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INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2010: Volume I
LATE PERIOD AND GRAECO-ROMAN PERIOD
Ladislav Bare‰
The shaft tomb of Menekhibnekau at Abusir 1
Abstract: The tomb of Menekhibnekau is the third largest Late Period shaft
tomb excavated at the necropolis at Abusir so far. Although it seems to be
contemporary with the neighbouring structures of Udjahorresnet and Iufaa, it
shows some differences in its orientation, arrangement of its subterranean
layout and its decoration and texts. Judging from the tiny remnants of its
superstructure (for the most part destroyed by later stone-cutting), the tomb
of Menekhibnekau might have been the most magnificent structure of its kind
within the entire cemetery; that corresponds to the number and importance of
his titles and offices. In spite of the fact that its burial chamber had already
been robbed in antiquity, several items of the original burial equipment and
other artefacts have been found here.
Keywords: Abusir – Late Period – Shaft Tomb – Menekhibnekau.

Louis Chaix
Cattle skulls (bucrania): A universal symbol all around the world. The case of Kerma
(Sudan) 7
Abstract: Skulls of cattle or bucrania are widely represented in various contexts all
around the world. In different modern populations, bucrania are often linked to
the funeral world as a symbol of the power of death. In the past, bucrania were
used since Neolithic times in funerary or religious/symbolic contexts. In Africa,
since the Early Neolithic period, bucrania are attested in high numbers from
Kerma culture cemeteries, a fact which indicates the economic and religious
importance of the cattle. In some particular tombs more than 5,000 bucrania were
found. Their importance is also known from Ancient Egypt and from some
Saqqara tombs. Some bucrania are artificially deformed, with parallel horns,
similar to some pictures found in the Saharan rock-art. This artificial
modification of horns continues to be practiced by modern tribes from the
southern Sudan, testifying to a long and living tradition.
Keywords: Asia – Africa – Madagascar – Sudan – cattle – bucrania – horns –
symbolism – deformation.
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Mary Hartley, Alanah Buck, Susanne Binder

Canine Interments in the Teti Cemetery North at Saqqara during the Graeco-Roman
period 17
Abstract: This contribution presents and discusses the large quantity of canine
remains uncovered in four seasons of work in the Teti Cemetery North
(2007–2010) by a team from Macquarie University, Sydney. Two different
types of burials were observed, and while one of these can be classified as the
known type of votive animal mummy, the second does not fit into any of the
four categories commonly described in the relevant literature. Based on the
archaeological findings at this site where some canines are buried in close
association with humans, a hypothesis is formulated for a further type, an
amuletic animal mummy.
Keywords: Amuletic animal mummies – Anubis – association of human and
animal remains – canines – Graeco-Roman period – metric analysis of dog crania
– re-use of New Kingdom structures – Teti Cemetery.

Jifií Janák – Renata Landgráfová

New Evidence on the Mummification Process in the Late Period. Hieratic Texts from
the Embalmers’ Cache in the Shaft Tomb of Menekhibnekau at Abusir 30
Abstract: In one of the shafts (marked as S1) of the tomb of Menekhibnekau an
embalmer’s cache with a large deposit was discovered. Among other excavated
material, 33 vessels with hieratic or demotic texts were found. All inscriptions
are written in black ink and in a bold, sure hand. It is, however, clear that they
are the work of more than one scribe. Both hieratic and demotic inscriptions
mention materials used during mummification but some of them even specify
the day of the process of mummification. Nine different day numbers were
attested so-far, thus, we can presume that once the exploration of the
embalmer’s cache of Menekhibnekau is completed and all inscriptions on the
jars evaluated, we will possess highly valuable evidence concerning the
mummification process in Late Period Egypt.
Keywords: Late Period – shaft tombs – embalmers’ cache – mummification –
burial rites – Menekhibnekau – Abusir.

ZdeÀka SÛvová
Animal remains from Abusir-South: the shaft filling and adjacent structures of
mastaba AS 51 46
Abstract: Recent information about Ancient Egyptian animal husbandry has
been derived mainly from representations at cultic places such as temples and
tombs. Despite the fact that these illustrations can be oddly interpreted, they
can be misleading, for they reflect not real life, but an ideal conception.
Osteological material excavated during the seasons 2005–09 in the site explored
by the Czech Institute of Egyptology were analyzed. Thousands of animal
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bones and other zoological material such as teeth, horns etc. came from
different archaeological situations (burial chambers, shafts, secondary burials,
and other funeral objects) and were dated back mainly to the Old Kingdom
and to the Late Period. The results of these analyses contributed to our
knowledge of animal husbandry, abuse of domestic animals, burial habits and
other aspects of Ancient Egyptian life, as well as to e.g. palaeoenvironmental
reconstruction. The main interest of the following paper is focused on the Late
Period/Greek-Roman Period burial shaft filling.
Keywords: Abusir – animal remains – burial chambers and shafts – Old
Kingdom – Late Period – Greek-Roman Period.

Christiane Ziegler
New Discoveries at Saqqara: Two undisturbed Late Period tombs (q3 and n1) 67
Abstract: Two more undisturbed Late Period tombs were discovered in
2006–2007 by the Mission archéologique du Louvre à Saqqara under the
directorship of Ch. Ziegler. They are situated in the area of the Akhetetep
mastaba, to the north of the Unas causeway, and can be reached by shafts
cutting through mastaba cores. One of these shafts reused an unknown Old
Kingdom tomb belonging to a ‘Director of the crew of tomb builders’ whose
name is Sabef. The Late Period Tombs are collective burials. They contain few
loculi and stone sarcophagi and many wooden coffins and mummies covered
by beautiful cartonnages. Other funerary items consist of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris
statuettes and wooden chests found intact.
Keywords: Saqqara – the Unas Causeway – Late Period burial – coffin – mummy
– cartonnage – Ptah-Sokar-Osiris – funerary chest – mastaba – Akhethetep –
Nectanebo II.

NEW KINGDOM
Harold M. Hays
On the Architectural Development of Monumental Tombs South of the Unas Causeway
at Saqqara from the Reigns of Akhenaten to Ramses II 84
Abstract: Originating from the discovery of an anepigraphic monumental
tomb in the 2010 excavation season of the Leiden Excavations at Saqqara, the
problem tackled by this paper is the dating of tombs according to architectural
features. As previous studies of New Kingdom monumental architecture at
Saqqara have been purely synchronic, ignoring developments over time, the
present contribution seeks to initiate a discourse about change. The
significance of the discussion can be found along two avenues: first, the
inauguration of a genuine architectural history of the period; second, the
articulation of a practical set of criteria that can serve as a starting point from
which to date other anepigraphic Saqqara tombs of this period.
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Keywords: Leiden Excavations at Saqqara – dating of tombs – New Kingdom –

monumental architecture – diachrony – history.

Hana Navrátilová
Additions to the Maidum visitors’ graffiti 106
Abstract: The corpus of visitors’ graffiti in the pyramid temple of Maidum was
first published by W. M. F. Petrie and F. L. Griffith in 1892. The graffiti in the
entrance passage of the Maidum pyramid were studied by G. Maspero and
P. E. Newberry among others. These published Maidum graffiti were analysed
in the context of the history of pyramid complex destruction, as well as that of
the chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty. There are, however, several shorter
graffiti, which remain unpublished. These graffiti were recorded by G. B.
Gunn in cooperation with the expedition led by A. J. Rowe and the
inscriptions were analysed later by J. âern˘. This addition to the Maidum
corpus is relatively small and consists of short texts, but it is a contribution to
the corpus of the visitors’ graffiti in the pyramid fields. This paper aims at
presenting the unpublished graffiti.
Keywords: Maidum graffiti – New Kingdom – research, J. âern˘ – B. G. Gunn –
W. M. F. Petrie.

Boyo G. Ockinga
In search of the New Kingdom tombs in the Teti Pyramid Cemetery North: Preliminary
results of the 2009 and 2010 seasons conducted by Macquarie University 119
Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the results of Macquarie
University’s excavations conducted in 2009 and 2010 within the middle section
of the Teti Cemetery North (TNM) at Saqqara. Evidence was recovered
indicating that the area was used for tombs and individual burials from the Old
Kingdom through to the Roman Period. Remains of seven tomb structures were
found (two Old Kingdom, three New Kingdom, one Late Period and one
Roman period) as well as numerous individual burials ranging from the First
Intermediate Period to the Roman Period. Indications point to the New
Kingdom tomb chapels already having been stripped of their stone architectural
elements by the time of the Roman Period.
Keywords: Teti Cemetery – Saqqara – New Kingdom – tomb chapels.

