will be discharged?
Depends on the type of the solution
 The positive ion of the lower
reactive element will be discharged  If concentrated halide solution :
So H+ will be discharged to H2 and The halide ion will be discharged
Na+ remain at solution Cl- ,Br- , I-
K  If diluted halide solution :
Na Hydroxide ion OH- will be discharged
Li  If any other electrolyte :
Ca Hydroxide ion OH- will be discharged
Mg
Al At this example ,electrolyte is :
Zn Concentrated Sodium Chloride solution
Fe Concentrated Halide
H -
So Cl will be discharged to Cl2
Cu OH- remain at the solution
Ag
Negative electrode half equation : Positive electrode half equation :
+ -
2H (aq) + 2e H2 (g) 2Cl- (aq) ― 2e- Cl2 (g) or 2Cl-→Cl2+2e-
Hydrogen gas Chlorine gas produced
Observation : Bubbles Observation : Bubbles (green gas)Any gas released in solution= Bubbles
Na+ Cl- H+removed at cathode and Cl- are removed at anode

H+ OH- Na+and OH-combine to form Sodium hydroxide NaOH

++
The electrolyte is changed to Sodium hydroxide solution alkaline solution.

The final PH of solution > 7 turns universal indicator blue

Products of electrolysis of concentrated Sodium Chloride solution:

1. Chlorine gas Cl2 at the Positive electrode → Chlorine used in water purification (kill bacteria)

2. Hydrogen gas H2 and Sodium hydroxide Solution NaOH at the Negative electrode.

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 Equal volumes of two gases should be collected Why ?
For every 2 electrons that flow around the cirrcuit , you get 1 mole (or molecule) of chlorine

and also 1 mole of Hydrogen

 The volume of chorine is less than expected why ? as some chlorine is dissolved in water

Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulfate aqueous solutionCuSO4 (aq) using inert electrodes.
CuSO4 (aq) is Blue solution

Ions present: Cu 2+ SO42-

H+ OH-
At the Cathode At the Anode
Cu 2+, H+ attracted to (-) Cathode SO42- , OH-attracted to (+) Anode
Which positive ion will be discharged? Which negative ion will be discharged?
Copper less reactive than Hydrogen , OH-will be discharged
Cu2+ will be discharged

Negative electrode half equation : Positive electrode half equation : ‫حفظ زي ما هي‬
Cu 2+(aq) + 2e- Cu (s) 4OH- (aq) O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e- (aq)
Copper is formed(Brown solid) Oxygen Is produced . bubbles
SO42-
Cu 2+
Cu 2+removed at cathode, OH- removed at anode
+ OH-
H H+ and SO42- combine to form Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

 Copper (II) sulfate (electrolyte) is changed to Sulfuric acid , final PH < 7 turns universal indicator red

 The colour of solution fades (changes from Blue to Colourless) Why?

Blue colour of solution is due to Copper ions Cu+2

and Concentration of Cu2+ decreases (Cu+2 are removed from solution)

Observations:

1. Bubbles
2. Brown solid coats the negative electrode (cathode).
Increase in the mass of negative electrode
(solid copper deposited around the negative electrode)

3. Colour of solution fades

82
Electrolysis of dilute Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)
 Acids conduct electricity as it has free moving ions H+

Ions in the solution: H+ SO42- from acid

H+ OH- from water

At the negative electrode :

2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g) Observation : Bubbles

At the positive electrode

4OH- (aq) -
O2 (g)+ 2H2O (l) + 4e- Observation: Bubbles

4e- → 1 O2
4e- → 2 H2

 Hydrogen collected twice the volume of the oxygen. Why ?

For every 4 electrons that flow around the circuit, you get 1 molecule of O2

But for every 4 electrons that flow, you get 2 molecules of H2.

You get twice the number of molecules of hydrogen as of oxygen

 Fill test tube or measuring cylinder with electrolyte solution

 Place the tube or measuring cylinder over the electrodes
 Collect the gas by displacement of the solution

83
 Reactivity series
Most reactive

K Potassium
Na Sodium
Li Lithium
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminum
C Carbon
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
(H) Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Ag Silver
Au Gold
List of elements (mainly metals) in order of decreasing reactivity the more reactive element (higher up in the
series) can displace lower reactive element from its compound.

Reaction between Magnesium (Mg) and Copper (II) Sulfate (CuSO4) solution:

Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

Magnesium Copper (II) Sulfate solution Magnesium sulfate Copper

(Blue solution) (Colourless) (Brown solid)

 Type of reaction : displacement reaction. Magnesium is more reactive than Copper

so Magnesium displaces Copper. Copper has been pushed out of its compound by the more reactive magnesium.

Observations:
1 Colour of solution changes from blue to colourless

2 Brown solid formed (brown solid coats magnesium)

84
Reaction between Magnesium (Mg) and Zinc oxide (ZnO):
Heating Magnesium with zinc oxide gives magnesium oxide and zinc.

Mg(s) + ZnO(s) MgO(s) + Zn(s)

Magnesium Zinc oxide Magnesium oxide Zinc

 Magnesium is more reactive than zinc ,so magnesium displaces zinc from its oxide

What will happen if Copper Cu heated with Magnesium oxide MgO?

Cu (s) + MgO (s) no reaction

Copper is less reactive than magnesium so no displacement reaction

Reaction between Hydrogen H2 (g) and heated solid Copper II Oxide CuO (s)

Hydrogen + Copper II Oxide Water + Copper

H2 (g) + CuO(s) H2O(l) + Cu(s)

Black solid Brown solid

Hydrogen is more reactive than Copper ,so hydrogen displaces Copper from its oxide .

 Observation: Colour of solid changes from Black to Brown

 Safety precaution :
Wait for a short period of time before heating solid copper II oxide

Where hydrogen gas is passed at first along the combustion tube to make sure all the oxygen has flushed out

Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen >>>>>>>>> risk of explosion

Using displacement reactions to know the position of metals in reactivity series

The following reaction occurs when Chromium III oxide Cr2O3 heated with Aluminum Al
Cr2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) 2Cr (s) + Al2O3 (s)
Which metal Aluminum or Chromium is more reactive ? and why ?

85
 Titanium > Tin

Titanium < Calcium

 Calcium is most reactive ,titanium is the second most reactive ,tin is the least reactive

 Titanium displaces tin

 Titanium does not displace calcium

86
Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series based on their reactions with
1. Water

2. Dilute hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid

 Copper, silver, and gold do not react with water or acid (less reactive than hydrogen)

 Group I metals are too reactive metals : reacts explosively and vigorously with acids and water (dangerous)

 The reaction between Calcium and water is slower than Group I

Calcium + Water Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Observations when Calcium is put in water:

1. Bubbles 2. Calcium gets smaller or disappear

② Extraction of Metals
 Most of metals are found in the earth combined with other elements not free , exist in compound form

 Metal ore: naturally existing rock from which pure metal is extracted.

 Unreactive metals such as gold , silver are found in their ores as elements

 Metals exist in the form of oxides

 To obtain the metal from metal oxide ,you have to remove the oxygen. Removal of oxygen is called Reduction.

 Carbon is a cheap reducing agent ,used for extracting metals

Carbon can steal oxygen from metal oxide Oxygen ‫حرامي‬
Carbon can only reduce oxides of metals below carbon in reactivity series

 How a metal is extracted depends on its position in the reactivity series.

Metals below Carbon in reactivity series :

Can be extracted through heating with Carbon

87
Metals above Carbon in reactivity series :
Cannot be extracted from their ores through heating with Carbon

Metals above Carbon are extracted through electrolysis of molten electrolyte

②Extraction of Aluminum from Aluminum ore

 Chemical composition of Aluminum ore is Aluminum oxide Al2O3

 Aluminum is not extracted through heating with Carbon .Why?

C +Al2O3 No reaction

 Aluminum is more reactive than Carbon ,so carbon cannot displace aluminum from its oxide
Aluminum is extracted from its ore ,through electrolysis of molten electrolyte

Lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is major expense

 Aluminum oxide is an ionic compound. When it is melted the ions are free to move. Ions are : Al3+ and O2-

 Negative electrode half ionic equation : Al3+is positive ion and so moves to negative electrode(cathode)

Al3+ (l) + 3e- Al (l)

Al3+ gain 3 electrons, Al3+ is reduced

Molten aluminum is produced near the negative electrode

 Positive electrode half ionic equation: O2- is negative ion and so moves to positive electrode (anode),

2O2- (l) ― 4e - O2 (g) Or 2O2- (l) O2 (g) + 4e-

O2-lose electrons, O2- is oxidised

Oxygen gas produced around positive electrodes

The positive electrodes have to be replaced regularly. Why?

Carbon in positive electrode reacts with Oxygen forming Carbon dioxide

C + O2 → CO2
Products at the positive electrode (anode) are Oxygen gas and Carbon dioxide gas

88
Properties of Aluminum metal:
 Aluminum has low density • Aluminum resists corrosion , Aluminum is non toxic ,it does not react with food

②Uses of Aluminum:
1. Aluminum is used for areoplanes, as it has low density and strong

High strength to weight ratio

2. Aluminum is used for overhead electric cables ,

as it has low density ,good conductor of electricity ,and resists corrosion.

The overhead cables usually have a steel core

to increase the strength

3. Aluminum is used for cooking utensils (pans) as it resists corrosion ,good conductor of heat and has low
density

4. Aluminum is used for food packaging , foils ,and cans ,

 as it is non toxic , (does not react with food or drinks) ,resists corrosion

 low density

 malleable

②Uses of Copper:
1. Copper is used for making electric wires
as it is good conductor of electricity, ductile, and has high melting point.

2. Copper is used for cooking utensils

as it has high melting point ,good conductor of heat , and does not react with water or acids and malleable

3. Copper is used for making water pipes ,

as Copper has low reactivity and does not react with water or steam.

89
②Extraction of iron : Iron ore is Iron (III) oxideFe2O3

 Iron is extracted from its ore through heating with Carbon Why?
Iron is less reactive than Carbon ,so Carbon an displace iron from its oxide
3C + 2Fe2O3(s) 3CO2(g) + 4Fe(l)
So Iron III oxide could be reduced to iron by heating with Carbon

Read only

Raw materials : 4 chemical substances

Coke which is Carbon C

Iron ore : iron III oxide Fe2O3 added top of furnace

Limestone Calcium carbonate

Hot air : hot air is added near bottom of furnace

Reactions Comments

1. Coke burns ,giving off heat  It is a Redox reaction

Coke burns to form Carbon dioxide . Carbon reacts with oxygen in air  It is an Exothermic reaction
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) It releases huge amount of heat
energy which helps to heat up
the furnace (1800°C)
2. Formation of Carbon monoxide CO

Carbon dioxide (from burning of Coke) reacts with Carbon to give Carbon monoxide
CO2 (g) + C(s) 2CO (g)
 It is a Redox reaction

3. Iron III oxide is reduced to molten iron

That is where the actual extraction occurs . Iron less reactive than Carbon
Iron III oxide reacts with Carbon monoxide giving molten iron and carbon dioxide
 It is a Redox reaction .
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + CO2(g)
4. The role of limestone CaCO3 :
Limestone is used to remove impurities such as Silicon IV oxide
How is Silicon IV oxide removed from molten iron ?

