Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

 History of Chemistry
1. John Dalton
2. J.J. Thomson
3. Robert Millikan
4. Ernest Rutherford
• Law of conservation of mass:
• In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
• Law of definite proportions:
• All samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how they were
prepared have the same proportions of their constituent elements.
• A sample of pure water always contains an oxygen:hydrogen mass ratio of 8:1.
• Law of multiple proportions:
• When two elements (call them A and B) form two different compounds, the
masses of element B that combine with 1 g of element A can be expressed as
a ratio of small whole numbers.
• Compare mass ratio of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (both are
composed of the same two elements: carbon and oxygen).
Mass oxygen to 1 g carbon in carbon dioxide 2.67
• = =2
Mass oxygen to 1 g carbon in carbon monoxide 1.33
John Dalton
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Each element is composed of tiny indestructible particles called
atoms
2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass and other
properties that distinguish them from the atoms of other
elements
3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form
compounds
4. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction
J.J. Thomson - Cathode Ray Tube
J.J. Thomson - Cathode Ray Tube
• Developed the Cathode Ray Tube
• A cathode ray tube sealed glass tube (air pumped out) with two metal
electrodes.
• A visible beam (cathode ray) is observed.
• The cathode ray deflects towards the positively charged electrode and away
from the negatively charge electrode.
• Observed that an electron carried a negative electrical charge and a low mass
particle that was present within all atoms.
• Discovery of an electron
Robert A. Millikan – Oil Drop Experiment
Robert A. Millikan
• Oil Drop Experiment
• Microscopic oil droplets were electrically charged
• Adjusted electric field strength to determine the charge of the individual
droplets
• Discovered the charge of an electron using the oil drop experiment.
Charge of an electron = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶
• Mass of an electron calculated
1 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 × = 9.107 × 10 −31 𝑘𝑔
1.759 × 1011 𝐶
Structure of Atom (Incorrect)

Thomson: plum pudding Nagaoka: planet Saturn

Ernest Rutherford – Gold Foil Scattering Experiment
Hans Geiger and Others
Ernest Rutherford – Alpha Particles
Hans Geiger and others
• Gold Foil Experiment
• Positively charged alpha particles (two protons and two neutrons) beam is
aimed towards a very thin piece of gold foil.
• Most particles passed through the foil, but some deflected.
• Concluded: atom must have a large amount of empty space and there
must be a small, heavy, positively charged nucleus at the center of an
atom. Nucleus consists of a positively charged proton.
Other Discoveries:
• Isotopes: atoms of the same element that differ in mass
• Neutrons: uncharged, subatomic particles, with a mass approximately
the same as protons
• The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass.
• Protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons.
• Diameter of the nucleus is about 100,000 smaller
than the diameter of the atom
Links to videos:
• J. J. Thomson: https://youtu.be/IdTxGJjA4Jw?si=y3yObQpAED7YQ_Ra
• Millikan: https://youtu.be/UFiPWv03f6g?si=mesF-ubh2D07Z9hL
• Rutherford: https://youtu.be/wzALbzTdnc8?si=SZNNILhkgoYscFhi
Top Hat
Atoms and Molecules
Atoms and Molecules
• Atom: smallest identifiable unit of an element

• Molecule: two or more atoms joined by strong forces called chemical bonds
How do we describe and measure tiny
objects?
Atomic mass unit (amu)
• Carbon−12 (12C) is the most abundant natural carbon isotope
the mass of 1 atom of 12𝐶
• 1 amu =
12
• (Atomic mass of 12C = 12 amu)
• 1 amu = 1.67377x10-27 kg

Fundamental unit of charge ( e )

e = 1.602 × 10–19 C
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Proton
• Mass = 1.0073 amu
• Charge = +1

Neutron
• Mass = 1.0087 amu (slightly
heavier than a proton)
• Charge = 0

Electron
• Mass = 0.00055 amu
• Charge = –1
Atomic Number
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
• Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
• A – Z = number of neutrons
Chemical Symbols
Abbreviation of the element or an atom of an element
Ion
• Ion: atom electrically charged
Ion charge = number of protons – number of electrons