Maarten J. Raven
‘Pragmatics’ of the New Kingdom Necropolis of Saqqara as illustrated by the tomb of
Meryneith 139
Abstract: The tomb of the steward and later high-priest of the Aten, Meryneith,
at Saqqara was found in 2001. This monument can be analysed as a message in
a cultural language, constrained by social expectations, modified by individual
agency, and contaminated by physical impediments or the interventions of later
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generations. As such, it can be compared to the notion of pragmatics in

linguistic theory. Such an analysis can be a useful tool to increase our awareness
of the difference between the tomb-owner’s original ideal and present-day
archaeological reality.
Keywords: Saqqara – Meryneith – Ancient Egypt – cemetery – archaeology –
pragmatics.

Eugen Strouhal
Comparison of two burial groups located south of the Tomb of Horemheb at Saqqara
and dated to the New Kingdom and Ptolemaic periods 150
Abstract: This study deals with anthropological remains found in the New
Kingdom necropolis excavated by the Leiden University in Saqqara.
Comparison of two different groups dating to the New Kingdom and to the
Ptolemaic Period revealed valuable data on the low mean age at death, based
on the socioeconomic status of the buried population groups. The difference
between the ones from the poor New Kingdom cemetery, who were not
mummified, and the mummies of the wealthier ones from the Ptolemaic vault,
amounted to a low mean age difference of nearly five years. Cranial
morphology revealed the stability of the local population type of the Memphite
area. In both groups, morphological resemblance of pair individuals and
increased frequency of some variations or anomalies revealed the blood
relationship of the dead.
Keywords: Saqqara – New Kingdom – Ptolemaic period – anthropology –
stability of the Memphite population.

MIDDLE KINGDOM
Masahiro Baba, Sakuji Yoshimura
Ritual Activities in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A View from Intact Tombs Discovered at
Dahshur North 158
Abstract: Recent excavations by the Institute of Egyptology, Waseda University at
Dahshur North cemetery have revealed many shaft-tombs of the Middle and
New Kingdom periods. Some of these shaft tombs were completely undisturbed
and contained intact rectangular coffins from the late Middle Kingdom. These
discoveries provide us detailed information about the buried individuals and
their burial customs, as well as presenting an unique opportunity to examine
ritual and funerary activities performed at the time of death.
Keywords: Dahshur North – Middle Kingdom – shaft-tomb – coffin – burial
customs – funerary ritual.
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Adela Oppenheim
The Early Life of Pharaoh: Divine Birth and Adolescence Scenes in the Causeway of
Senwosret III at Dahshur 171
Abstract: During fall 2008 and 2009 seasons, the Egyptian Expedition of The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York excavated the western (upper) section
of the causeway of Senwosret III’s pyramid complex at Dahshur (Twelfth
Dynasty). Previous excavation work did not provide a definitive answer to the
question as to whether or not the causeway was decorated. A number of blocks
contain depictions of human activities, including stick-jousting and bee-
keeping, and landscapes with wild and domesticated animals, fish, birds and
a turtle. Inscriptions imply that at least some of the scenes probably belonged to
representations of the seasons. Other fragments suggest scenes involving
foreigners and perhaps military conflict. Portions of processions of deities,
nomes, estates, fecundity figures and offering bearers were recovered. Another
group of fragments preserves parts of ships, some laden with cargo. The vessels
appear to be transporting materials for the pyramid complex, particularly as
one includes part of the explicit inscription ‘bringing granite from Elephantine’.
The depiction of Bedouins has been connected with the transport of the
pyramidion, and a few recovered fragments hint at the possibility that
Senwosret III’s causeway had such a scene. The newly discovered relief
fragments from the Senwosret III causeway show that the continuity and
tradition in the decorative programs of these structures stretched from the early
Fifth Dynasty until at least the latter part of the Twelfth Dynasty.
Keywords: Dahshur – Middle Kingdom – Senwosret III – causeway –
decoration – origin of the motifs – continuity and tradition.

ARCHAIC PERIOD AND OLD KINGDOM

Tarek El Awady
A Problematic Scene from Sahure’s Causeway 189
Abstract: This article deals with a new bas-relief scene from the causeway of
Sahure at Abusir. The scene depicts high officials and groups of other officials
with different titles in front of what has been suggested to be a large figure of
Sahura. Depicted officials are known men who served King Sahure. Among
them are named the king’s sons, khentiu-she officials and, last but not least,
Seshemnefer I, who served Sahura as a vizier.
Keywords: Abusir – Old Kingdom – Sahura – pyramid complex – decoration –
high officials – royal family – Seshemnefer I.
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Katarína Arias Kytnarová

Fine versus rough wares – the chronological relevance of bread forms 200
Abstract: In the pottery studies of the Old Kingdom period, the question of the
chronological sensitivity and reliability of fine versus rough wares has been
raised recently. With fine wares, the time span between their production and
their deposition can reach up to several generations. Contrarily, rough wares
were entirely practical and were disposed of after several episodes of usage.
The most abundant and most easily recognizable rough wares are, without
doubt, beer jars and bread forms. Their high numbers and considerable
variations in form make a detailed typological study essential, albeit difficult,
as often three or more forms appear in one context. On the other hand, their
typological variability makes them significant for chronological studies. In
this paper, the morphological development and chronological relevance of
bread forms from the recent excavations in the cemeteries of Abusir South
shall be compared with the known assemblages from the Memphite necropolis
and the wider provincial production.
Keywords: Abusir – Old Kingdom – pottery – rough and fine ware – social and
archaeological context – bread moulds.

Nathalie Beaux
The decoration of the portico from Ti’s mastaba at Saqqara. An innovating
introduction to the tomb 223
Abstract: Careful analysis of the very eroded bas-reliefs from Ti’s mastaba
portico has revealed unknown details and even three unpublished scenes, rare
or first attested scenes. The presentation of these new elements will provide
new ground for an analysis of the portico’s scene composition and its role as
an introduction to the monument. Ti’s tomb stands out as an example of
balance between tradition and innovation, a source of inspiration for later
monuments.
Keywords: portico – innovation – serdab – scenes first attested / unpublished –
Ti – Kagemni – decoration.

John Burn
An ecological approach to determine the potential influence that the Pyramid Texts
have had upon Sixth Dynasty tomb decorations 233
Abstract: If the Pyramid Texts had any influence at all upon Sixth Dynasty
tomb decorations, then it should be feasible to identify a correlation between
tomb decoration programmes and the sequences of the Pyramid Texts. It
would be expected that the distribution of the decorations should be
observably different before and after the appearance of the Pyramid Texts.
Two ‘marker’ scenes were identified and a distribution analysis was applied
to the position of these scenes in tombs with dates ranging from the mid Fifth
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to the early Sixth Dynasty. The pattern that emerged suggests decorations
changed in response to some influence other than the Pyramid Texts and
suggests a new time frame for this inspiration.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Pyramid Texts – distribution – tomb decoration.

Vivienne Gae Callender

Queen Neit-ikrety/Nitokris 246
Abstract: The presence of the name of Neit-ikrety in the Turin Canon has
generated a number of important discussions in the past but, in a recent
re-examination of the Turin Papyrus, K. Ryholt (Ryholt 2000, 87–100) has
demonstrated that Fragment 43 – which contains the name of Neit-ikrety –
must be raised to a higher position than it occupies at present in
Gardiner’s publication of the Canon. Ryholt’s repositioning has meant that the
number of names on the Abydos list for the Sixth Dynasty now coincides
exactly with the number of names in the Turin Canon. As a result of this
move, it was possible for Ryholt to add yet another isolated fragment of the
papyrus next to Fragment 43; this piece contains the phrase, %A-PtH, the ‘son of
Ptah’ (Ryholt 2000, 88). This result has brought Ryholt to two significant
conclusions: that the names of Neit-ikrety should now be seen as Neit-ikrety-
Netjerykara-Sa-Ptah, and that Neit-ikrety was a male king. This article revisits
the various arguments, old and new, relating to this controversial identity and
offers an independent assessment of the evidence.
Keywords: 6th Dynasty – Neit-ikrety – Neby – Ibi’s pyramid – Abydos King
List – Turin Canon – Herodotos – Old Kingdom history.

Violaine Chauvet
Entrance-porticoes and Portico-chapels: The Creation of an Outside Ritual Stage in
Private Tombs of the Old Kingdom 261
Abstract: Porticoes – monumental entrances supported by columns or pillars –
are among the structural innovations which mark the transformation of private
tombs into elaborate multi-functional monuments from the mid-Fifth Dynasty
onwards. Originating in the necropolis of Abusir, this architectural feature is
selectively adopted and adapted in the Memphite area with at least eight
examples at Saqqara and ten at Giza. The paper will focus on the analysis of the
portico decoration, and consider the adaptation of the decorative programme
within the structural setting, and the function of this architectural feature. The
first theme to be discussed is public display: Which are the icons selected to be
transferred to the outside of the tomb, and how are they adapted to external
public display? Which new themes emerge in relation to porticoes, and how do
they relate to the developing concept of the biographical self? The second focal
point in this presentation is the analysis of the portico as a liminal space, a point
of interaction between the deceased tomb owner and the living. In many
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respects, the design of the portico is an embodiment of the inherent tension

which existed in funerary context between restriction (the need for a protective
pure environment) and accessibility (visitors). In conclusion we will see that
porticoes had the potential to encapsulate all the essential conceptual aspects of
the tomb superstructure as illustrated by the development of a ‘portico-chapel’
mastaba-type (Reisner Type 11), possibly as early as the reign of Izezi.
Keywords: Porticos – monumental tombs – Memphite necropoleis – social
display – Izezi.