• Limestone breaks down by heat form Calcium oxide and Carbon dioxide
 It is an Endothermic reaction
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) Thermal decomposition

Calcium oxide is a Basic oxide (metal oxide)

5. Calcium oxide reacts with Silicon dioxide acidic oxide( non metal oxide)
Calcium oxide + Silicon IV oxide → Calcium silicate
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
 Neutralisation reaction
Basic oxide Acidic oxide Calcium Silicate Salt Calcium silicate (slag) is a Salt

 Calcium silicate forms slag, which floats on the surface of molten iron.
Slag has lower density than molten iron

90
 Another method for extraction of Iron from ore : Electrolysis (expensive)

②Types of steel according the amount of carbon.

 Steel is an alloy ,mixture of Iron and Carbon

Type of steel Composition Uses

Mild steel alloy Iron + 0.25 % Carbon  Car bodies
Harder than pure iron  Ships
More resistant to rusting  Machinery
(do not say :does not rust)
High carbon steel alloy Iron + 0.6 -1. 2% Carbon  Cutting tools
Harder than mild steel
More brittle than mild steel
Stainless steel alloy Iron+ Chromium +Nickel  Cutlery (Spoon, fork)
Hard + Resists rusting  Kitchen sinks
• Surgical equipment
 Pipes in chemical factories

Rusting of iron
 Iron rusts in presence of Water and Oxygen (both have to be present)

 Rusting is a slow process

 Rusting is Oxidation of iron

 Chemical composition of iron rust : Hydrated iron III oxide Fe2O3.xH2O

Iron + water + oxygen → Hydrated iron III oxide (iron rust)

 Physical appearance of iron rust : Orange coat on iron

91
How to protect iron from rusting?
To prevent iron rusting, you have to prevent oxygen (from air) and water from reaching the metal surface.

The rusting of iron and steel can be prevented in a number of ways :

1. Painting

2. Oiling / greasing These methods provides a barrier (protective coat on iron ),

3. Plastic coating which prevent air and water from reaching iron

 But once the barrier (coat) is scratched or damaged, iron will rust as oxygen and water get in contact with iron

4. Galvanising : iron is coated with a layer of Zinc

5. Sacrificial protection: using a metal which is more reactive than iron such as Zinc or Magnesium ,
the more reactive metal corrodes instead of iron

Bars of zinc is attached to hulls of ships to protect from rusting

Zinc acts as a barrier preventing oxygen and water from reaching iron. Advantage of this process:

If the coating of zinc is damaged or scratched, the exposed iron is still protected and does not rust. Why?

 Zinc is more reactive iron (loses electrons more readily)

 Zinc will corrode (or oxidised )instead of iron

and Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- (does not occur)

92
 Air
 Air is a mixture of different gases

Composition of air : The composition of clean (unpolluted) and dry air

 Nitrogen N2 78% (major component )

• Oxygen O2 21% (reactive component of air )

 Argon (Ar) (noble gas )represents 0.9 % of air composition

 Carbon dioxide CO2 is found in air and represents 0.04 % of air composition

 Nitrogen , Oxygen ,and Argon → are Elements

 Carbon dioxide → Compound

 Air has no chemical formula as Air is a mixture of gases (not a single substance)

How to measure the percentage of Oxygen in air?

Final volume of air 79cm3 (at the end)

100 Cm3 of air is pushed out of this syringe into this Gas syringe

 Air is passed backward and forward across heated copper.

It is found that amount of gas decreases. Why?

This is because oxygen found in air reacts with Copper to form Copper II oxide

Copper turns black, due to formation of Copper II oxide (which is black solid)

Copper + Oxygen → Copper II Oxide

2Cu(s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO(s)

Brown Black
 The volume of gas then remained constant ( no more decrease in the volume of gas) why ?
as all the oxygen in air has reacted with copper ( no more oxygen)
 The apparatus is left too cool and then measure final volume of gas . Why?
As the volume of gas is highly affected by temperature ( gases expand by increasing temperature)
 The volume of gas decreased from 100 Cm3 to 79 Cm3
 Volume of oxygen = Start volume of gas ― final volume of gas
 Volume of oxygen is 100 – 79 = 21 Cm3
21
 % of Oxygen in air = x 100 = 21 %
100

93
% Oxygen in air can be determined by burning Phosphorus in air and measuring the volume change

Volume of Oxygen = 48.5 - 37=11.5

Reaction stopped all O2 has reacted

The results stay the same

 Volume of Oxygen = 48.5 – 37 = 11.5

11.5
 % of Oxygen in air = x 100 = 23.7 %
48.5

 As the phosphorus burns it uses up the oxygen inside the apparatus and as a result the water level rises

By making careful measurements of water levels before and after the experiment you can determine the percentage of oxygen in the air

94
 Volume of oxygen = 100 ―25 = 75 cm3

 Total volume of air in the apparatus at the start = 265 + 100 = 365

75
 % of Oxygen in air = x 100 = 20.5
365

Acid rain (Acid rain: is an environmental problem)

 What are the causes of Acid rain?

Sulfur dioxide gas SO2 (g) and Nitrogen oxides gases NO (g), and NO2 (g) cause acid rain.

 How is sulfur dioxide gas formed ?

Burning of hydrocarbon HC fuels containing Sulfur impurity S + O2 → SO2

 How sulfur dioxide gas causes acid rain?

Acid rain is formed when Sulfur dioxide gas reacts with water to produce Sulfuric acid (acidic solution)

SO2 + H2O H2SO3 react with Oxygen in air → H2SO4 sulfuric acid

 How are Nitrogen oxides gases formed in cars?

Nitrogen N2 and Oxygen O2 from air react at high temperature in car engine forming Nitrogen oxides

N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2 or N2 + O2 → 2NO

 How Nitrogen oxides gas cause acid rain?

Acid rain is formed when Nitrogen oxides react with water to produce Nitric acid

 Harmful effects of Acid rain:

 Kill trees • Kill fish in lakes • Dissolves Limestone (CaCO3) (reacts with calcium carbonate)

 Increase corrosion of metals • Increase acidity of the soil

95
Global warming: Rise in the temperature of the earth (earth becomes hotter)

Carbon dioxide gas is a Greenhouse gas

Increase in level of Carbon dioxide gas causes environmental problem which is global warming

Consequences of global warming :

 Climate changes due to the increase in Earth’s temperature

What is meant by a Fuel ?

Substance when burns releases energy

Burn = + O2

96
 Burning reaction of Hydrogen in air

Hydrogen reacts with oxygen in air to form water

H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)

Safety precaution: Hydrogen + Oxygen >>>>>>>> risk of explosion

 Burning reaction of Magnesium in air ‫زمالك‬

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

Grey solid White powder

Observations:

1. Magnesium burns with bright white flame

2. White powder is formed.

Magnesium oxide MgO ,when dissolved in water form Magnesium hydroxide solution Mg(OH)2 (alkaline PH > 7 )

MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

 Burning of Sulphur in air

Sulphur + Oxygen → Sulphur dioxide gas

S + O2 → SO2

Observation: Sulphur burns with blue flame

97
 Energy
Reactions are classified into two different types according to energy change

Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction releases heat (or thermal)energy Endothermic reaction absorbs heat energy

Increase in temperature. The mixture gets warm Decrease in temperature.

Examples of Exothermic reactions : Examples of Endothermic reactions :

 Any reaction that produces flame is an exothermic reaction  Thermal decomposition :

1. Burning or combustion reactions Break down of a compound by heating
 Burning of hydrogen
2H2(g) + O2(g)→ 2H2O(l) Effect of heat on metal carbonates:
 Burning of Carbon in blast furnace releases huge amount of
heat
Metal carbonate Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide
C + O2→ CO2
 Burning of petrol in cars
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
2. Metal + Water
3. Metal + Acid
The more reactive a metal is ,higher temperature rise CaCO3(s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Heat
4. Neutralisation reaction
(Alkali + Acid) Copper II Carbonate → Copper II oxide + Carbon dioxide
Sodium hydroxide +Hydrochloric acid→ Sodium chloride + Water
CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
NaOH(aq)+ HCl (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H2O(l) Heat
Green solid Black solid
Observation :
Colour of the solid changes from Green to black

②Energy diagrams

Time Time

H = Energy change or enthalpy change of reaction in Kilo joule /mole

98
 in exothermic reaction in endothermic reaction

CH4 + 2O2 CO2+ 2H2O CaCO3 CaO + CO2

= - 890 KJ/mol = +178 KJ/mol

 Activation energy Ea:Is the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction
Activation energy acts as a barrier for the reaction.

Activation energy EA is always positive value.