• Cation: atom loses one or more electrons, has a positive charge

• Ex. Na+
• Anion: atom that gains one or more electrons, has a negative charge
• Ex. Cl-
Isotopes
Isotopes
• Atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers
• In other words, the nuclei have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons
Isotopes
Hydrogen exists as a mixture of three isotopes
Symbol Atomic Number of Number of Mass (amu) % Natural
Number Protons Neutrons Abundance

1
1H
1 1 0 1.0078 99.989
(protium)

2
1H
1 1 1 2.0141 0.0115
(deuterium)

3
1H
1 1 2 3.01605 trace
(tritium)
Top Hat
Atomic Mass
average mass = å( fractional abundance ´ isotopic mass)
i i

• For example, the element boron is composed of two isotopes:

• 19.9% 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu
• 80.1% 11B with a mass of 11.0093 amu

boron average mass

= (0.199 ´ 10.0129 amu) + (0.801 ´ 11.0093 amu)
= 10.81 amu
Isotope Question

What is the average mass of Ru?

The Periodic Table
Dimitri Mendeleev
The Periodic Table
• Dimitri Mendeleev: periodic relationship among the properties of the
elements
• Arranged table by increasing atomic weight
• Predicted likely properties of potential elements
• Founder of the periodic law

• Periodic Law:
• The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers

• A modern periodic table

• Increasing order of their atomic numbers and groups atoms with similar properties in
the same vertical column
• Periods or series: horizontal rows
• Groups: vertical columns (numbered 1–18)
 Metals Metalloids Nonmetals
Solid at room temp Properties of both Can be solid, liquid or
(except mercury) metals and nonmetals gas
Shiny Shiny Dull
Malleable Brittle Brittle
Good conductors Semiconductor Insulator
Tend to lose electrons Tend to gain electrons
Ductile

Examples: Cu, Au Ge, Si O, He

(or representative elements)

Inner transition metals

Top Hat
 Chemical Formulas
A chemical formula is used to represent a compound
Chemical Formula
Hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 2:1 ratio
Changing a Subscript Makes a Totally
Different Compound

CO CO2
- 1:1 carbon and oxygen - 1:2 carbon and oxygen
- Carbon monoxide - Carbon dioxide
- Air pollutant - Product of respiration and
- Poisonous to humans combustion
- Breathed in regularly with no
ill effects
Methane Molecule
Examples of Empirical vs. Molecular Formula
• Example: benzene
• Molecular formula = C6H6 Empirical formula = CH

• Example: acetic acid

• Molecular formula = C2H4O2 Empirical formula = CH2O
Empirical Formula vs. Molecular Formula
• Empirical formula: simplest whole-number ratio of the number of
atoms (or ions) in the compound.

• Molecular formula: the actual numbers of atoms of each element in

a molecule of the compound.
Ionic and Molecular
Compounds
Molecular Elements
Molecular Elements
• Diatomic Molecules: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
• Polyatomic Molecules: P4, S8, Se8
Molecular Compounds Ionic Compounds
Compounds May Be Molecular or Ionic
• Molecular compounds (covalent compounds)
• Compounds formed from two or more nonmetals.
• The basic units of molecular compounds are molecules composed of the
constituent atoms
• NO IONS PRESENT

• Ionic compounds
• Contain one or more cations paired with one or more anions.
• In most cases, the cations are metals, and the anions are nonmetals.
Ion
• Ion: atom electrically charged
Ion charge = number of protons – number of electrons

• Cation: atom loses one or more electrons, has a positive charge

• Ex. Na+
• Anion: atom that gains one or more electrons, has a negative charge
• Ex. Cl-
Na atom Na+ ion
Cations: Losing Electrons
• Neutral Lithium: 3 protons and 3 electrons.
• Reaction:
Li → Li+ + e−
• The Li+ ion with 3 protons and 2 electrons
ion charge = 3 - 2 = +1
Anions: Gaining Electrons
• Neutral Fluorine: 9 protons and 9 electrons.
• Reaction:
F + e− → F −
• The F- ion contains 9 protons and 10 electrons
Ion charge= 9-10 = -1
Figure 2.29: Some elements exhibit a regular
pattern of ionic charge when they form ions.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature Using the Flowchart
 Ionic
Metal and nonmetal
Use the Charge on One Ion as the Subscript
on the Other Ion

Aluminum Oxide Oxomagnesium

Mg2O2 simplifies
to MgO
 1. Binary Ionic Compounds with Metal of
Invariant Charge
• Binary compounds: compounds which contain only two different elements

Example:

sodium “chlor” + “ide”

**Since the charge of the metal is always the same for these types of compounds,
it need not be specified in the compound’s name.
Some Common Anions

You should remember these!