Václav Cílek, Lenka Lisá, Miroslav Bárta

The Holocene of the Abusir area 312
Abstract: The study presents results of a long-term project aimed at the
reconstruction of the Lake of Abusir development during the Holocene. The
archaeological and geological assessment of the lake deposits attests to its
existence during the Old Kingdom when it was used as a major entryway to
the entire Abusir and Saqqara necropolis areas.
Keywords: Abusir – Lake of Abusir – cemetery entrance – geology and
sedimentology.

Veronika Dulíková
Some notes on the title of ‘Vizier’ during the Old Kingdom, especially on the
hieroglyphic phallus-sign in the vizier’s title 327
Abstract: The Old Kingdom viziers bore the composite title tAyty TAty (n) zAb.
Further hieroglyphic signs, such as the phallus-sign and the addition mAa,
were appended in some cases to this title. The form of the vizier’s title with
the phallus-sign occurred frequently within a limited time span. For the
understanding of the usage of the phallus-sign in the vizier’s title,
contextualization is crucial. Analysis and comparison of the title sequences of
both those viziers using the phallus-sign and those who did not have brought
evidence of a clear distinction between the structure of the titles of these two
groups: this indicates that the occurrence of the phallus-sign within the
highest administrative title coincides with social change regarding the state
administration and the royal family.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – vizier – administration – administrative title –
king’s son – phallus-sign – Giza.

Laurel Flentye
The Development of the Giza Necropolis in the Early Fourth Dynasty 337
Abstract: Study of the ‘Giza Style’ suggests that it was a complex period, in
which diverse influences impacted the architecture and its decorative programs,
including the incorporation of elements from the cemeteries at Meidum,
Dahshur, and Saqqara under Snefru. In the royal sphere, the iconography of
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Khufu’s reliefs and the fragments from the queens’ pyramids suggest some
continuity with Snefru’s decorative programs at Dahshur. Stylistically,
Khufu’s reliefs are characterized by the height of their low relief with rounded
edges as opposed to the higher, bold style of Snefru’s reliefs with edges
perpendicular to the background surface. In the non-royal sphere, the use of
slab stelae in the early tombs of the Western Cemetery is given as an example
of Khufu’s ‘reductionist’ policy, in which the stelae and possibly a reserve
head were the only decoration. From a study of the iconographical features on
the slab stelae, it is apparent that they evolved over time, with influences from
Meidum, Dahshur, and Saqqara persisting as new elements in the ‘Giza Style’
were added.
A reassessment of royal and non-royal iconography and style during
Khufu’s reign indicates that certain iconography from Meidum, Dahshur, and
Saqqara was assimilated by the artisans at Giza, but, stylistically, there was
a distinct change from Snefru’s high, bold relief to a lower relief style at Giza.
Keywords: Giza – Khufu – Iconography – Style – Slab Stelae – Reliefs – Statuary
– Royal – Non-royal.

Hans Goedicke
Egyptological Cannibalism. Comments on Pyramid Spells 273–274 362
Abstract: The paper provides a lengthy and detailed discussion of the
numerous philological particulars of Pyramid Spells 273–274, which include
grammatical, syntactic and semantic aspects; the article reviews the text as an
integrated entity.
Keywords: Cannibalism – Pyramid Texts – Old Kingdom.

Yannis Gourdon
The AGÉA database project: Persons and names of the Old Kingdom 420
Abstract: Since the 1930s, our understanding of ancient Egyptian personal
names relies on Ranke’s PN. But, because its philological and sociological data
and analysis are based on the knowledge of the first half of the 20th century,
the PN requires a complete revision. Launched in 2008 at the IFAO, the online
AGÉA database project aims, eventually, the creation of a systematic directory
of personal names for every period of the Pharaonic history, completing and
modernizing Ranke’s work. As a tool allowing an easier analysis and a better
data interpretation, AGÉA will focus, in its first development, on the Old
Kingdom, for which an example (Tepiemankh’s family) is discussed here.
Keywords: AGÉA database – Ranke’s PN – Egyptian personal names – Old
Kingdom – Tepiemankh (Saqqara – D11) – family.
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Jifií Janák, Hana Vymazalová, Filip Coppens

The Fifth Dynasty ‘sun temples’ in a broader context 430
Abstract: This article aims to provide new insights into the function and role of
the sun temples and the religious landscape in which they were set by taking
a closer look at the onomastic, topographical, architectural, economic and
administrative connections between the sun temple and the pyramid complexes.
At the same time the sun temple is placed in a much broader historical context.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Fifth Dynasty – sun temples – rites of renewal –
kingship.

Abusír and Saqqara in the Year 2010: Volume II

Lucie Jirásková
Stone vessels of AS54 at Abusir South. Preliminary report 447
Abstract: The 2010 spring expedition of the Czech Institute of Egyptology
brought to light an assemblage of stone vessel fragments from Abusir South. All
were found within or in the immediate vicinity of the northern shaft (shaft 1) of
the mastaba AS 54 situated on a prominent place at Abusir South. After the
fragments were glued together and examined, several classes and types of
stone vessels appeared. The paper presents the collection in its archaeological
context, describes its special features, deals with the classification and
typology of particular shapes, and last but not least, attempts to reach a dating
for the entire assemblage.
Keywords: Saqqara – Old Kingdom – Third Dynasty – Huni – AS 54 – stone
vessels.

Andrea Kahlbacher – Lubica Zelenková

The MeKeTRE Project & An Example of a Theme Type in the Old and Middle
Kingdom: Manufacture of Nets 465
Abstract: The MeKeTRE Project, funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
and conducted at the Institute of Egyptology (Vienna), seeks to systematically
collect, research, and study the reliefs and paintings from the Middle
Kingdom tombs of officials. One of the main aims is to map and elaborate the
development of the scenes and their content in comparison to those from the
Old Kingdom. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, many scene details based
on Old Kingdom models and prototypes had changed considerably; a number
of characteristic scenes disappear, while others occur which are completely
new or carried on under modified versions. These changes will be
demonstrated in this article, using a corpus of images that deal with the
manufacture of fowling and fishing nets.
Keywords: Decoration – Middle Kingdom – net – net-maker – spinning –
spindle – netting – netting needle – netting table.
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Naguib Kanawati
Art and Gridlines: The copying of Old Kingdom scenes in later periods 483
Abstract: Works of top Old Kingdom artists were considered as examples to
emulate by contemporaries and by later generations. The magnificently
decorated tombs of Ptahhotep I, Akhethotep and Ptahhotep II probably
remained accessible for a long time. Two observations may be made on their
scenes: a) certain parts were left in different states of incompletion. Did it aim
at demonstrating their techniques?; b) square gridlines were added above
sections of completed reliefs, and the same is found e.g. in the tombs of
Iymery at Giza and Pepyankh-henykem at Meir. The last case suggests that
the gridlines were used by Middle Kingdom artists to copy some Old
Kingdom masterpieces in Middle Kingdom tombs, or for teaching purposes in
the newly established schools.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Saqqara – Giza – Meir – tombs – reliefs – Middle
Kingdom copies.

Nozomu Kawai
The Tomb of Isisnofret at Northwest Saqqara 497
Abstract: Waseda University Egyptian Expedition has excavated the previously
unknown New Kingdom tomb chapel and burial chamber containing the
sarcophagus of a certain ‘noble woman, Isisnofret’ on the summit of the rocky
outcrop at Northwest Saqqara. Architectural features of the tomb chapel
suggest that it dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty. The location of the tomb
chapel, at right angles to the central axis line of the monument of Prince
Khaemwaset (probably his ka-chapel) and the archaizing style of
Isisnofret’s sarcophagus which reflects the same archaizing style of
Khaemwaset’s own monuments, suggest that this Isisnofret is a daughter of
Khaemwaset.
Keywords: Northwest Saqqara – New Kingdom – Ramesside Period –
Isisnofret – Khaemwaset – tomb chapel – sarcophagus – archaism.