Energy diagram for exothermic reaction showing activation energy Ea and

Reaction progress

②Bonds broken and bonds formed

 During a chemical reaction, bonds of the Reactants are broken
 and new bonds of the Products are formed

 Breaking bonds: Absorbs energy (Endothermic)

 Bonds formation: Release energy (Exothermic)

=Bonds broken ― Bonds formed

99
 Calculate the Enthalpy change for this reaction:

H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2HF (g)

H―H F―F 2 H―F
Bond energies:

H―H = 436 KJ/mol

F―F = 158 KJ/mol

H―F = 568 KJ/mol

Determine the type and number of bonds of reactants and products

Bond broken of Reactants Bonds formed of Products

1 H―H = 1x 436 = 436 2 H―F = 2x 568 = 1136
1 F―F = 1x 158 = 158
Total = 598 Total = 1136
 Total amount of energy needed to break bonds = 598 KJ/mol

 Total amount of energy released in bond formation = 1136 KJ/mol

 Energy change during this reaction = 598 - 1136 = - 542 KJ/mol

 Energy needed to break bonds

5 C―H = 5 x 413 = 2065

1 C―C = 1 x 347 = 347

1 C―O = 1 x 358 = 358

1 O―H = 1x 464 = 464

3 O = O = 3 x 498 = 1494

Total = 4728 KJ

 Energy released when bonds are formed

4 C= O = 4 x 805 = 3220

6 O―H = 6 x 464 = 2784

Total = 6004 KJ

Enthalpy change for complete combustion of ethanol = 4728 – 6004 = - 1276 KJ / mol exothermic
100
Using energy change of reaction to calculate bond energy

Let N―N = x
Bond broken of Reactants Bonds formed of Products

4 N―H = 4 x 391 = 1564 1 = 945

1 N―N = X
2 H―H = 2 x 436 = 872
Total = 1564 + X
Total = 1817
1564 + X – 1817 = - 95

X – 253 = - 95

X = 158 KJ/mol

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

Why burning of hydrogen in air is an exothermic reaction in terms of bonds breaking and bonds
formation ? Bonds formation > Breaking of bonds
 Breaking bonds absorbs energy (endothermic)

 Bonds formation release energy (exothermic)

 In an exothermic reaction :
Energy released in formation of new bonds of products is greater than energy absorbed to break bonds of reactants

Why thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate is an endothermic reaction in terms of bonds

breaking and bonds formation ? Breaking of bonds > Bonds formation
 Breaking bonds absorbs energy (endothermic)

 Bonds formation release energy (exothermic)

 In an endothermic reaction :
Energy absorbed to break bonds of reactants is greater than energy released in formation of new bonds of products

101
 Rate of chemical reaction
Rate of a chemical reaction =speed of a chemical reaction

Chemical reactions take place at different rates (speeds)

Fireworks explode in the sky very quickly, while rusting happens much slower.

Rate and time : Rate of a reaction is inversely proportional to time

Rate Time
High Short
low long

Collision theory : For a reaction to occur, the reacting particles must collide.
A collision that has enough energy (greater than Activation energy EA ) to result in a chemical reaction is an
effective collision (successful collision)

Activation energy : minimum amount of energy required for particles to react at collision

 Reaction with Small Activation energy value = fast reaction

 Reaction with Large Activation energy value = slow reaction

How to measure the rate of a chemical reaction?

Chemical reactions that produce a Gas

When excess calcium carbonate (marble chips) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl limited reagent= ‫)هو المهم‬

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Effervescences occurs in the flask as carbon dioxide gas is produced

1. Measuring rate of chemical reaction through measuring volume of gas produced at regular time
interval e.g. every 30 seconds.
 Stopper (rubber bung) to prevent escape of gas .

 Measuring the volume of gas through using Gas syringe

Stop watch

Graph of the results showing the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced over time

102
How does the rate of reaction changes as the reaction proceeds?

The shape of the curve can be divided into three stages

1. At the start, Shape of the curve : the curve is the steepest (steepest gradient or slope) and so highest rate.
Explain why? (in terms of collision theory )

At the start of the reaction, highest concentration of hydrochloric acid(H+ Hydrogen ions )so greatest number of
successful collisions per second between calcium carbonate (solid marble chip) and acid.

2. After a period time, the curve becomes less steep),showing that the reaction is slowing down.

As the reaction goes on, the concentration of acid decreases and so fewer successful collisions per second

3. Finally: The graph levels off (stops rising); gradient is zero, showing no more carbon dioxide produced.
The reaction has stopped (rate is zero) as all the acid has been used up

One of the reactants (or both) has been used.

When can you know that the reaction has finished ? When the curve starts to be horizontal .

Rate of reaction decreases with time, till reaction stops (rate is zero).

103
Second method

2. Measure the rate of reaction, through measuring the decrease in mass of reaction mixture
across regular time interval.

 The mass of the flask and contents decrease because carbon dioxide gas escape from flask .

 Decrease in mass of reaction mixture = mass of carbon dioxide produced

 The role of cotton wool:

1. To prevent splashing out of acid

2. Allow only carbon dioxide gas to escape and so the decrease in mass is due to escape of gas

Factors affecting the rate of chemical reaction:

1. Surface area (of a solid ) 2. Concentration (of a solution)

3. Temperature(for all reactions) 4. Catalyst 5. Pressure (of a gas)

Effect of Surface area on rate of chemical reaction:

Increasing surface area of a solid = smaller particle size (powdered or crushed)

Increasing surface area of a solid will increase the rate of the reaction

 Experiment I using lumps (large pieces) of calcium carbonate

 Experiment II using same mass of Powdered calcium carbonate

 Volume of CO2 is measured across time intervals.

 Other variables kept constant : Temperature ,Volume and Concentration of Acid

1. Curve of powdered Calcium carbonate is steeper than lumps

Showing higher rate of reaction upon using powdered calcium carbonate

2. Same maximum volume of CO2 (g) produced in both experiments as

same number of moles of HCl

↑ Surface area : ↑ Rate + Same Volume of gas produced

Why using powder CaCO3increases rate of reaction? In terms of collision theory

Powdered calcium carbonate has greater total surface area and so greater
number of successful collisions per second and so higher rate of reaction.

104
Lumps (large pieces) Powdered

More particles are exposed

Particles cannot get at the particles hidden in the middle of the solid fewer particles are now hidden away

A lump of coal will burn slowly in air, while coal dust can react explosively why?

Powdered coal has a larger surface area so higher rate of reaction

The mass of the flask and contents is measured across regular time interval

Lumps of Calcium Carbonate

Powder

 Increase particle size Lumps = decrease surface area = low rate of reaction.

 Smaller particle size Powder = large surface area = high rate of reaction

↑ Rate = curve shifts to the left, near to Y-axis ,steeper curve, and reaction ends sooner

↓ Rate = curve shifts to the right, far from Y-axis , less steep curve, and reaction ends later.

105
Effect of Concentration (of a solution) on rate of chemical reaction

Excess of CaCO3 is added to Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq) HCl is limited reagent

 Experiment I: 100 cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 HCl (aq) cm3 = volume mol/dm3 = concentration

 Experiment II: 100 cm3 of 2 mol/dm3 HCl (aq)

Same volume, but double the concentration of acid (Limited reagent)

also same temperature ,and same mass of calcium carbonate

Compare between the shapes of both curves

 The curve is steeper with 2 mol/dm3 HCl, showing higher rate of reaction

 Double the final volume of CO2 is produced with 2 mol/dm3 HCl(as double the moles of HCl is used)

↑ Concentration of Limited solution: ↑ rate and ↑ volume of gas

↑ Concentration of Excess solution: ↑ rate and same volume of gas

Why increasing the concentration, increases the rate of reaction, in terms of particles
collision theory?
1. More acid particles in same volume

2. Increase in the number of successful collisions per second

Effect of decreasing concentration (diluted acid) on rate :
Less acid particles in same volume, so less number of successful collisions per second and so the rate decreases

The experiment is repeated using same mass of magnesium ribbon with 10cm3 of 0.25 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid

106
Effect of Temperature on rate of chemical reaction
As the temperature increases, the rate of chemical reaction increases

• Steeper curve (higher gradient ) at 60 °C

 Same maximiun volume of CO2

↑Temperature : ↑ Rate + Same Volume of gas produced

Why increasing the temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction, in terms of
particles collision theory?
 Particles gain kinetic enery(Particles move faster)

 Particles collide more frequently

 More collisions have energy greater than than activation energy

 More successful collisions per second.So rate of reaction increases

Using a Catalyst:
What is meant by a Catalyst?

Catalyst is chemical substance which increases the rate of a reaction without being used up.

Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form Water and Oxygen. The rate of decomposition at room temperature is
very slow. Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 (black solid)can be used as catalyst to speed up this reaction.
When the Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 is added to the hydrogen peroxide solution, we can visibly see more
bubbling of oxygen gas, visibly showing that it has increased the rate of reaction.

107
Show that Manganese (IV) oxide is unchanged at the end of the reaction (it is not a reactant)

 Manganese IV oxide was weighed Before the reaction(before adding to the flask)

 After the reaction, the manganese oxide was filtered (to remove the solid), dried (to remove water)
and then reweighed,

 The mass was found to be the same, mass unchanged after the reaction.

Weigh before and after the reaction The mass is the same

A method to show that a catalyst speeds up the reaction

 Perform reaction with and without catalyst

 Keep remaining variables the same
e.g. (concentration of hydrogen peroxide ,volume of hydrogen peroxide and temperature )
 Measure volume of oxygen gas collected using gas syringe in a certain time period
 Greater volume of oxygen gas collected in certain time period( in the experiment with catalyst)

Catalyst : ↑ Rate + Same Volume of gas produced

Using powdered catalyst will show increase in reaction rate but same volume of oxygen gas.

Why using a Catalyst increases the rate of chemical reaction? Or how does catalyst work?

Catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy ( ‫)طريق بديل مختصر‬

②Energy diagram without catalyst and with catalyst

 Catalyst has no effect on energy change

Changing the Pressure:

 Changing the pressure only affects the reactions where the reactants are gases.

 As the pressure increases the rate of reaction increases.

108
 Plunger pushed in (increase pressure)

Why high pressure increases the rate of reaction? In terms of particle collision theory

 gas particles are closer together

 Increase in the number of collisions per second

Excess of Hydrochloric acid with solid Magnesium

109
The reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid

A yellow precipitate of Sulfur(s) is produced which cause cloudiness.

The rate of this reaction can be measured by recording the time taken for sulfur to be precipitated .

This can be done by placing a conical flask containing the reaction mixture on to a cross on a piece of paper.
As the precipitate of sulfur forms, the cross is obscured and finally disappears from view. The time taken for the
cross to be obscured a measure of the rate of this reaction.

Effect of Different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate on rate of reaction

 Same temperature • Same volume and concentration of Hydrochloric acid • Same size of flask

When the most concentrated sodium thiosulfate solution was used ,the reaction was at its fastest rate

This is shown by the shortest time taken for the cross to be obscured.

110
How to calculate the rate of reaction at a certain point on the graph
The graph shows the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced over time in a chemical reaction

Find the rate of reaction at time = 40 sec

 Draw a tanget at point 40 sec and choose 2 points and calculate the gradient

𝑌2―𝑌1 132−48
Rate at 40 sec= = = 1.4 cm3 / sec
𝑋2―𝑋1 70−10

Fair comparison between 2 different solids

1. Same mass (or moles ) of each solid

2. Same particle size (or surface area)

Fair comparison between 2 different solutions

1. Same volume

2. Same concentration

111
 Reversible reactions

Reactants Products

A+B⇌C+D
 The symbol ⇌ is used in equation that shows reversible reaction:
The forward reaction goes to the right
The backward reaction goes to the left

Examples of reversible reactions:

1. Heating hydrated Copper II sulfate crystals:

Blue hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystal on heating, turns to white anhydrous (II) copper sulfate and water
Heat

Endothermic reaction

The reaction is reversed: add water white anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turns blue and gets hot.