Practice Naming Binary Compounds With
Metals of Fixed Charge
NaI

KBr

MgF2

MgO
 2. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with
Metal Whose Charge May Vary
• If the charge on the metal is not the same throughout all compounds:
- specify the charge with Roman numeral in parentheses
-ex: Cu+ is named Copper(I)
-ex: Cu2+ Copper(II)

- so CuO would be copper (II) oxide

 Determining Charge of Metals from Ionic Formula

What is the charge of iron cation in FeCl3?

Total charge = total anion charge + total cation charge = 0

0 = 3(-1) + (charge of Fe)
0 = -3 + (charge of Fe)
Charge of Fe = +3
 Determining Charge of Metals from Ionic Formula

What is the charge of the cation in HgO?

Total charge = total anion charge + total cation charge = 0

0 = -2 + (charge of Hg)
Charge of Hg = +2
 Determining Charge of Metals from Ionic Formula

What is the charge of the cation in SnS2?

Total charge = total anion charge + total cation charge = 0

0 = 2(-2) + (charge of Sn)
0 = -4 + (charge of Sn)
Charge of Sn = +4
Figure 2.29: Some elements exhibit a regular
pattern of ionic charge when they form ions.
Some Metals That Form Multiple Ions
Question

Cu2O

HgO

FeI2

SnS2
 Polyatomic Ions
ions that are composed of a group of atoms with an overall
charge
Polyatomic ions in chemical formulas
• Polyatomic ions: groups of atoms have a charge associated with them

• The formula Mg(NO3)2 has the following numbers of each type of atom
• Mg: 1 Mg
• N: 1x2 = 2 N
• O: 3x2=6 O
Writing Formulas for Compounds with
Polyatomic Ions

Table 2.5 You should remember these!

Polyatomic Ions
• See list on Canvas
 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing
Oxyanions
Oxyanions: anions containing oxygen

NO3− nitrate
NO2− nitrite
SO42− sulfate
SO32− sulfite
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Halo-
Oxyanions
ClO– hypochlorite BrO– hypobromite IO– hypoiodite

ClO2– chlorite BrO2– bromite IO2– iodite

ClO3– chlorate BrO3– bromate IO3– iodate

ClO4– Perchlorate BrO4– perbromate IO4– periodate

Naming Ionic Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
KNO3

Fe(OH)2

NH4NO3
 Polyatomic Ions in Everyday Chemistry
• Sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl: Household
bleach
• Acts to destroy color-causing molecules and kill
bacteria
• Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3: Baking soda
• Acts as a source of carbon dioxide gas in
baking.
• Calcium carbonate, CaCO3: Antacids such
as Tums and Alka-Mints
• Neutralizes stomach acids
• Sodium nitrite, NaNO3: Meat preservative
• Inhibits the growth of bacteria, especially those
that cause botulism
Top Hat
Molecular Compounds
Nonmetals only
Naming Molecular Compounds
 Prefixes Used when Naming Molecular
Compounds
Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1 (sometimes omitted)
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Memorize! Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10
Exceptions for Naming Molecular Compounds
• CO2 mono carbon di- ox -ide
• N2O (also called laughing gas): dinitrogen monoxide
 Acids
(in aqueous solution)
H and one or more nonmetals
Naming Acids
Acids: molecular compounds that form ions when dissolved in water

contain only hydrogen and contain hydrogen, a

a nonmetal nonmetal, and oxygen
 1. Binary Acids

HCl(aq) is hydrochloric acid.

HBr(aq) is hydrobromic acid.
 2. Oxyacids

The names of acids containing oxyanions ending with -ite take this form:

The names of acids containing oxyanions ending with -ate take this form:
 Oxyacids
• HNO3(aq) : [nitrate (NO3−) ion] = nitric acid
• H2SO4(aq) : [sulfate (SO42−) ion] = sulfuric acid
• H2SO3(aq) : [sulfite (SO32−) ion] = sulfurous acid
Names of Some Common Oxyacids and
Their Oxyanions

Nitric acid, HNO3

Nomenclature Using the Flowchart
Top Hat