Mohamed Ismail Khaled

A Visitor at the Causeway of Sahura at Abusir 512
Abstract: This paper deal with an ancient visitor graffito carved on a scene
representing a procession of funerary domains in the causeway of Sahura. The
carved graffito indicates that the temple and the causeway of Sahura still
functioned and were visible until the Late Period. Interestingly, the
visitor’s name reflects one of Sahura’s domain names.
Keywords: Sahura – Sekhmet Sahura – funerary domains – causeway – graffito.
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Jaromír Krejãí
Nyuserra Revisited 518
Abstract: The Archaeological Expedition of the Charles University made an
archaeological sounding work in the close vicinity of Nyuserra’s valley temple
during the autumn of the 2009 season. A small portion of an embankment
wall was revealed which has made possible discussion on the appearance of
the valley temple and its “port”. Another archaeological test pit was made in
close vicinity of Nyuserra’s causeway.
Keywords: Abusir – Nyuserra – royal necropolis – pyramid complex – valley
temple – causeway – archaeology – architecture – Old Kingdom – Fifth Dynasty
– Nile valley – floodplain – geophysics.

Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz
The Practicalities behind the Ritual: Observations on Sixth Dynasty funerary
architecture 530
Abstract: The subject of the present paper involves certain aspects of the
development of the necropolis situated west of the Step Pyramid. It is evident
that tomb builders had to cope with various problems resulting from the
topography of the area, in particular, its geological structure as well as
climatic conditions. Some developments may be seen as evidence of tomb
builders’ efforts to preserve tombs and their contents from being destroyed or
desecrated by natural factors or by human activity.
Keywords: Saqqara – Old Kingdom – funerary architecture.

Claudia M. Lacher-Raschdorff
The tomb of king Ninetjer and its reuse in later periods 537
Abstract: The tomb of Ninetjer could best be described as a subterranean path
or corridor tomb. It extends over an area of about 77 m by 50 m and is divided
into 192 rooms, running through the rock in a maze of winding paths. The
different architectural elements will be discussed and compared with
contemporary tombs at Saqqara. The substructure could be interpreted as
magazines, a model-palace, three model cult places and a model-residence.
Over the course of time, from Old Kingdom even up to Late Antiquity, many
intrusions have hit the Second Dynasty galleries. In addition, and in the light
of the development direction of a burial place and of its cultic traditions, the
reuse of this tomb is also discussed.
Keywords: Saqqara – Second Dynasty – royal tomb – Ninetjer.
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xx Table of contents

Jason Livingstone-Thomas
The Old Kingdom market-place scenes revisited: with special reference to Tepemankh
II (tp-m-anx) 551
Abstract: In this contribution, the interpretations of the market-place scenes of
the Old Kingdom period are reconsidered. A quantitative based approach is
adopted in the analysis of the entire collection of scenes. Primary importance
is placed on the artistic and inscriptional evidence to define the relationships
between the market seller and the customer, and the commodities offered in
exchange. The significance of attire is also analyzed with respect to defining
functional roles. The results of this analysis are then incorporated into a case
study concerning a relief fragment from the Tokyo Bridgestone Museum of
Art, and its possible relationship with the market-place scene from the
mastaba of Tep-em-ankh II. It is claimed that the market-place scenes are
primarily concerned with the economic interests of the elite tomb owner, and
not an illustration of the economic activities of the local peasantry.
Keywords: Economy – elites – market-place – Old Kingdom – peasantry – Tep-
em-ankh.

Michele Marcolin, Andrés Diego Espinel

The Sixth Dynasty Biographic Inscriptions of Iny: More Pieces to the Puzzle 570
Abstract: The present paper addresses three newly identified and heretofore
undocumented relief fragments belonging to biographic inscriptions of the
sealbearer Iny, a recently rediscovered Egyptian officer, who lived and acted
as commander of expeditionary activities toward the Levant, during the reign
of Pepy I, Merenre and Pepy II. Two of these new limestone fragments join
virtually break-to-break with each other and fit on top of the previously
known ‘large’ fragment, completing it in its upper part. The third piece, an
inscribed panel bearing also a representation of the owner, fits with the so-
called ‘minor’ fragment as its lower part. The importance of the reliefs
evidently lies in their inscriptional content, as they not only provide the
missing parts of the previous inscriptions with new and relevant information
concerning the objectives of Egyptian expeditionary activities to Byblos and
the Levant during the Sixth Dynasty, but also introduce a series of new and
valuable toponyms. However, by revealing further startling details on the
vicissitudes of the owner, they also confirm the previously attempted
interpretations of their significance.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Sixth Dynasty – Levant – Byblos – expeditions
abroad – commercial relations – Early Bronze Age.
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Table of contents xxi

Mohamed Megahed
The Pyramid Complex of ‘Djedkare’s Queen’ in South Saqqara. Preliminary Report
2010 616
Abstract: The paper provides an introduction and the preliminary results of
a project that started in 2009. The project aims to gather and publish the
material from the archaeological excavations of the pyramid complex of the
Fifth Dynasty King Djedkare in South Saqqara. The site was explored by
several Egyptian teams between the 1940s and 1980s (under the direction of
Hussain, Fakhry, Razek), but the results of these excavations have never been
fully published. The finds have now been recollected in several storerooms of
the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) and are in the process of being
documented. The material will be described, analyzed and published in detail
and allow for a study of the architectural layout and decoration program of
Djedkare’s funerary complex. In addition to that, the paper provides
a preliminary report on the fieldwork, which was undertaken recently in the
anonymous pyramid complex northeast of Djedkare’s pyramid complex. The
archaeological results, together with several finds from the previous and
current excavations are presented.
Keywords: Pyramid complex – Djedkare – Saqqara – Anonymous complex –
Fifth Dynasty.

Radek Mikulá‰, Václav Cílek

Insect burrows (dwelling/breeding chambers and tunnels) in the archaeological
context of Abusir 635
Abstract: Several different forms of hymenopteran nesting chambers, probable
beetle galleries and mammal burrows were found in masonry, plasters and
surrounding (both natural and man-made) deposits in the ancient Abusir
necropolis. Recognition of the makers of these structures has enabled a useful
interpretation through dating (radiometric dating is possible if the tunnels are
lined with organic matter) and specification of depth of burrowing/bioerosion
(some insect structures show a highly specific depth below the substrate
surface). Three basic colonization times were recognized: first, 2760 ± 35 BP =
ca 750 B.C.; second, 645 ± 30 BP. i.e. ca 1350 A.D.; third, 225 ± 30 B.P., i.e. ca
1775 A.D.
Keywords: Insect burrows – Hymenoptera – ichnology – Abusir – bioerosion –
bioturbation.

Karol MyÊliwiec
Dating the tombs of Merefnebef and Nyankhnefertem in Saqqara 651
Abstract: Two Old Kingdom tombs recently discovered and published by the
Polish-Egyptian mission in Saqqara became a subject of controversy
concerning their date. A detailed analysis of their diagnostic features resulted
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xxii Table of contents

in a general review of dating criteria, leading to the conclusion that none of

these criteria is self-sufficient.
Keywords: Merefnebef – Nyankhnefertem – Userkara – Saqqara – vizier – Sixth
Dynasty – dating – chronology.

Massimiliano Nuzzolo, Rosanna Pirelli

New archaeological investigation in the sun temple of Niuserra in Abu Ghurab 664
Abstract: The sed festival depiction in Niuserra’s sun temple represents the
oldest known example of this kind of ritual celebration of kingship in Ancient
Egypt. Although generally accepted by scholars, the reconstruction made by
Kaiser in the seventies (the only one existing in this sense) is nonetheless not
entirely sound and presents many doubts. Moreover, the German scholar
assumed a narrative approach to the issue, emphasizing a descriptive level,
where the development of the ritual was put in the focus. In this paper, on the
contrary, I will not only draw attention to the depiction of the scenes and the
placement in their architectural setting (trying to suggest a new ‘unrolling’ of
the festival along the walls of the so-called chapel), but I will also stress the
different readings and semantic values of the festival which, above all, seems
to refer to the complex defining process of kingship during the Fifth Dynasty
and, as a whole, during the Old Kingdom.
Keywords: Sun Temple – Fifth Dynasty – Kingship – Niuserra

Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska
Religious Reality Creation through Language in the Old Kingdom Religious Texts 680
Abstract: The Pyramid Texts are very often perceived by scholars as being
incoherent. The present author has been attempting to show, with reference to
the contextual arguments, cohesion of these texts. In this article, the
phenomenon of the performative role of language in the Egyptian religious
texts as exemplified by the Pyramid Texts is scrutinised. Emphasis is laid on
causative power of religious utterances and reality creation through language,
through words – acts of speaking and writing. Furthermore, literary, stylistic
and linguistic means of expression used by the ancient Egyptians are analysed
and what appears to be an effect of using such expressions in religious
discourse. Consequently, the religious style is examined.
As far as religious language is concerned it is expressing the Inexpressible.
The ancient Egyptian stylisation phenomenon was very often based on the
Pyramid Texts as a model. Thus, it is not perceived by the senses but within the
faith. The sensibility of any language being understood in such a way might be
questioned. It is easy to prove the sensibility, the deep meaning, veracity and
verity of the religious utterances – ancient ones in particular – and, in contrast,
also the senseless character of the texts – especially as they appear to us today.
Regarding religious truths, a deeper meaning is intrinsically hidden in
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Table of contents xxiii

apparently senseless verses. Leszek Ko∏akowski stated that the sensibility of

a language is conditioned by the cult context and the engagement of the
believers (e.g. Ko∏akowski 1991, 53–64). According to L. Ko∏akowski, religious
language, namely its real meaning, is untranslatable into any other language,
although words, phrases and actions necessary to be undertaken or performed
may be translated. It is profoundly embodied in the language itself.
The language of the Old Kingdom religious texts is scrutinised based on
inferences drawn by Teresa Dobrzyƒska (Dobrzyƒska 1973; 1974) and methods
created by the scholarly circle of Polish ethnolinguists: Jerzy Bartmiƒski, Anna
Pajdziƒska and Ryszard Tokarski (e.g. Bartmiƒski 2009). Hence, the author is
presenting, via contextual arguments, stylistic and grammatical structures,
a picture of the Egyptian Beyond for the Egyptian pharaoh as expressed through
language in the Old Kingdom religious texts.
Keywords: Ancient Egypt – religion – creation – religious reality – ethno-
linguistics.