Exothermic reaction

2. Heating of Ammonium chloride NH4Cl (s)

NH4Cl (s) ⇌ NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

Ammonium chloride ammonia Hydrogen chloride

 When ammonium chloride (white solid)is heated it disappears from the bottom of the tube
as colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride are produced

NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g) Type of reaction :Thermal decomposition reaction ,sublimation

 ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas react together further up the tube to reform ammonium chloride

The white solid reappear at the top of the tube ,

NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s) Type of reaction: Neutralisation reaction

If you heat ammonium chloride, the white solid disappears from the bottom of the tube and reappears further up

112
②Equilibrium
Reversible reactions reach state of Equilibrium where:

1. Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse (backward) reaction

2. Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant (but NOT necessarily equal.)

Equilibrium can only be obtained in a closed system where the reaction is carried out in a sealed container and
none of the reactants or products are lost.

Energy changes in reversible reactions

If a reaction is exothermic in one direction, it will be endothermic in the other direction.

Position of equilibrium: Left Right

A (g) + 2B (g) C (g) + D (g)

Position of equilibrium shifts to the Right = more products (more C + D)

Position of equilibrium shifts to the Left = more reactants (more A + B)

Factors affecting the position of equilibrium:

1. Changing the temperature

2. Changing pressure

3. Adding a catalyst

‫بشتغل بالعكس‬
1) Changing temperature
Exothermic = ↑ temperature Endothermic = ↓ temperature

Decrease temperature favours exothermic reaction

A (g) + 2B (g) Exothermic

C (g) + D (g) = -215 KJ/mol
Endothermic forward reaction is exothermic

 High temperature shifts position of equilibrium to the left as Backward reaction is endothermic

 Low temperature shifts position of equilibrium to the right as Forward reaction is exothermic

113
 2) Effect of changing pressure
 For gases only

 Difference in the number of moles of gas between Right side and Left side

Higher number of moles of gas = high pressure Lower number of moles of gas = low pressure

Increase pressure shifts to side of lower number of moles of gas

Decrease pressure shift to side of higher number of moles of gas

3 moles of gas 2 moles of gas

A (g) + 2B (g) C (g) + D (g)
 High pressure shifts position of equilibrium to the Right as lower number of moles of gas on Right hand side

 Low pressure shifts position of equilibrium to the Left as higher number of moles of gas on Left hand side

If there is no difference in number of moles of gas, change in pressure does not affect position of equilibrium.

2 2
A (g) + B (g) C (g) + D (g) (2 moles of gas in both sides)
↑ Pressure or ↓ Pressure: No effect on position of equilibrium as same number of moles of gas on both sides

3) Effect of Catalyst

 Catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction.

 At reversible reaction, Catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium Why ??

As Catalyst speeds up both forward and backward reactions equally

114
Which conditions of temperature and pressure would give largest yield of ammonia NH3?

115
 Left Right

 Position of equilibrium shifts to the left as dark brown colour means that more of ICI is ‫ايه الي حصل‬

 Increasing temperature favours the endothermic direction . The rule

 So reverse (backward) reaction is endothermic Conclusion

 As the temperature decreases ,Position of equilibrium shifts to right

 Low temperature favours exothermic direction

 So forward reaction has to be exothermic

 High temperature shifts position of equilibrium to left

 High temperature favors endothermic direction.

 So backward reaction is endothermic

forward reaction has to be exothermic

116
 Chemical calculations
“Relative atomic mass Ar “of an element “
Ar : use periodic table ,the Larger number (mass number) ‫الرقم الكبير‬

Relative Molecular mass or Relative formula mass Mr: mass of molecule or compound
Thesum of the relative atomic masses of all the elements found in the formula of the substance

 What is the relative molecular mass Mr of Oxygen molecule O2?

Ar O: 16 (the mass of one oxygen atom =16) Mr of O2 = 2x16 =32

 What is the relative molecular mass Mr of Water molecule H2O?

Ar (H: 1, O: 16) Mr of H2O = 2x1+16= 18 Mr of H2O= 18

 What is the relative molecular mass Mr of Ammonia molecule NH3?

Ar (N: 14, H: 1) Mr of NH3 = 14+3 = 17

 What is the relative molecular mass Mr of Butane molecule C4H10?

Ar (C: 12, H: 1) Mr of C4H10 = 4x12+10 = 58

 What is the relative formula mass Mr of Sodium sulfide Na2S?

Ar (Na: 23, S: 32) Mr of Na2S = 2x23 + 32 = 78

 What is the relative formula mass Mr of Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 ?

Ar (Ca: 40, O: 16, H: 1) Mr of Ca(OH)2 = 40 + 2x16 + 2 =74

 What is the relative formula mass Mr of Magnesium Nitrate Mg(NO3)2 ?

Ar (Mg: 24, N: 14, O: 16) Mr of Mg(NO3)2 = 24 + (2x14) + (6x16) = 148

 What is the Mr of Ammonium Sulfate (NH4)2SO4?

Ar (N: 14, H: 1, S: 32, O: 16) Mr of (NH4)2SO4= 14x2 +8+32+ 4x16 = 132

Mr of hydrated crystals
Hydrated Copper II Sulfate crystal has the formula CuSO4. 5H2O (s)

Hydrated = contains water molecules (water of crystallisation)

 How many different elements are present in hydrated copper sulfate crystal CuSO4. 5H2O ?

4 elements (Cu, S, O, H)

 How many atoms in hydrated copper sulfate crystal CuSO4. 5H2O ?

21 atoms

 What is the Mr of CuSO4. 5H2O?

Ar (Cu: 63.5, S: 32, O: 16) and Mr of H2O = 18 (1 H2O = 18)

63.5 + 32 + 4x16 + 5x18 = 249.5

117
Relative molecular mass Mr and rate of diffusion : (Page 7)
Gases of low Mr diffuse faster than gases of higher Mr .

Heavier gases (↑ Mr ) move slower than lighter gases (↓Mr)

↑ Mr = diffuse slowly

↓Mr = diffuse quickly

Simple molecular structure: intermolecular forces of attraction

 As the Mr ↑ ,the intermolecular forces of attraction get stronger and so larger amount of heat
energy is required to overcome .and so higher melting and boiling points.

Moles and Mass:

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 (𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐬)
Number of Moles =
𝐀𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐌𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐬

x 1000
Kg g 1Tonne= 106g
÷1000

Mass (g) = Moles x Mr

②Moles and gases:

1 mole of any gas (whatever its kind) has a volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure RTP.

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 (𝐝𝐦𝟑) 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 (𝐜𝐦𝟑)

Number of Moles of gas = or =
𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎

 Units dm3 x 1000

cm3
÷1000

Volume of gas(dm3) = Moles x 24

118
 ②Moles and Solutions:
For reactions involving solutions, you have to know the concentration of the solution and the volume of solution

 Concentration is measured in mol /dm3 • Volume of solution in dm3

Number of Moles of solution = Concentration (mol/dm3) x Volume (dm3)

Volume of solution = Moles ÷ Concentration of solution

Concentration of solution = Moles ÷ Volume of solution

Moles and chemical equations:

Use moles to work out the amount of substances in a chemical reaction.

Ratio of moles from the balance of equation

Calculations involving Solids (mass)

When Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 is heated, Calcium oxide CaO is formed.

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

What is the mass of Calcium oxide CaO produced by heating 25 g CaCO3?

a) Calculate the number of moles of CaCO3 in 25 g

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
Once you have mass given, first Calculate Mr of CaCO3, then Moles =
𝐌𝐫

𝟐𝟓
Mr of CaCO3 = 40+12+ (3x16) = 100 Moles of CaCO3 = = 0.25 mole
𝟏𝟎𝟎

b) Deduce the number of moles of CaO produced from 25 g CaCO3

According to balanced equation, ratio of moles: 1 mole of CaCO3 : 1 mole of CaO: 1mole of CO2

Use ratio of moles to get the number of moles of CaO

1 mole CaCO3: 1 mole CaO(Cross multiplication)

0.25 mole CaCO3 : 0.25 mole CaO Moles of CaO = 0.25 mole

c) Calculate the mass of CaO produced from heating 25 g CaCO3

Mass
Now you have the no of moles of Cao, get the mass of CaO from no of moles. Moles = Mass = moles x Mr
Mr

Mr of CaO = 40+16 = 56 Mass of CaO = 0.25x 56 =14 g

119
What is the mass of FeSO4 (s) required to produce 4.80 g of Fe2O3 (s)?

4.80
 You have the mass of Fe2O3, so calculate no of moles of Fe2O3Moles of Fe2O3 = = 0.03 mole
160
 Use ratio of moles to get no of moles of FeSO4

2 mole FeSO4 : 1 mole Fe2O3 (cross multiplication)

0.06 mole FeSO4: 0.03 mole Fe2O3moles of FeSO4 = 0.06

 Mass of FeSO4 = moles x Mr Mass of FeSO4 = 0.06 x 152 = 9.12 g

Chromium Cr is manufactured by heating a mixture of Chromium III oxide Cr2O3 with Aluminum powder Al

Cr2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) 2Cr (s) + Al2O3 (s)

Calculate the mass of Aluminum needed to react with 1 tonne of Chromium oxide

1 tonne = 10 6 gram (1000000 g)

Ar : Cr : 52 O : 16 Al : 27

 the mass of Cr2O3 is 1 tonne → 1000000 g

 calculate Mr of Cr2O3 = 2x52 + (3x16) = 152

1000000
 No of moles of Cr2O3= = 6578.95 mole
152
 Use Ratio of moles to get no of mole of Al

1 mole Cr2O3 : 2 mole Al

6578.95 mole Cr2O3: 13157.89 mole Al moles of Al = 13157.89

Ar of Al= 27 Mass of Al (g) = 13157.89 x 27 = 355263.16 g = 0.355 tonne

②Calculation involving mass and volume of gas .

6 dm3 of Carbon dioxide gas CO2 (g) produced

(1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure RTP)

 Calculate number of moles of CO2 (g) produced ?

Volume of gas in dm3
Once you have a volume of a gas given use the rule moles of gas = 24
6
Moles of CO2 = = 0.25 mole
24

 Calculate number of moles of Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 needed to react to produce 6dm3 of CO2

Use ratio of moles : 1 mole MgCO3 : 1 mole CO2

Moles of CO2 = 0.25

120
 Calculate the mass of Magnesium carbonate MgCO3in gram needed to react to produce 6dm3 of CO2
Mass
Moles of solid = mass (in g )= Moles x Mr
Mr

Mass of MgCO3 = 0.25 x (24+12+3x16) = 21 g

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

What is the volume of Hydrogen gas produced in Cm3 produced from 38 gram of Sodium Na added to water

(1 mole of any gas occupies 24000 cm3 at RTP)

Mass 38
 Moles of Na = = = 1.65 mole
Ar 23

 Moles of Hydrogen H2= 2 mole Na : 1 mole H2

1.65 mole Na: 0.825 mole H2

Volume cm3
 Moles of gas = volume of gas (in cm3) = moles x 24000
24000 cm3

Volume of H2 (g) in cm3 = 0.825 x 24000 = 19800 cm3

121
②Calculations involving solutions
Use the rule: Number of Moles of solution = Concentration (mol/dm3) x Volume (dm3)

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

25 Cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq) required 23.5 cm3 of Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq) for
neutralisation.

 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH means the concentration of NaOH

 According to data given, you have volume of NaOH and Concentration of NaOH and volume of HCl (aq)

Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in this reaction ?

 Once you have the concentration and volume of a solution ,calculate the number of moles
(No of Moles of solution = Concentration x volume )

 Volume of NaOH = 25 Cm3 (must convert to dm3 ) = 25/1000 = 0.025 dm3

 No of moles of NaOH = 0.100 x 0.025 = 0.0025

Deduce the number of moles of HCl in the reaction ?

 use ratio of moles to get no of moles of HCl

 1 mole NaOH reacts with: 1 mole HCl 1:1 Moles of HCl (aq) = 0.0025

Calculate the concentration of HCl ?

 Now you have the moles of HCl , get the Conc. of HCl from no of moles

 Moles = Conc. x Volume Concentration = moles ÷ Volume

0.0025
 Volume of HCl = 23.5 /1000 = 0.0235 dm3Conc. of HCl = = 0.106 mol/dm3
0.0235
Calculate the volume of 0.1 mol/dm3 Potassium hydroxide KOH (aq) needed to neutralise
20 cm3 of 0.125 mol/ dm3 Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

2KOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

 Moles of H2SO4 = 0.125 x 0.02 = 0.0025

 Ratio of moles to get moles of KOH

2 mole KOH: 1 mole H2SO4

0.005 mole KOH : 0.0025 mole H2SO4moles of KOH= 0.005

 Volume of KOH = moles ÷ Conc. Volume of KOH = 0.005 ÷ 0.1 = 0.05 dm3

122
1 mole of gas occupies 24000cm3

 Volume of HCl = 50/1000 = 0.05 dm3

 Moles of HCl = Conc. x Volume = 0.500 x 0.05 = 0.025

 2 mole of HCl : 1 mole of CO2

0.025 mole HCl : 0.0125 mole of CO2 Moles of CO2 =0.0125 mole

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
 Moles = Mass = moles x Mr Mr of CO2 = 12 + (2x 16) = 44 Mass of CO2 = 0.0125 x 44 = 0.55g
𝐌𝐫

1 mole of gas occupies 24 dm3

Volume of gas in dm3
Moles of gas = Volume = no of moles x 24 Volume of CO2 = 0.0125 x 24 = 0.3 dm3
24

123
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 𝐝𝐦𝟑 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐠)
No of moles
𝟐𝟒 𝐌𝐫

Conc. (mol/dm3) x volume (dm3)

Mass (g) Volume of gas (dm3)

x Mr x 24

No of Moles
÷ Conc. ÷ Volume
Volume of solution Concentration of solution
(dm3) (mol/dm3 )

124
Calculating Percentage yield % yield
The yield is the amount of product you obtain from a reaction.

 A theoretical yield is the maximum possible amount of a product that can be made in a chemical reaction.

Theoretical yield is the predicted amount or mass of product (should be produced) ‫نظري علي الورق بالحسابات‬

Theoretical yield is calculated from number of moles of reactant given in question

 An actual yield is the amount a product actually obtained from the reaction.

 If you calculate how much of a product you might get during a reaction, in real life you rarely get as much as
you expected.

𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭

% yield = x 100
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

7.2
% yield of Zinc oxide = x 100 = 80 %
9

1. Impure solids used (you have to mention the name of the solid reactant ) = impure Zinc carbonate

2. Incomplete reaction = Not all the Zinc carbonate has decomposed

→In preparation of salts (crystallisation)

3. Practical losses when you transfer a solution from one container to another (spillages )

4. Some of the gas dissolved in the solution.

5. Gas escapes from apparatus before the bung replaced.

15.3 g copper II nitrate = Actual yield

125
Limited and excess reagents

In a chemical reaction, a reactant that is not used up when the reaction is finished is called excess reagent. The
reagent that is completely used upis called the limiting reagent

A + B →C
If A was added in excess (more than enough to react), So B is a limited reagent

The amount of Cis determined by B (limited reagent)

If the actual no of moles of the reagent > needed no of moles of the reagent

Then this reagent is in excess.

If the actual no of moles of the reagent< needed no of moles of the reagent

Then this reagent is a limited reagent.

 The number of moles of product is determined by the actual no of moles of limited reagent.

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐠) 𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝟔

Moles of Magnesium Mg = = = 0.004 mole Mg (Actual moles of Mg)
𝐀𝐫 𝟐𝟒

𝟐𝟓
Moles of HCl = Conc. (mol/dm3). X Volume (dm3 ) = 0.4 x = 0.01 mole HCl (Actual moles of HCl)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

1 mole Mg needs : 2 mole HCl

0.004 mole Mg : 0.008 mole HCl (Needed moles of HCl)

0.01 mole HCl > 0.008 mole HCl so HCl is in excess

Actual moles of HCl Needed mole of HCl

 Deduce the volume of Hydrogen gas produced in cm3 in this reaction

(1mole of gas has a volume 24000 cm3 )
The amount of product is determined by Limited reagent (use Moles of Mg)

1 mole Mg : 1 mole H2 , So moles of H2= 0.004 Volume of H2 = 0.004 X 24000 = 96 cm3

126
 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 (𝐠) 𝟏
 Moles of Al = = = 0.0370 (Actual moles of Al)
𝐀𝐫 𝟐𝟕

 Moles of H2SO4 (given) = 0.06 (Actual moles of H2SO4)

2 mole Al : 3 mole H2SO4

0.0370 mole Al : 0.056 mole H2SO4 (Needed moles of H2SO4)

0.06 mole H2SO4 > 0.056 mole H2SO4 so H2SO4 is in excess

Actual moles of H2SO4 Needed mole of H2SO4

127
 Moles and formula
Mass in Gram or Percentage

 A sample of a compound contains 1.28 g Cu and 0.16 g of O

Calculate the simplest formula (empirical formula) of this Copper oxide

Cu : O

Mass (g) 1.28 0.16

Ar 64 16

1.28 0.16 Mass

No of moles moles =
64 16 Ar

0.02 0.01 divide by smaller number of moles

0.02 0.01
Ratio of moles
0.01 0.01
2 1

Simplest (empirical) formula Cu2O

 14.4 gram of Iron oxide was found to contain 11.2 g Iron. Calculate the empirical formula of this oxide of iron

Mass of Fe = 11.2 g Mass of O = 14.4 – 11.2 = 3.2 g

Fe : O

Mass 11.2 3.2

Ar 56 16
11.2 3.2
No of moles
56 16
0.2 0.2 Equal no of moles, so ratio 1:1

Empirical formula FeO

Zinc and Phosphorous react to form Zinc Phosphide .9.75 gram of Zinc reacts with 3.1 gram Phosphorous .
Find empirical formula of Zinc Phosphide

Zn : P
Mass 9.75 3.1

Ar 65 31

9.75 3.1
Moles
65 31
0.15 0.1 Divide by smallest number
0.15 0.1
Ratio of moles
0.1 0.1
1.5 1 x 2 to get whole no ratio

3 2 0.5 x 2 to get whole number

Empirical formula is Zn3P2 0.333 x 3 to get whole number

128
 The actual chemical formula of ionic compounds is the same as empirical formula.

But in covalent compounds, we have Empirical formula (simplest whole number ratio of atoms) and another
formula which is Molecular formula (the actual number of atoms in the formula of the compound )
Molecular formula is repeated empirical formula. Empirical formula and molecular formula may be different.

 Find the empirical formula of a compound containing 82.7 % C and 17.3 % H by mass

C : H

Mass 82.7 17.3

Ar 12 1

No of moles 6.89 17.3 divide by smaller no

6.89 17.3
6.89 6.89
Ratio of moles 1 2.5 x 2 to get whole no ratio

2 5
Empirical formula of this compound C2H5

Steps to calculate the Molecular formula from Empirical formula

1. Calculate the Empirical formula mass from empirical formula

Empirical formula mass = sum of the relative atomic masses of elements in empirical formula
𝐌𝐫
2. =n n (number of times the empirical formula is repeated)
𝐄𝐦𝐢𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

3. n {Empirical formula} = Molecular formula

 Empirical formula of this compound is C2H5

Suppose the Relative molecular mass Mr of this compound is 58 (Mr should be given)

Write down the molecular formula for this compound :

The empirical formula mass = 2x12 + 5 = 29

58
=2 n=2
29
2 { C2 H5 } = C4H10 Molecular formula C4H10

The empirical formula of a compound is CFCl2

The relative formula mass of this compound is 306

Deduce the molecular formula for this compund

129
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

2Mg (S) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

 Weigh a crucible with a lid

 Place a piece of Magnesium and weigh the crucible and contents

 Heat the crucible

 Lift the lid every few seconds

 When the reaction is finished cool the crucible and reweigh the crucible and contents

How do we know when the reaction has finished ?

Keep heating and weighing till constant mass (to make sure that all magnesium has reacted)

The role of the lid :

Crucible + Mg

Crucible + Mg +O

magnesium oxide

 Mass of Magnesium =

 Mass of Oxygen =

Sources of error

130
Mass of Copper =

Mass of Oxygen =

131
Using moles calculation to calculate X H2O in hydrated crystals

• How could you know that all water has evaporated?

Heat till constant mass

Heating

Hydrated crystals anhydrous solid + water

Mass of Water= Mass of Hydrated crystal ― Mass of anhydrous solid

Anhydrous Solid : Water

32.08 – 30.0 = 2.08

32.44 – 32.08 = 0.36

Mass (g) 2.08 : 0.36

Mr 208 : 18
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
Moles 0.01 : 0.02 divide by smaller
𝐌𝐫

1 : 2

BaCl2.2H2O

132
Find the number of water molecules of crystallisation (n) in hydrated sodium sulfate crystals Na2SO4. n H2O

3.22 gram of Sodium sulfate hydrated crystals were heated gently, until all the water has been driven off

1.42 gram of anhydrous Solid is left.(Mr Na2SO4 = 142 Mr H2O = 18)

Using relative formula mass Mr to calculate percentage % composition

To work out the percentage by mass of any element of a compound

 Find the percentage by mass of Copper in Copper (II) oxide CuO?