Ilona Regulski
Reinvestigating the Second Dynasty at Saqqara 694
Abstract: During the excavations of the New Kingdom tombs of Maya and
Meryneith to the south of the Unas causeway, the Dutch expedition at Saqqara
discovered much older complexes underneath these tombs. An initial
assessment of the material culture and the proximity of the royal necropolis of
the early Second Dynasty just to the north, suggested an Early Dynastic date.
More detailed investigations of these underground structures have recently
been carried out by the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo. Two short field
seasons (2007 and 2008) considerably increased our knowledge of the early
phases of Saqqara’s long history. Architectural peculiarities and a thorough
study of the material culture showed that these subterranean complexes can be
identified as the burial places of high officials or even members of the royal
family of the late Second Dynasty. The present article is a follow-up on these
preliminary conclusions. After an introduction to the raison-d’être of such an
early necropolis in this area, two ink inscriptions, discovered underneath the
tomb of Maya, will be discussed. The latter are of paramount importance in
gaining a better understanding of the social status of the people buried in this
necropolis.
Keywords: Saqqara – New Kingdom necropolis – tomb of Maya and Meryneith
– Second Dynasty – royal tombs.

Teodozja Rzeuska
Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom Topography of the Site 709
Abstract: Meidum, the southernmost end of the Memphite necropolis, is
generally identified as a burial ground of early Fourth Dynasty date. Almost
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xxiv Table of contents

nothing is known about later periods at this important archaeological site.

An analysis of archaeological material (mainly pottery from the cemetery),
and the comparison of the latter with finds of pottery from other parts of the
Memphite necropolis, notably West Saqqara, reveal an unknown page in the
history of the late Old Kingdom.
Keywords: Meidum - late Old Kingdom necropolis – pyramid town – pottery.

Anthony Spalinger
The Beginning of the Civil Calendar 723
Abstract: The present article features a discussion of the ambiguous Esna date
for the celebration of Wp rnpt on day nine of the first Civil Month. This is seen
to be the primordial one, the one of „the ancestors,“ as Esna designates the
event. Hence, we can reconstruct the first use of the Civil Calendar to its
inauguration on day one of the then first month, which had to be a lunar one.
Esna also indicates that this Wp rnpt occurred in the month of Hr-Axtj. Hence, it
had to have taken place during the original first lunar month, which was
called Wp rnpt. From this analysis, the reason for the décalage of the month
names (from the early lunar calendar to the later civil one) is easily seen.
Keywords: Ancient Egyptian calendar – civil year – beginning of the year –
Esna.

Rainer Stadelmann
The heb-sed Temple of Senefru at Dahshur 736
Abstract: This article examines the archaeological – iconographic and epigraphic
remains from the so-called valley temple of Seneferu at Dahshur. The analysis
indicates that the temple could well have been constructed in the year of
Seneferu’s heb-sed and functioned as a heb-sed temple.
Keywords: Dahshur – Meidum – heb-sed – Senefru – 15th year of counting.

Julie Stauder Porchet

Les autobiographies événementielles de la Ve dynastie: premier ensemble de textes
continus en Egypte 747
Abstract: As a part of a broader study of the emergence of continuous texts in
ancient Egypt, the present paper discusses Fifth Dynasty non-royal funerary
inscriptions, conventionally labelled ‘autobiographies’. I first review some
features of the Western genre that have been sometimes associated with these
texts. Following a brief description of the Fifth Dynasty texts, I examine
innovations in the form and content of the texts. I consider the raison d’être of
these texts – which, it is argued, lie in presenting the relationship of the owner
of the inscription to the king – as well the various modes of such presentation.
Keywords: Autobiography – Private texts – Continuous texts – King – Fifth
Dynasty.
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Table of contents xxv

Bfietislav Vachala
‚Das Vorfeld der Literatur’ in den Privatgräbern des AR: ein Fall aus Abusir 767
Abstract: Only a limited number of literary texts have survived from private
tombs of the Old Kingdom. Nevertheless, even these rare examples enable us
to identify several literary genres, trace their development and above all gain
insight into the world image of the time. Whereas biography (being ‘real’ or
‘idealised’) deals with the earthly doings of man (stressing the ethical
principles of maat), other literary forms, namely the shepherd’s song, the song
of the litter bearers and the harper’s song, refer to the deceased, whose spirit
dwells in the netherworld. Very interesting is the beginning of a possible love
song from Abusir (the tomb of Inti). A new reconstruction of the biography of
the famous official, Kaaper, from Abusir, is also included.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Abusir – private tombs – literary texts – biographies
– maat – songs – Kaaper.

Miroslav Verner
The ‘Khentkaus-Problem’ Reconsidered 778
Abstract: The paper addresses a new, theoretically possible meaning of the
unusual title „Mother of Two Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt“ of
Khentkaus I and Khentkaus II, and a new interpretation of historical events at
the turn of the Fourth to the Fifth Dynasty.
Keywords: Khentkaus I – Khentkaus II – Giza – Abusir.

Hana Vymazalová, Filip Coppens

Statues and Rituals for Khentkaus II. A reconsideration of some papyrus fragments
from the Queen’s funerary complex 785
Abstract: In the pyramid temple of Khentkaus II in Abusir an interesting
inventory list came to light in the late 1970s, which was subsequently
published by P. Posener-Kriéger. This fragmentary papyrus shows drawings
of the cultic statues of the queen, which were kept in her pyramid temple, and
the descriptions of their appearance and materials in hieratic script. The
present paper wishes to take Posener-Kriéger’s research a step further and
offer suggestions and clues for a new interpretation of the document – despite
its fragmentary state – on the basis of information contained in the
contemporary papyrus archives of Abusir and its confrontation with later
evidence from both royal and divine temples, which provide useful analogies
that might help us to better understand Old Kingdom practices.
Keywords: Old Kingdom – Abusir – Khentkaus II – temple rituals – papyrus
archives – cultic statues.
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xxvi Table of contents

Leslie Anne Warden

The Organization and Oversight of Potters in the Old Kingdom 800
Abstract: While the archaeological record abounds in pottery, we know very
little about the actual potters themselves. It is unclear if the potters making
utilitarian wares were specialists or non-specialists, controlled by the state or
were operating independently. Craft production theory often distinguishes
utilitarian wares as produced by independent, non-specialist potters. However,
metric analysis of beer jars and bread moulds, as well as evidence from the
artistic and archaeological record, suggests that utilitarian wares could be
manufactured by skilled individuals, likely specialists, operating under
a wide range of authorities. The industry was less monolithic than it was quite
diverse.
Keywords: Ceramics – Old Kingdom Egypt – economy – specialization –
standardization – beer jars – bread moulds – potters.