CuO 1Cu

Ar: Cu: 64 O: 16 Mr of CuO = 64 + 16 = 80

𝟏𝐂𝐮 64
% Cu in CuO = x 100 = x 100 = 80 %
𝐌𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐮𝐎 80

 Find the percentage by mass of Oxygen in Sulphur trioxide SO3?

SO3 3O

Ar: S: 32 O: 16 Mr of SO3 = 32+ (3x16) = 80

𝟑𝐎 3 x16
% O in SO3 = x 100 = x 100 = 60 %
𝐌𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐎𝟑 80

 Calculate the % by mass of Nitrogen in Ammonium nitrateNH4NO3

NH4NO3 2N

Ar: N: 14 H: 1 O: 16 Mr of NH4NO3 = 14 + 4 + 14 + (3x16) = 80

2N 2x14
% N in NH4NO3 = x 100 = x 100 = 35 %
Mr of NH4NO3 80
Which of Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 or Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 has greater % by mass
of Nitrogen? (Not by calculation)

NH4NO3(2N + 4H + 3O) (NH4)2SO4(2N + 8H + 1S + 4O)

Both have 2N, but (NH4)2SO4 has greater Mr, so NH4NO3 has greater % Nitrogen

 Calculate % mass of water in hydrated Calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O

CaSO4.2H2O 2H2O

Ar : Ca : 40 S : 32 O : 16 Mr of H2O = 18

Mr of CaSO4.2H2O = 40+32+ (4x16) + (2x18) = 172

𝟐𝐇𝟐𝐎 2 x 18
% water in CaSO4.2H2O = X 100 = x 100 = 20.9 %
𝐌𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐚𝐒𝐎𝟒.𝟐𝐇𝟐𝐎 172

133
 Energy calculations

Q = amount of heat energy transferred in joule

m = mass of solution in grams (m = total volume of solution or volume of water )

C = specific heat capacity constant of water ( C = 4.18 or 4.2 will be given)

T = temperature change (final temperature - initial temperature)

1.023g of liquid Propanol (fuel) was burned in a spirit burner and used to heat 200 cm3 water in a copper can

 The temperature of water before burning the fuel (at the start) = 23.5 oC.

 The temperature of water after burning the fuel (at the end) = 53.6 oC.

Calculate the heat energy change Q for the combustion of Propanol

Q= m x C x T

200 X 4.2 X (53.6 – 23.5) = 25284 J ≈ 25000 J

Molar enthalpy change is the heat energy change per mole of substance.
The symbol is ΔH and it has the unit kJ per mole

 If is found by first determining the heat energy change for the reaction , and then dividing by the number
of moles, n, of the substance

𝑸
Molar enthalpy change ΔH = KJ/mole
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔

Calculate molar enthalpy change ΔH in Kilojoules / mole KJ/mol for combustion Propanol

Include sign in your answer (Mr of Propanol = 60)

𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟒
 Q= 25284 J = = 25.284 KJ Q must be in kilojoules
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝟏.𝟎𝟐𝟑
 Moles of Propanol = = = 0.01705
𝐌𝐫 𝟔𝟎

𝑸 𝟐𝟓.𝟐𝟖𝟒
 ΔH = = = ― 1482.93 KJ/Mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟓

Negative sign as exothermic reaction (as temperature of mixture increases )

134
The calculated value from experiment is less than the actual value in data book

Sources of error :

1. Heat lost to the surrounding (atmosphere)

Improvement:

Use a Lid can be used to decrease heat loss and improve the accuracy of the experiment

2. Evaporation of water

3. Incomplete combustion of fuel and so less amount of heat energy is produced

Why do we stir well ?

1. So that heat energy is distributed evenly

2. To mix the reacting particles

3. To dissolve solids more quickly

Repeat the same experiment using Ethanol instead of Propanol : variables to kept constant

1. Same volume of water

2. Same volume or mass of fuel

3. Same distance between burner and copper can containing water

135
  So reduces heat loss to the atmosphere

Temperature rise or change will be closer to true value (more

accurate results)

 No lid : so heat loss to the atmosphere

 No lid so possibility of spillage

Thermometer in the cup (unstable)

Importance of stirring

136
 Organic Chemistry
What is Organic Chemistry?
 It is the Chemistry of Carbon (C) containing compounds.

 Almost all organic compounds contain Hydrogen atoms (H).

Elements such as Oxygen (O) and Halogens (Cl, Br) may also be present.

 Type of bonding in Organic compounds is Covalent bonding

― Single covalent bond. Pair of electrons (Two electrons).

Maximum number of single bonds Carbon atom can form is four

═ Double covalent bond .Two pair (Four electrons)

Types of Formulae of Organic compounds:

1. Molecular formula : simply counts the number of atoms of each type of elements found in the molecule

For example : Ethene is an organic compound with Molecular formula C2 H4

 Composed of Carbon and Hydrogen atoms only

 Composed of 2 Carbon atoms and 4 Hydrogen atoms per molecule

Ethanol is another organic compound with Molecular formula C2 H6 O

 Composed of 2 C ,6 H and 1 O

Molecular formula does not give any information about how the atoms are bonded together.

2. Empirical formula: Simplified Molecular formula.

Molecular formula is Actual number of atoms

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in the compound

 Ethene has Molecular formula C2H4, so its Empirical formula is CH2

 Butane has Molecular formula C4H10, so its Empirical Formula is C2H5.

 Compound has Molecular formulaC8 H16 so the Empirical formula is CH2.

 Methane has Molecular formula CH4, so its Empirical formula is also CH4.

 Propane has Molecular formula C3H8 ,so its Empirical formula is also C3H8

 Glucose has Molecular formula C6 H12 O6 ,so Empirical formula is CH2O

(Divide by the smallest number and must get whole number ratio)

137
3. Fully displayed formula:

Only type of formula showing all the atoms and all the bonds

 Ethane has molecular formula C2H6 fully displayed formula Ethane

Structural formula Shows how the atoms are bonded together

CH3—CH3 or CH3CH3
 Ethene has molecular formula C2 H4. The fully displayed formula of Ethene

Structural formula

Molecular formula : Molecular formula :

Empirical formula :

How to name an Organic compound?

First part of the name: Refers to the length of Carbon chain .
The number of carbon atoms in the longest carbon chain.

No of Carbon atoms in the chain

1C C Meth
2C C—C Eth
3C C—C—C Prop
4C C—C—C—C But
5 C C―C―C―C―C Pent
6 C C―C―C―C―C―C Hex

Second part of the name (Name ending) indicates the type of the compound.

Organic compounds are studied in Families called Homologous series.

To which family does the organic compound belongs?

138
Alkanes
a. Composed of Carbon and Hydrogen atoms only

b. All the bonds are single covalent bonds (No double bonds)

c. Alkanes have characteristic name ending ane

What is the name of the following compounds?

Name: Methane Name: Propane (3C =Prop + Alkane)

Alkenes another organic compound family

a. Composed of C and H only

b. Alkenes must have C═C Carbon double bond carbon c=c is called functional group

c. Alkenes have characteristic name ending ene

What is the name of the following compounds?

Name: Ethene Name: Propene

4 C + Alkene (C=C), so you have to determine position of C=C

Position of C = C
Any carbon chain must have a start and an end.

They are not the same compound as there is difference in position of C=C.

Start numbering the Carbon Chain from the side near to C=C to give the smallest number

1 2 3 1 2 3
Here we start numbering from Left side as close to C=C, Here the C=C is in the middle,

So position of C=C the First bond so position of C=C is the Second bond

Name: But-1-ene or Butene Name: But-2-ene

139
 3 2 1
Here we must start numbering from Right side as close to C=C, so position of C=C is first bond

Name: But-1-ene or Butene.

Alcohols
a. Alcohols have O—H Functional Group. OH

b. Alcohols have name ending anol.

What is the name of the following compounds?

Name: Ethanol Name : Butanol

Isomerism
What is the Definition of Isomers:

Isomers are compounds having same molecular formula but different displayed or structural formula
(Same number of atoms but different structures)

Alkane Butane Straight chain Alkane Branched

Molecular formula C4H10 Also molecular formula C4H10

These two compounds are isomers as they have same molecular formula but different displayed formula

But-1-ene But-2-ene Different position of C=C

Structural isomers same molecular formula C4H8 but different structural formula

140
Homologous Series:
Organic compounds are studied in families called Homologous Series

Definition of a Homologous series:

Group of organic compounds with same chemical properties due to presence of same functional group

Examples: Alkanes, Alkenes, Alcohols, Carboxylic acids ,and Esters

Functional Group :group of atoms in any molecule which give its chemical properties

For example: C=C Functional group of Alkenes.

Functional group of Alcohols.

Functional group of Carboxylic acids

Functional group of esters

Characteristics of any homologous series:

 Each member has same functional group

 Each member has same chemical properties

 Each member has same general formula (Can be represented by a general formula)

 Each member differs from the next by CH2 group

 Trend in physical properties between successive members

Alkanes
 Alkanes are family of Hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds contain Carbon and Hydrogen atoms Only

 Alkanes are Saturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated: means all the bonds are Single bonds No double bonds , No C = C in Alkanes

 General formula of Alkanes: Showing ratio of Carbon atoms to Hydrogen atoms

C n H 2n+2
n = number of Carbon atoms 2n+2 = number of Hydrogen atoms

How can you predict the Molecular formula of Alkanes using general formula Cn H2n + 2

 For example if 3 Carbon atoms are present, what is the number of Hydrogen atoms?

C n H 2n+2
n=③ 2x3+2 =⑧ ,

So The Molecular Formula of 3 Carbon Alkane is C3 H8.

 The Molecular formula of 7 Carbon atoms Alkane is C7H16.

141
How to know if this compound is an Alkane or not? Use CnH2n+2

C17 H36 is an Alkane or not? n=17 2x17 +2=36 Yes It is an Alkane as fits the general formula of Alkanes

C12 H24 is an Alkane or not?

n=12 2x12+2=26 Not it is not an Alkane, because if 12 C atoms present so the number of H has to be 26.

 Alkanes have name ending ane. Any Alkane ends with ane. Decane is an Alkane since ends with ane.

Members of Alkanes:
Hints on drawing Structural formula of Alkanes: Draw Carbon chain first and then complete with H atoms. Remember: each Carbon
atom has four single covalent bonds. All bonds are single bonds.

1 C Alkane Molecular formula : CH4

Methane
Displayed formula:

2 C Alkane Molecular formula : C2 H6

Ethane
Displayed formula: showing all bonds

Structural formula:
CH3CH3
3 C Alkane Molecular formula : C3 H8
Propane
Displayed formula:

Structural formula:
CH3CH2CH3
4C Alkane Molecular formula : C4 H10
Butane
Displayed formula:

Structural formula:
CH3CH2 CH2CH3
5C Alkane Molecular formula : C5H12

Pentane Displayed formula

Structural formula:
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
142
 Draw the displayed formula for two isomers with Molecular formula C4H10

Chain of 4 Carbon atoms Continuous chain :Butane Branched Alkane

 Draw the displayed formula for three isomers with Molecular formula C5H12

Pentane branched branched

Chemical reactions of Alkanes:

1. Combustion of Alkanes.= Burning in Air
a) Complete combustion of Alkanes in presence of Excess of air Blue flame

Alkane + Oxygen (excess) → Carbon dioxide + Water

All Alkanes burn in air, if there is enough of air they are completely burned to give Carbon Dioxide gas CO2 (g) and
Water (H2O).It is an exothermic reaction with release of heat energy. Also it is an example of Redox reaction.

Complete Combustion of MethaneCH4 (g)

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→ CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

Hints on Balancing of Burning Equations:

1. Startwith balancing (C) Carbon atoms.

2. Then Balance (H) Hydrogen atoms.

3. Count the number of (O) Oxygen atoms in the Right side (products side )

4. Then Divide this number by two to balance the number of Oxygen atoms in the Left

Complete burning of Ethane C2H6 (g)

C2H6 (g) + 3½ O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)

Other examples of complete combustion reactions of Alkanes:

C5H12 + 8O2 → 5CO2 + 6H2O

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b ) Incomplete Combustion of Alkanes Yellow flame

Alkane + Oxygen (limited) → Carbon monoxide + Water

If there is not enough air, there is incomplete combustion

Carbon Monoxide gas CO (g) is produced and water.

Incomplete Combustion of Methane

CH4 (g) + 1½O2 (g) → CO (g) + 2H2O (g) X 2

Carbon Monoxide CO (g) is Colourless, Odourless and is very poisonous (Toxic)

Why is incomplete combustion of Alkanes dangerous? Or Why CO is a toxic gas ?

Carbon monoxide gas decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, because CO binds to
Haemoglobin(Haemoglobin is an Oxygen carrier)and so prevents Oxygen from reaching the cells causing Death.

 Incomplete combustion of Alkanes may produce Black substance (soot) which is Carbon

2. Reaction with Halogens (e.g. Cl2 )

 The type of this reaction is called Substitution Reaction

 Condition for this reaction : Ultra-Violet U.V radiation (Sun light).

 What occurs in the reaction between Alkanes and Cl2? (What is meant by substitution reaction?)
Hydrogen atom in the Alkane is replaced by a Chlorine atom.

Methane + Chlorine (Cl2):

Methane + Chlorine Chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

CH4+Cl2 →CH3Cl + HCl

Ethane + Chlorine: →Choloroethane+ Hydrogen chloride

C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl

Methane + Bromine Bromomethane Hydrogen bromide

CH4 + Br2 → CH3 Br + HBr

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Uses of Alkanes:
1. Alkanes are used as Fuels

Source of Alkanes: Alkanes are extracted from Crude oil

 Methane CH4 (g) is the major component of Natural gas.

2. Alkanes are used in manufacture of Alkenes through process called Cracking, where long chain Alkanes are
breakdown by the action of heat to shorter chain Alkanes and alkenes.

Alkenes
 Alkenes are Hydrocarbons (composed of C and H only )

 Alkenes are Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Unsaturated means: molecule contains (Carbon to Carbon double bond).C=C

 C ═ C is the functional group of Alkenes

 Alkenes have name ending ene

 General formula of Alkenes

Cn H2n
n= no of Carbon atoms 2n= no of Hydrogen atoms

If ②Carbon atoms are present, the no of Hydrogen atoms 2x 2=④

 In Alkene, number of Hydrogen atoms is double the number of Carbon atoms.

 All Alkenes have Empirical formula CH2, because the ratio of C: H is 1:2

 Hexene is an alkene. Its molecules contain 6 carbon atoms. Predict the molecular formula of Hexene→ C6H12

 Like any other homologous series, the difference between two consecutive members is CH2.

 unsaturated, because they contain a C=C double bond, which means that they have two fewer hydrogen
atoms than the corresponding Alkane

Members of Alkene :
Hints on drawing structural formula of Alkenes:

 Start with the double bond (C=C) and finally complete with the rest of carbon chain and needed
number of H atoms for each carbon.

 Starting from 4C ,you have determine the position of C=C

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2C Alkene Molecular formula : C2H4

Ethene Displayed formula:

First alkene as

No 1 C alkene

Structural formula:

CH2 = CH2
3C Alkene Molecular formula : C3 H6

Propene Displayed formula:

Structural formula:

CH2 = CHCH3
4C Alkene Molecular formula : C4 H8
Starting from 4C Displayed formula:
Determine position of C = C

But-1-ene
C = C is 1st bond
Structural formula:

CH2= CHCH2CH3
But-2-ene
Molecular formula : C4 H8
C = C is 2nd bond

(C=C in the middle)

Structural formula:

CH3CH=CHCH3

Draw the structural formula of three isomers with molecular formula C4H8

Position of C=C is the 1st bond But-1-ene C=C: is the 2nd bond But-2-ene Branched

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 Isomers
Reactions of Alkenes : Alkenes are more reactive than Alkanes
1. Burning of Alkenes: similar to Alkanes, Complete Burning of Ethene:

C2 H4(g)+ 3O2(g)→ 2CO2(g)+ 2H2O(g)

Incomplete burning of Ethene

C2 H4(g)+ 2O2(g)→ 2CO (g)+ 2H2O(g)

2. Addition reactions .Alkenes undergo addition reaction (type of reaction of Alkenes) double bond is broken
(C=C is changed to C―C) and the electrons are used to join other atoms onto the two carbon atoms.

Addition reaction is where only one product is produced.

 Addition of Bromine Br2:

Ethene + Bromine

Ethene Bromine Dibromo Ethane

(Orange) (Colourless)

C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2

C=C is broken and Two bromine atoms are added to each of Carbon atoms on either side of double bond.

 Only one product is produced which is dibromo Ethane Di bromo means presence of two bromine atoms.

 Observation: Bromine water changes colour from Orange to Colourless(Bromine water is decolourised)

Ethene→ unsaturated Dibromo ethane→saturated

Chemical test for Alkenes

decolourised

Test : Addtion of bromine water Result : Bromine water changes from Orange to colourless

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 Test to differeanate between Alkane and Alkene (both are Hydrocarbons) .

 Addtion of Bromine water

 Alkanedoes not react with bromine water (as no C=C ,No addtion reaction) colour remains orange

 Alkenereacts with bromine (addtion reaction) bromine water turns from orange to colourless

C3H6 + Br2 C3H6Br2

Alkene

Alkene + halogen → addition reaction(only one product)

u.v radiation
C3H8 + Br2 C3H7Br + HBr

Alkane

Alkane + halogen → Substitution reaction (Two products) Condition: U.V radiation

Hydrocarbon and Saturated

Molecular formula : C4H8 Empirical formula : CH2 General formula : CnH2n (similar to Alkenes)

Draw the displayed formula of two isomers for the above organic compound

Cracking of Alkanes
What is meant by Cracking?
 Cracking is the decomposition of large Alkane by heat into smaller Alkane and Alkene
Cracking is an example of Thermal decomposition reaction
Cracking produces a mixture of Alkanes and Alkenes (NOT a single product)

Conditions of Cracking:

1. High temperature 600-700 °C

2. Presence of a Catalyst: Aluminum oxide Al2O3(Alumnia)or Silicon dioxide SiO2 ( Silica )

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Examples of cracking equations:

 C8H18 → C2H4 + ………………

Subtract 2C from 8Cand 4H from 18H

C12H26 →2…………+ C6H14

Crude oil ‫الخام الي بستخرجه من االرض‬

What is Crude oil ?

It is a finite (limited ) Non-renewable energy source ‫مصدر للطاقه‬

What is the chemical composition of Crude oil ?

Crude oil is Mixtrue of Satruated Hydrocarbons (homologous series : Alkanes)

How are the properties of Hydrocarbons change with molecule size ?

As the molecules get bigger (greater no of carbon atoms in the molecule = longer carbon chain ) ,

the forces of attraction between molecules(intermolecular forces) get stronger ‫كل لما بكبربكون اقوي‬

As the number of carbon atoms increases : as a result

1. Boling point increases. 2. The liquid becomes more Viscous (do not flow easily ). 3. Colour darkens

4 .The liquids become less flammable ,Bigger hydrocarbons do no burn easily

So smaller hydrocarbons are more flammable so more useful as fuels
5. The liquids becomes less voltalite
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Fractional distillation of Crude oil
 Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into simpler, more useful products called fractions

The hydrocarbons of crude oil are separated by Fractional Distillation accordindg to difference in boiling points

As you go down :

the number of Carbon atoms increases ,boiling point increases, more viscous ,darker colour , less flammable

 Crude oil is heated untill vaporisation • Vapour rises up the column

 The column is hotter at the bottom and cooler at the top (temperature gradient at the column)

 Fractions condense (or collected) when temperature in the column is lower than their boiling point
Liquid Boiling point Gas

 liquids are led out of the column at different heights due to difference in B.Ps

 Heavier fractions (bigger molecules ) with high boiling points collected near the bottom of the column

 Lighter fractions (smaller molecules ) with lower boling points collected near the top of the column.

 The fraction with lowest boiling point is Refinery gases

Refinery gases is only fraction which is Gas

Refinery gases is mixture of smaller hydrocarbons.(mixture of Methane ,Ethane ,Propane ,Butane)

 The fraction with highest boiling point is Bitumen

 The most viscous fraction is Bitumen. • The fraction with darkest colour is Bitumen

Compare between Gasoline and Diesel regarding chain length, boiling point, viscosity, colour and flammability

 Diesel has longer carbon chain than Gasoline

 Diesel has higher boiling point than Gasoline

 Diesel is more viscous than Gasoline

 Diesel is darker than Gasoline

 Gasoline is more flammable than Diesel

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 Why is Cracking useful in oil industry ?
1. Cracking produces smaller (or shorter chain )hydrocarbon molecules

smaller molecules are more useful as fuels. Smaller molecules are used to make more petrol

3. Surplus of long chain hydrocarbons ‫زياده عن الالزم‬

Greater demand for smaller (short chain) hydrocarbons.