Mohammad Youssef
New scenes of hunting a hippopotamus from the burial chamber of Unas 820
Abstract: The paper present a new discovery which has been made during the
restoration works in the burial chamber of Unas in Saqqara. The side walls of
his burial chamber were built of reused alabaster blocks which originally
featured unique decoration with the king as a central motif. In all probability,
these reliefs originate from an earlier pyramid complex of a Fifth Dynasty
king.
Keywords: Saqqara – Fifth Dynasty – Unas – pyramid – burial chamber –
decoration – hippopotamus hunt.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 823
PLATES 1–45
zlom i-xxvi 13.4.2012 10:03 Stránka i

ABUSIR AND SAQQARA

IN THE YEAR 2010
zlom i-xxvi 13.4.2012 10:03 Stránka ii

This book was published from the financial means allocated for the research
project of Ministry of Education, Grant No. MSM-0021620826
zlom i-xxvi 19.4.2012 11:01 Stránka iii

A B U S I R A N D S AQ Q A R A
IN THE YEAR 2010 /1

Miroslav Bárta, Filip Coppens and Jaromír Krejãí

editors

Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts,

Charles University in Prague
Prague 2011
zlom i-xxvi 13.4.2012 10:03 Stránka iv

Contributors
Katarína Arias Kytnarová, Tarek El Awady, Masahiro Baba, Ladislav Bare‰,
Miroslav Bárta, Nathalie Beaux, Susane Binder, Alanah Buck, John Burn,
Viviene Gae Callender, Louis Chaix, Violaine Chauvet, Václav Cílek, Filip
Coppens, Veronika Dulíková, Andrés Diego Espinel, Laurel Flentye, Hans
Goedicke, Yannis Gourdon, Mary Hartley, Harold M. Hays, Jifií Janák, Lucie
Jirásková, Andrea Kahlbacher, Naguib Kanawati, Nozomu Kawai, Mohamed
Ismail Khaled, Jaromír Krejãí, Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz, Claudia M. Lacher-
-Raschdorff, Renata Landgráfová, Lenka Lisá, Jason Livingstone-Thomas,
Michele Marcolin, Mohamed Megahed, Radek Mikulá‰, Karol MyÊliwiec,
Hana Navrátilová, Massimiliano Nuzzolo, Boyo G. Ockinga, Adela Oppenheim,
Rosanna Pirelli, Joanna Popielska-Grzybowka, Maarten J. Raven, Ilona
Regulski, Teodozja Rzeuska, Anthony Spalinger, Rainer Stadelmann, Julie
Stauder Porchet, Eugen Strouhal, ZdeÀka SÛvová, Bfietislav Vachala, Miroslav
Verner, Hana Vymazalová, Leslie Anne Warden, Sakuji Yoshimura,
Mohammad Youssef, Lubica Zelenková, Christiane Ziegler

© Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts,

Charles University in Prague,
and individual authors
Prague 2011

ISBN 978-80-7308-384-7
zlom i-xxvi 13.4.2012 10:03 Stránka v

Dear Gae
On the occasion of your jubilee
We would like to wish you good health and happiness in life!

Your friends and colleagues from the Czech Institute of Egyptology

zlom i-xxvi 13.4.2012 10:03 Stránka vi
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:19 Stránka 709

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom

topography of the site
Teodozja I. Rzeuska

Introduction
Meidum, considered to mark the southern limit of the Memphite necropolis,
is one of the most recognisable archaeological sites of the Old Kingdom, though
paradoxically one of the least known. When thinking of Meidum, the first things
that come to mind are the characteristic stepped silhouette of the pyramid
towering over the flat surroundings, the beautiful statues of Nofret and Rahotep
(mastaba no. 6), as well as the famous reliefs from the chapel of Atet depicting
geese (mastaba no. 16) (about reconstruction of decorations of these mastabas
see: Harpur 2001). To make the picture complete, one cannot forget one of the
oldest mummies found in the anonymous mastaba no. 17, which bore marks of
defleshing (Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright 1910, 115, XI. 1–4).
All of the above mentioned staple treasures of Meidum, attesting to its
glory and significance in the Old Kingdom Egypt, are also its curse – they give
the impression that Meidum is merely a burial place of the early 4th dynasty
(Shaw, Nicholson 1995, 178–179; Baines, Malek 2000, 132–133; Arnold 2001),
abandoned first in favour of Dahshur then Giza (Bard 2007, 135; Edwards
2005, 634–636), when in fact Meidum’s history during the Old Kingdom is
far more interesting than suggested by the generally accepted state of
knowledge.

Travellers and archaeologists

Meidum, though located off the main tourist routes, made its way into the
diaries of historians and travellers thanks to the unusual shape of the pyramid.
One of the oldest descriptions of the structure comes from the 15th century
Arab historian and geographer Al-Maqrizi (Maqrizi 1900, 333–334). The site was
also visited by many other travellers, such as Danish Captain Frederic Louis
Norden, who stayed in Egypt during years 1737–1738 (Norden 1795, 109, 132),
as well as Vivian Denon who took part in Napoleon Bonaparte’s 1799
expedition (Déscription IV, pl. 72). Further, Meidum was visited by John Shea
Perring in 1837 and in 1843 by Richard Lepsius, who assigned the pyramid
number LXV (list of people associated with Meidum since Twelfth Century till
1931, mainly English-speakers: Rowe 1931, 6–11; see also Harpur 2001, 7–20).
The first excavations were commenced by Monsieure Vigne, a merchant
and amateur archaeologist from Alexandria, who in 1871 received a permit to
search for the animal mummies in Meidum at the fringe of the desert (Harpur
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:19 Stránka 710

710 T. I. Rzeuska

2001, 7). An unexpected uncovering of a massive stone stele prompted

Auguste Mariette to start his own research (1871–1872), which resulted in the
discovery of the mastaba of Rahotep and Nofret. The promising discovery
encouraged other archaeologists: Gaston Maspero (1890; Harpur 2001,11–13),
William Matthew Flinders Petrie and Gerald Wainwright (1890–1891,
1909–1911; Petrie 1892; Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright 1910, Petrie,
Wainwright, Mackay 1912, 24–19), Alan Rowe (1929–1932; Rowe 1931a, 1931b,
1932), Mohsen Mahmud Khalil (1983; Leclant 1984;), Ali el–Khouli (1985–1988;
Leclant, Clerc 1986, Leclant, Clerc 1987, Leclant, Clerc 1989, Leclant,
Clerc 1994; El-Khouli 1991), and more recently Luis Manuel Gonzálves
(1997–2004; Leclant, Minault-Gout 1999; Leclant, Minault-Gout 2000;
http://www.museuegipci.com/index.php?research_archaeological_projects).
The above mentioned scholars concentrated primarily on exploring the
pyramid and the 4th dynasty mastabas of the Far Northern and Northern
Cemeteries. Only W.M.F Petrie excavated the area further away from the
pyramid where he found several tombs. Additionally, he identified the Far
Western Cemetery and the Near Western Cemetery west of the pyramid, the
so-called Approach (a ramp?), the Causeway, mud-brick remains interpreted
as the valley temple, and the South Cemetery east of the pyramid (Petrie 1892,
pl. I, VII; Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright 1910, pl. III, XVI). It was in the area
of the South Cemetery and the alleged valley temple where several pottery
deposits were discovered and like nearly all finds from the Old Kingdom
Meidum they were automatically „dated, by the positions, to the late third and
early fourth dynasties” (Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright 1910, 36; Shaw,
Nicholson 1995, 179; Baines, Malek 2000, 133).

Pottery deposits from mastabas nos. 24 and 27

Two pottery deposits were found in two mastabas, nos. 24 and 27, within the
South Cemetery, located south of the eastern end of the Causeway (fig. 1). The
first one came from the small and shallow shaft in the south-western corner of
mastaba no. 24. The shaft was not cut in the bedrock but built in the mudbrick
superstructure of the tomb. Broken bowls of various sizes and shapes as well as
a miniature of beer jar (fig. 2) were found inside it (Petrie 1892, 18, pl. XXX.1–8).
The second ceramic deposit was discovered in the „north hole” of mastaba
no. 27, south-west of the main shaft. The pottery found here typologically
resembles ceramics from mastaba no. 24, the only difference being the presence
of a medium-sized jar (fig. 3) (Petrie 1892, 18, pl. XXX.9–11). Both the deposits
were found in small and shallow ritual shafts – an interesting architectural
element of the late Old Kingdom mortuary complexes. Unlike the burial shafts,
they do not lead to a burial chamber. Additionally, they are shallower varying
between 1 to 2 metres in depth, and their mouth is also smaller. Where the
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:19 Stránka 711

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 711

Fig. 1 Plan of the eastern part of the Meidum necropolis; the following tombs are
marked: 1. Mastaba no. 24 with the enlarged plan of the surviving western part of the
tomb, 2. Mastaba no. 27 where the 6th Dynasty pottery deposits have been found
(after: Petrie 1892, Pl. I).
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 712

712 T. I. Rzeuska

Fig. 2 Pottery deposit from the ritual shaft of mastaba no. 24 in Meidum (top, after:
Petrie 1892, Pls. I, XXX) and its 6th Dynasty analogies from the West Saqqara
necropolis (bottom).

burial shaft is always situated in the central or northern part, the „ritual” shaft
is usually located in the southern part of the mortuary complex, south or south-
west of the burial shaft. The most common ceramic finds from the „ritual”
shafts are fragments of red-slipped vessels, bowls and plates, sometimes
accompanied by pieces of fabric, organic remains and miniature beer jars. The
fact that the broken vessels can be fully (or nearly fully) reconstructed suggests
that they had been either broken immediately before being placed in the shaft,
or possibly broken by being thrown into the shaft. Both their colour (red) and
the fact that all are broken bring to mind the ritual of „Breaking the Red Pots”
(about „ritual” shafts, their function and origin see Rzeuska 2002, Rzeuska 2006;
492–511; idem, 2011).
Analogical ceramic deposits have been uncovered in Sakkara’s 6th Dynasty
Western Necropolis by the Polish-Egyptian mission (MyÊliwiec et al. 2004;
MyÊliwec et al. 2010, see also the bibliography of the site in the books) (fig. 4).
All comprise vessels typologically identical to the deposits from Meidum
(figs. 2–3, 8) which allows for dating the Meidum assemblages as well as the
tombs they were found in (mastabas nos. 24 and 27) to the 6th Dynasty.
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 713

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 713

Fig. 3 Ceramic deposit from the ritual shaft of mastaba no. 27 in Meidum (top, after:
Petrie 1892, Pls. I, XXX) and its 6th Dynasty analogies from the West Saqqara
necropolis (bottom).

The so-called foundation deposit of Snefrew

Another pottery assemblage that should be given a closer look is one of the
two so-called foundation deposits of Snefrew discovered in the area of the
alleged valley temple (figs. 5, 7). “At this point was a cross wall running north and
south, and in this corner was a foundation deposit of old kingdom pottery. In this
building we also found another foundation deposit of similar pottery, and a broken
quartzite corn-grinder. All the potter of both deposits was broken, but enough
remained in each case to give the outlines” (Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright 1910,
8, pl. II, XXV.1–19). Since its discovery, the first assemblage has been
considered to be certain and well-dated (Weinsten 1973, 30–31, Stering 2009).
However, the problem is that it is neither a foundation deposit, nor does it
come from the times of Snefrew!
With a closer look, it becomes clear that this assemblage is lacking entirely the
typical elements of foundation deposits, such as plaques made from various
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 714

714 T. I. Rzeuska

Fig. 4 Deposit form the ritual

shaft no. 34 in the mastaba of
Pehi (late 6th Dynasty) in the
West Saqqara necropolis;
1. The deposit as found in situ
at the moment of discovery,
attention should be paid
to the fragments of broken
vessels, 2. Selection
of reconstructed vessels from the
ritual shaft no. 34.

2
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 715

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 715

Fig. 5 Plan of the eastern part of the Meidum necropolis showing the place of
discovery of the alleged Snefrew’s foundation deposit (after Petrie, Mackay, and
Wainwright 1910, Pl. II).
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 716

716 T. I. Rzeuska

Fig. 6a Ceramic material from the alleged foundation deposit (after Petrie, Mackay,
and Wainwright 1910, Pl. XXV).

metals, miniature tools and vessels, or bones from the sacrificed animals. It does,
rather surprisingly, contain the mentioned grindstone (Weinstein 1973) – an
uncharacteristic find for a foundation deposit. A thorough reading through
Petrie’s publication makes it clear that it is merely a pottery assemblage that was
possible to find „below the lowest water level that we could reach in a corner of the
brick wall at the foot of the pyramid causeway. It was doubtless a foundation deposit of
the building of Snefrew there, and is thus well date” (Petrie, Mackay, and Wainwright
1910, 36). The most important argument that speaks against interpreting this
assemblage as Snefrew’s foundation deposit is that all the vessels come from the
times of the 6th Dynasty, which is proved beyond doubt by the mentioned
analogies from the necropolis at Sakkara West explored by the Polish-Egyptian
mission (figs. 6, 9).
Hence, there are two possible interpretations of this assemblage. The first
explanation involves assumption that the area where the deposit has been
found is indeed the valley temple, making the ceramics in question remnants
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 717

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 717

Fig. 6b 6th Dynasty analogies of the foundation deposit from the West Saqqara
necropolis (see fig. 6a).
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 718

718 T. I. Rzeuska

3 4
Fig. 7 1–2. View of the causeway from the pyramid facing east, in the background:
remnants of the so-called valley temple which most likely is an enclosure wall
surrounding the Djedsnefrew town; 3. Close-up of the wall fragment south
of the causeway; 4. Surviving remains of the wall on the northern side
of the causeway in a state of preservation as of 2010 (photos T.I. Rzeuska).

of the mortuary cult activities that could have been carried out in this royal
complex as early as the 6th Dynasty. The second possible interpretation
suggests that the deposit came originally from a settlement, i.e. Djed-Snefrew,
located nearby and mentioned in the papyri from Abusir (Posener-Kriéger
1976, 268.63–624). The second hypothesis appears to be more likely given that
the structure thus far interpreted as the valley temple is most probably
a fragment of the settlement wall and the valley temple has yet to be
discovered (Stadelmann 1987, 87, pl. 20). The poor remnants of the mudbrick
wall(s) itself can still be observed nowadays (fig. 7). Though certainly
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 719

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 719

attractive, such hypothesis has yet to be supported by the actual evidence

which can be provided only by the fieldwork in the area.

Other areas attesting to activities in the late Old Kingdom

Meidum
The analysis of the published ceramic material from Meidum which has
been dated to the early Old Kingdom reveals a handful of objects of a later
date than the 4th Dynasty, primarily from the 6th Dynasty. The best examples
are bowls from tomb no. 22 (Petrie 1892, pl. XXX.35–36), pottery from tomb
no. 29 (Petrie 1892, pl. XXXI.4), vessels from the tunnel south of the pyramid
(Petrie 1892, pl. XXXI.2–28), as well as the ceramics from the nameless tombs
and other areas (Petrie 1892, pl. XXXI.2–3, 7, 10–11; Petrie, Mackay, and
Wainwright 1910, pl. XXV, 28–31, 35, 38–42). Additionally, the Egyptian
mission to work in Meidum in the 1980’s, mainly around the area of the
pyramid and the mastaba of Nefer-maat and Itet (no. 16), discovered pottery
which has been dated to the early 4th Dynasty based on the nearest published
parallels ranging from the 3rd to the 5th Dynasties (Milward-Jones 1991,
43–44, pl. 49–50). However, some of these ceramics come, in fact, from the 6th
Dynasty (nos. 7, 13, 14, 11). Unfortunately, the place of their discovery is
uncertain and so it is impossible to establish whether they came from the area
around the pyramid or the area surrounding the mastaba.

The post-Snefrew Meidum in the Old Kingdom

The private necropolis that existed in Meidum is treated as an integral part
of the royal funeray complex. Avoiding an in-depth discussion of the question
of who and when built the pyramid – the opinions remain divided whether it
had been started by Huni and completed by Snefrew, or built entirely by
Snefrew (Verner 2002, 166–167, Stadelmann 1987, 81–82, and especially
Harpur 2001, 21–26, Gundacker 2007) – and whether it functioned as a pyramid
or a solar temple (Wildung 1969), there are strong indications that this
structure was built in several stages. Occasionally, the evolution of the royal
necropolis in Meidum is compared to the evolution of the one in Saqqara,
where the royal monument was situated in the southern part of the complex,
while the mastabas of the high officials to the north of it. Similarly, in Meidum
the row of mastabas, the so-called Far Northern Cemetery and the Northern
Cemetery (mastabas nos. 1 through 16), lie to the north of the pyramid.
Mastaba no. 17, situated north-east of the pyramid, appears to mark the
southern limit of the complex and allegedly belongs to the anonymous prince
sometimes thought to be the prematurely deceased heir to the throne
(Stadelmann 1987, 82, 87, Fig. 20: Grab des Kronprinzes). These necropoleis,
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 720

720 T. I. Rzeuska

Fig. 8 Two bolws found in the ritual shaft of mastaba no. 24: bent-sided with a spout
rim (UC17613) and carinated bowl, the so-called Meidum bowl (UC17616, both
vessels courtesy of the Petrie Museum University College, London), as well as the
analogical vessels from the West Saqqara necropolis: bent-sided with a spout rim
(SQ 507) and carinated bowl (SQ 1360) (Photo Z. KoÊç and J. Dàbrowski
respectively).

thought to be the earliest in Meidum, are dated either to the early reign of
Snefrew (Stadelmann 1987, 81; Alexanian 1999, 171; Reisner 1936, 206–218,
Bolshakov 1991), or sometimes even to the late 3rd Dynasty (Harpur 2001, 29).
Snefrew is thought to have initiated the pyramid in the early period of his
reign to later, around half-way through his rule, abandon the project due to
unknown reasons and move it to Dahshur (Bard 2007, 135; Lehner 2001, 99;
Verner 2002, 168). The pharaoh returned to Meidum towards the end of his
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 721

Meidum revisited. Remarks on the late Old Kingdom topography 721

Fig. 9 1–2. The plate (UC17601) and carinated bowl, the so-called Meidum bowl
(UC17607) from the alleged foundation deposit found in Meidum (both vessels
courtesy of the Petrie Museum, University College, London). The analogical vessels
from the 6th Dynasty necropolis at West Saqqara: 3. A plate (SQ 459) and Meidum
bowl (SQ 1388) (Photos J. Dàbrowski).

life to complete the structure and at the same time another necropolis,
conceptually comparable to Khufu’s Western Cemetery at Giza, emerged to
the west of the pyramid. However, most of these tombs were left unfinished
and their owners abandoned Meidum yet again in favour of Dahshur (Lehner
2001, 99).
Reading the above reconstruction of events, one can assume that the
emergence and development of the private necropolis in Meidum depended
entirely (or almost entirely) on the progress of construction works of the
pyramid: the private tombs appeared automatically with the arrival of the
groups of workmen raising the pyramid and when the workmen left the site,
the works on the private necropolis ceased as well. However, such plain
assumption appears to be somewhat risky considering the fact that a major
part of the necropolis remains completely unexplored, while the data on
which this hypothesis has been built come from the previous century and
must be revised.
Thanks to the written sources, especially the papyri from Abusir, it has been
possible to confirm the existence of Djed-Snefrew town nearby the necropolis
zlom664-722_2_dil 13.4.2012 10:20 Stránka 722

722 T. I. Rzeuska

from as early as the 5th Dynasty (Posener-Kriéger 1976, 268.63–624). If there was
a settlement, why wouldn’t there be a contemporary private necropolis,
a complementary element to every settlement site? The existence of the 6th
Dynasty mastabas east of the pyramid, like the above described tombs nos. 24
and 27, strongly supports such scenario. The presence of the town is confirmed
by the written sources and most likely by the enclosure wall along with the
pottery comprised in the so-called foundation deposit, while the existence of the
private necropolis is proved by the tombs themselves.