Lower demand fractions are converted into higher demand fractions.

Much more cars than buses

4. Cracking produces alkenes

Alkenes are used to make plastics and alcohols

Polymers

Polymer is a long chain molecule formed from many small molecules called monomers joined together.

 Polymerisation :Is the process where many small molecules (monomer)s are joined together to form a long
chain molecule (polymer).

Types of Polymerisation :
1. Addtion Polymerisation → form Addtion polymers

2. Condensation Polymerisation→form condensation polymers.

Addtion Polymerisation :
 Only one product is produced in the reaction which is the polymer

 Monomers must contain C=C (Monomers are unsaturated ). Alkenesundergo addtion polymerisation.

 Only one type of monomer

―A―A―A―A―A―A― A= monomer

How an addtion polymer is formed from its monomers ?

1. double bond is broken (double bond becomes single bond)

2. many monomers join together to form long chain molecule

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Examples of Addtion Polymerisation :
1. Addtion Polymerisation of Ethene :

lots of Ethene molecules (monomers) are joined together where double bond is broken and neighbouring
molecules are joined to form large molecule called Poly(Ethene) (polymer)

What 2 changes occurs in addtion polymerisation of Ethene

1. double bond becomes single bond

2. many Ethene monomers join together to form a long chain

Monomer: Ethene (g) Polymer: Poly (ethene) (s) Repeated unit of Poly(ethene)

n= represents a large number The structure in the brackets repeats itself many times .

 Monomer has C=C Unsaturated •Polymer do not have C=C saturated

Ethane does not undergo addtion polymeriation

Crude oil → Ethene → Poly(ethene )

𝐂𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐀𝐝𝐝𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐦𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Uses of Poly(ethene) : Plastic bags.

2. Addtion Polymerisation of Chloroethene

monomer:Chloroethene Polymer : Poly(chloroethene Repeated unit of Poly(chloroethene)

Draw three repeated units for Poly(chloroethene)

Uses of Poly(chloroethene): Electric insulator and drain pipes

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3. Addtion Polymerisation of Tetraflouro Ethene C2F4

Monomer: Tetraflouro Ethene Polymer: Poly(tetraflouroethene) Repeated unit of Poly(tetraflouroethene)

Uses of Poly(tetraflouroethene) : non sticky frying pans

4. Addtion Polymerisation of Propene CH2=CH―CH3

It is easier to draw the strucrue of monomers in this shape Propene ‫الزم رسمه الكرسي‬

Monomer :Propene Poly(propene) Repeated unit of Poly(propene)

Uses of Poly(propene) : plastic bottles

Working out the monomer for a given addtion polymer

How to draw the structrue of Monomer from part of Addtion Polymer ?

1. change single bond to double bond .

2. Remove the bonds from ends

Part of Poly(sytrene )addtion polymer showing repeated units

1. How many repeated units in this part of poly)styrene(?

One Repeated unit

5 repeated units

2. Draw the strucrue formula of the monomer

monomer : Styrene

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Part of an addtion polymer showing a repeated unit

Identify The monomer

Name :But-2-ene

Properties of Polymers :
1. Flexible and Easily moulded : plastic can be shaped

2. Low denisty ,Lighter than metalsand easy and cheap to transport

3. Electrical insulator : poor conductor of electricity

plugs and socket are made of plastic to prevent electric shock

4. Do not corrode and are unreactive

5. Non toxic ,safe to use with food (does not react with food)

6. Water resistant and water proof

7. Non biodegradable
What is meant by the term “non- biodegradable’ ?

Not decomposed by microrganisms (do not decay) as it is inert.

Problems in waste disposal of polymers:

1. Burning : produces toxic gases such as Carbon monoxide CO (g)

2. Accumulation in landfill sites ‫ ( مكان دفن القمامه‬as they are non-biodegradable )

Remains in landfill sites (landfill sites are getting full) (Landfill takes up space)

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 ②Alcohols
 Alcohols are compounds with the ―OH functional group

Name Displayed formula

Methanol

Structural formula: CH3OH

Ethanol
C2H6 O or C2H5OH

Structural formula : CH3CH2OH

Propanol or Propan-1-ol

Structural formula : CH3CH2CH2OH

Butanol

Structural formula: CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

 Alcohols are saturated compounds as all the bonds are single bonds.

 Alcohols are not hydrocarbons as alcohols contain oxygen atom

②EthanolC2H6 O can be oxidised by :

1. Ethanol burn in air to form Carbon dioxide and water(Complete combustion of ethanol)

C2H6O + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

2. Ethanol react with oxygen in air to form Ethanoic acid

3. Heating with Potassium dichromate(VI) in presence of dilute sulfuric acid to form ethanoic acid

Observation : Colour changes from Orange to green

②Methods of Preparation of Ethanol C2H6 O or C2H5OH

1. Fermentation 2. Hydration of Ethene (addition of steam to Ethene)

1. Fermentation What is Fermentation process?

Process through which Ethanol is produced from Sugar solution (Glucose) in the presence of Yeast

 Raw material from which sugar is obtained : sugar cane

 Role of yeast : Yeast provides Enzymes which are catalyst

• Conditions: Temperature 30 °C, and absence of air (anaerobic respiration )

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Equation of Fermentation:

C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
Glucose aqueous solution aqueous ethanol + Carbon dioxide gas

 Products of Fermentation of Glucose are Ethanol and Carbon dioxide.

 Fermentation is a slow process• Fermentation is an Exothermic reaction

 The fermentation mixture contains yeast and insoluble impurities which are separated through Filtration

 Aqueous ethanol (ethanol + water) is purified to obtain pure ethanol through Fractional distillation this takes
advantage of the difference in boiling point between water and ethanol. Main impurity is water

 Why fermentation stops after a period of time?

All glucose is used up Enzymes of the yeast are denatured by high temperature

 Why is fermentation done in absence of air ?

If air is present , ethanol will react with oxygen in air and oxidised to form ethanoic acid

 How can you know that fermentation has stopped ?

No more bubbles are seen

 Why 30 °C is used in fermentation ?

it is an optimum temperature for the reaction
>30 °C higher temperature denatures the enzymes of yeast and so slows down the reaction
<30 °C lower temperature slow rate of reaction

 Advantages of producing Ethanol by fermentation

1. Uses renewable resources. The starting material used is sugar C6H12O6 which is available by agriculture

2. Low temperature and Pressure (Low energy costs)

 Disadvantages of producing Ethanol by Fermentation

1. Slow process 2. Produces impure ethanol

2. Hydration of Ethene : Addition reaction of Steam (H-OH) + Ethene to form Ethanol

Alkenes undergo an addition reaction with water in the presence of a catalyst to form an Alcohol.

Double bond changes to single bond. Carbon atom is attached to H and the other Carbon is attached to OH

C2H6O
Conditions of Hydration of Ethene reaction :
1. Phosphoric acid as a catalyst 2. Temperature 300 °C. 3. Pressure 65 atm

156
 Advantages of making Ethanol from hydration of Ethene over fermentation

1. Faster process 2. Produces purer Ethanol

 Disadvantages of making Ethanol from hydration of Ethene

1. Use of non renewable resources .

Source of Ethene is Cracking of Crude oil (finite nonrenewable).

2. Need higher temperature and pressure

Fermentation Ethene + Steam

Raw materials Renewable resources Non renewable resources
Use Catalyst Yes (Yeast) Yes (Phosphoric acid )
Rate Slower Faster
Conditions Lower temperature and pressure Higher temperature and pressure
Purity of Ethanol Impure ethanol Purer ethanol

Dehydration of Alcohols : dehydration → removal of water

The OH group is removed together with H from the carbon atom next door.

Ethanol can be dehydrated to make Ethene double bond is formed

H removed OH removed

②Carboxylic acids

 Functional group of Carboxylic acid is • Carboxylic acids have anoic acid name ending

Name Displayed formula

1C
Methanoic acid

Structural formula HOOH

2C
Ethanoic acid
 Vinegar is an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid
Structural formula CH3COOH

3C
Propanoic acid

Structural formula CH3CH2COOH

4C
Butanoic acid

Structural formula CH3CH2CH2COOH

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②Reactions of Carboxylic acids :

―COO H→ ―COO metal

Acid Salt

1. Metal + Carboxylic acid → Salt + Hydrogen

2K(s) + 2HCOOH (aq) 2HCOOK(aq) + H2(g)

2. Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Na2CO3 + 2CH3COOH 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

②Reaction between Alcohols and Carboxylic acids

Alcohol +Carboxylic acid → Ester + Water

New Homologous series

The functional groups of Alcohol OH and COOH Carboxylic acid preferred to be opposite to each other

This reaction involves loss of a Water molecule. (H from Alcohol and O―H from Carboxylic acid)

Ethanol + Ethanoic acid

+
― H alcohol ― OH acid

+ H2O

Alcohol part Acid part Contains

2C= Eth 2C = Eth

Alcohol parts ends yl Acid parts ends with anoate

Start the name with the alcohol part

Name of Ester : Ethyl Ethanoate

 Condtions of the reaction between Alcohols and Carboxylic acids:
Concentrated Sulphuric acid as a Catalyst

158
 Ester have distinctive smell and are volatile (evaporate easily at room temperature)

And so Esters are Used in perfumes

• Functional group of Ester :

Ethanoic acid and Propanol: 2C = Ethanoate 3C = Propyl

+
Ethanoic acid Propanol Propyl Ethanoate + Water

Butanol + Propanoic acid → Butyl Propanoate + Water

What is the name of the following Esters ?

Butanoate Ethyl Propanoate Methyl

Ethyl Butanoate Methyl Propanoate

Alcohol : Ethanol and Carboxylic acid : Butanoic acid Alcohol : Methanol and Carboxylic acid : Propanoic acid

Ethyl Ethanoate Propyl Ethanoate

Alcohol : Ethanol Carboxylic acid : Ethanoic acid Alcohol : Propanol Carboxylic acid : Ethanoic acid

159
  CH3CH2COOCH3
Acid part contains C=O Alcohol part

3C = Propanoate 1C= methyl

Name : Methyl Propanoate

 HCOOCH2CH2CH2CH3
Name : Butyl Methanoate

②Condensation Polymerisation :
 Small molecule such as water is formed with the polymer
Polymer + Water are formed .

 Instead of one type of monomer like addtion polymerisation . you have two types of
monomers joined alternatively .
And each time two monomers combine a small molecule which is water is lost

Dicarboxylic acid diol 2 different monomers

Repeated unit of Polyester

: Can be decomposed by microorganisms

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