Summarising the above discussion, the ceramic material presented in this

article proves that Meidum had not been abandoned during the 4th Dynasty
but continued to function in the Old Kingdom until as late as the 6th Dynasty.
The site holds many secrets that have yet to be revealed – just to mention the
recently discovered new corridor in the pyramid (Dormion, Verd’hurt 2000;
Verd’hurt, Dormion 2003). And finally, it is worth citing the words of
D. ,Wildung closing the article on Meidum in Lexikon der Ägyptologie:
‘Pyramidenkomplex und Nekropole bedürften dringend weiterer Untersuchungen’
(Wildung 1982).
 Bibliography 823

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P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka I

Plate 1 Mask of Senu after

conservation.

Plate 2 Small mound on the entrance of Shaft 65, after partly removed.
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka II

Plate 3 Inner coffin of Sobekhat.

Plate 4 General view of the relief depicted on (SC/north/2004/12),

and (SC/north/2004/12/A1). (M. Frouz)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka III

Plate 5 Details from the scene depicted on (SC/north/2004/12). (M. Frouz)

Plate 6 Groups of King Sahure’s officials depicted on (SC/north/2004/12),

and (SC/north/2004/12/A1). (M. Frouz)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka IV

Plate 7 Hesi false-door

in the right side-wall of the
entrance-portico. (V. Chauvet)

Plate 8 Senedjemi Inti right side-wall

of the entrance-portico. (V. Chauvet)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka V

Plate 9 Hesi entrance-portico. (V. Chauvet)

Plate 10 Hesi Appeal to Visitors,

entrance-doorway,
left thickness. (V. Chauvet)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka VI

Plate 11 Akhetmehu (G 2375)

portico-chapel.
(V. Chauvet)

Plate 12 Akhetmehu (G 2375)

back-wall, right side.
(V. Chauvet)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:36 Stránka VII

Plate 13 Tjetu Kanesut (G 2001) portico-chapel.

Plate 14 Tjetu Kanesut (G 2001)

right side-wall.
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:36 Stránka V III

Plate 15 Lake of Abusir, location of Trench A. (M. Bárta)

Plate 16 Mudbrick platform in Trench A, dated to the Third Dynasty. (M. Bárta)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka IX

Plate 17 Mudbrick plaform in Trench A, detail of the steps (?). (M. Bárta)

Plate 18 Trench C, late Old Kingdom tomb with a standing false door of Sankhuptah.
(M. Bárta)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka X

Plate 19 Stela of Wepemnefret. Photograph © [2012] Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Plate 20 Hemiunu standing on the north section of the embrasure in mastaba G 4000.
(Vienna)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XI

Plate 21 Relief depicting the tomb owner of G 4260 (Junker’s mastaba IIn) wearing
a panther skin. (Vienna)

Plate 22 Relief depicting the torso of the tomb owner of G 4260 (Junker’s mastaba IIn).
(Vienna)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XII

Plate 23 Bust
of Ankh-haf (reign of
Khafre). Photograph
© [2012] Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston.

Plate 24 The magnezite bowl bearing the name of king Huni.

P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:37 Stránka X III

Plate 25 The detail of the royal name showing the technique of a pointed tool pressed
in the soft material.

Plate 26 Chapel of Isisnofret.

P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XIV

Plate 27 Chapel of Isisnofret.

Plate 28 Shaft leading

to the burial chamber
of Isisnofret.
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XV

Plate 29 Skulls of a child and of an adult woman with black coloring on the orbits
and forehead.

Plate 30 Sarcophagus of Isisnofret.

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Plate 31 Sarcophagus lid.

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Plate 32 Funerary cache of Isisnofret.

Plate 33 Results
of the geophysical
survey at the valley
temple of Nyuserra.
(Archive of the Czech
Institute
of Egyptology)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XVIII

Plate 34 Results of the geophysical survey at the causeway of Nyuserra.

(Archive of the Czech Institute of Egyptology)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XIX

Plate 35 Photographic Image of Limestone Relief Fragment – Tokyo Bridgestone

Museum of Art (Inventory Number: Gaichÿ 2; 29.5 ¥ 91.0 cm).
Special thanks to the Tokyo Bridgestone Museum of Art for permission to reproduce
this image.
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XX

Plate 36 The Kikugawa fragment.

P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:37 Stránka XXI

Plate 37 The Christie’s fragment.

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Plate 38 The Royal-Athena fragment.

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Plate 39 Recomposition 1: the large biographic inscription.

P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:38 Stránka X XIV

Plate 40 Recomposition 2: the minor biographic inscription.

P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:38 Stránka XXV

Plate 41 General plan of the sun temple based on the laser scanner survey.
(processing by G. Iannone, M. Nuzzolo, P. Zanfagna)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:38 Stránka X XVI

Plate 42 Reconstruction of the general plan of the “magazines” based on the laser
scanner survey. (processing by M. Nuzzolo, R. Pirelli, P. Zanfagna)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:38 Stránka XXVII

Plate 43 Burial chamber of Unas, wall section to the north of the sarcophagus.
(S. Vannini)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:38 Stránka XXVIII

Plate 44 Burial chambre of Unas, wall section to the south of the sarcophagus.
(S. Vannini)

Plate 45 Burial chamber of Unas, detail of the north wall. (S. Vannini)
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:38 Stránka X XIX
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 23.4.2012 9:26 Stránka XXX

A B U S I R A N D S AQ Q A R A
IN THE YEAR 2010 /2
Miroslav Bárta, Filip Coppens a Jaromír Krejãí
(editofii)

Autofii pfiíspûvkÛ
Katarína Arias Kytnarová, Tarek El Awady, Masahiro Baba, Ladislav Bare‰,
Miroslav Bárta, Nathalie Beaux, Susanne Binder, Alanah Buck, John Burn,
Vivienne Gae Callender, Louis Chaix, Violaine Chauvet, Václav Cílek, Filip
Coppens, Veronika Dulíková, Andrés Diego Espinel, Laurel Flentye, Hans
Goedicke, Yannis Gourdon, Mary Hartley, Harold M. Hays, Jifií Janák, Lucie
Jirásková, Andrea Kahlbacher, Naguib Kanawati, Nozomu Kawai, Mohamed
Ismail Khaled, Jaromír Krejãí, Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz, Claudia M. Lacher-
Raschdorff, Renata Landgráfová, Lenka Lisá, Jason Livingstone-Thomas,
Michele Marcolin, Mohamed Megahed, Radek Mikulá‰, Karol MyÊliwiec,
Hana Navrátilová, Massimiliano Nuzzolo, Boyo G. Ockinga, Adela Oppenheim,
Rosanna Pirelli, Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska, Maarten J. Raven, Ilona
Regulski, Teodozja Rzeuska, Anthony Spalinger, Rainer Stadelmann, Julie
Stauder Porchet, Eugen Strouhal, ZdeÀka SÛvová, Bfietislav Vachala, Miroslav
Verner, Hana Vymazalová, Leslie Anne Warden, Sakuji Yoshimura,
Mohammad Youssef, Lubica Zelenková, Christiane Ziegler

Vydala
Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy v Praze,
nám. Jana Palacha 2, 110 00 Praha 1

Kniha vychází s finanãní podporou M·MT âR, grant MSM-0021620826

Obálka (s pouÏitím rekonstrukce laskavû poskytnuté Luca Bonatti/

Laboratoriorosso Productions) a grafická úprava Jolana Malátková

Vydání první, Praha 2011

Sazba a tisk SERIFA ® s. r. o., Jinonická 80, 115 00 Praha 5

ISBN 978-80-7308-385-4
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.20 12 11:38 Stránka X XXI
P€ÍLOHA_2_dil 19.4.2012 11:38 Stránka XXXII