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CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1 AND 2 WITH STATISTICS
PREPARED BY: PROF. RDM

Meaning of Research
= scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with
reality.
= systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

A. According to Purpose
• Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables under investigation with the
aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better
• Directive Research – determines what should be done based on the findings this is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition, if there is any
• Illuminative Research – is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction
of the components of educational systems and aims to show the connections among, for example, students’ characteristics, organizational
pattern and policies, and educational consequences

B. According to Goal
• Basic or pure Research – is done for the development of theories and Principles.
• Applied Research – is the application of the results of pure search. This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles. aims to test
theories and concepts developed for verification, application, development and support and their relationship to the existing fund of
knowledge

C. According to the Level of Investigation

• Exploratory Research – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
• Descriptive Research – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.
• Experimental Research – the experiment studies the effects of the variables on each other.

D. According to the Type of Analysis

• Analytical Research – the researcher attempts to identify and is isolate the components of the research situation.
• Holistic Research – begins with the total situation. Focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships.

E. According to Scope – Under this category is Action Research. This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem
which is not so big. It is almost problem solving.

F. According to Choose of Answers to Problems

• In Evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
• In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than has been available.

G. According to Statistical Content

• Quantitative or statistical research – is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential
statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes
comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.
• Non-quantitative research – This is research in which the use of the quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

H. According to Time Element

• Historical research describes what was.
• Descriptive research describes what is.
• Experimental research describes what will be.

Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)

• Determining (recognizing) the problem
• Forming a hypothesis
• Doing the library search
• Designing the study
• Developing the instruments for collecting data
• Collecting the date
• Analyzing the data
• Determining implications and conclusions from the findings
• Making recommendations for further research.

Standard format of Thesis Writing

• The Problem and the Setting
• Related Literature and Studies
• Methods of Research and Procedures
• Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data 5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

Attributes of Good Research Problem

S = Specific – specifically stated

M = Measurable – easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of data
A = Achievable – data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at precise results
R = Realistic – real results are not manipulated
T = Time-bound – time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity the better

Capsulizing Research Problem into Title

• It should clearly and specifically state
• Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the title

The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
 CHAPS ONLINE TUTORIAL SERVICES
CRIMINOLOGY ● PENOLOGY OFFICER EXAMINATION ● FIRE OFFICER EXAMINATION
2780 Adriano St., Brgy. 182, Gagalangin, Tondo, Manila, Philippines 1012
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• Relationship between and among variables should be indicated 4. Target population should be indicated in the title to achieve specificity
• It should have a maximum of twenty substantive words.
• Function words should not be placed at the end of each line
• Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid Note:

Avoid redundancies like “A Review of…”, “An Analysis of…”, An Evaluation of…”, “An Assessment….” and the like because even without
those terms, the researcher will review, evaluate, assess or analyze the problem posted in the study.

Avoid Plagiarism
Plagiarism is an act of incorporating into one’s work the work of another without indicating the source
= the unacknowledged used of somebody else’s words or ideas
= an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas, writings, and statements of others without giving due credit

Theoretical Framework
✓ Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.
✓ The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted in the study

Types of Theories
• Descriptive Theory = seeks to describe a phenomenon
• Prescriptive Theory = seeks to tell how and sometimes why one should or ought to behave in certain ways

Guidelines in Choosing Theory

• Research must be well-founded on universally accepted, known and tested theory, principles or concepts.
• Research may be anchored on several theories available.

Presentation of Theoretical Framework

Ex. The framework of the study is anchored on …………..……………

Conceptual Framework

= an illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical framework of the study
= it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or personally conceptualized by the researcher

Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm

• The research paradigm must clearly show the major impact of the cited theory on the variables (dependent and independent variables) of
the study.
• An existing theory may be capsulized in a research paradigm which may be adopted with some modifications.
• There must be textual explanations of the variables in the paradigm. Textual explanations should come before the figure or paradigm.

Assumption and Hypothesis

• Assumption = self-evident truth which is based upon known fact or phenomenon. it is not usually answered or proven because it is
assumed true or correct which are beyond the control of the researcher.

Note: In historical and descriptive researches, it is often times not explicitly expressed but left implicit, that is, unwritten

• Hypothesis = tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about
the answer to a specific question.

Research Instrument = a device designed or adopted by researcher for data gathering

Classification of Research Instrument

• Researcher Instrument = the researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct involvement of the other people
• Subject Instrument = the information is collected directly from the respondents
• Informant Instrument = the information or data is collected from those knowledgeable of the subject matter

Commonly Used Instruments

• Questionnaire = written or printed form containing the questions to be asked on the respondents.

Types of Questionnaires
• Open-Ended = respondents are forced to answer the questions asked in the questionnaire.
=best suited to a qualitative research study

• Closed-Ended = also referred as guided response type, closed form or restricted.

= respondents are guided in answering questions
= options may be provided like in multiple choice test while answers are based on the rating scales provided

2. Interview = involves face to face contact between the interviewee and the interviewer

Types of Interviews
• Structured Interview = there is a set of carefully prepared questions and their expected answers are provided
• Unstructured Interview = respondents are free to express their opinions
= also termed as non-directive or informal

3. Observation = may be defined as perceiving data through the sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell
=sense of sight is the most important and most used
= most direct way and most widely used in studying behavior

Types of Observation
• Formal Observation = researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible responses may also be outlined
• Informal Observation = needs critical evaluation of the observation made to avoid biased results

The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
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2780 Adriano St., Brgy. 182, Gagalangin, Tondo, Manila, Philippines 1012
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= recommended for qualitative research

Qualities of Good Research Instrument

• Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure

Types of Validity
• Content-Related Validity = refers to content and format of the instrument which must answer the following criteria: appropriateness;
logical; adequate; and, proper format
• Criterion-Related Validity = refers to the relationship between scores obtained using one or more instruments or measures
• Construct-Related Validity = refers to the nature of psychological construction or characteristics being measured by the instrument

2. Reliability = extent to which the instrument is dependable, self-consistent and stable

=consistency of responses from moment to moment
= even a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the same results
= reliable test may not always be valid
3. Usability = otherwise known as Practicability
= degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used. It may be determined thru:

• ease of administration
• ease of scoring
• ease of interpretation
• low cost
• proper mechanical makes up

Statistics = science which deals with the systematic process of collecting, organizing, classifying, presenting, interpreting and analyzing data

Interpretation of Data = an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is done to give meaning to data generated from the instrument to
answer the problems raised in the study

Levels of Interpretation
1. Table Reading
2. Implications or Meaning of Data
3. Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results are to be compared with the existing knowledge or finished studies

THESIS FORMAT

Preliminary Pages
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Acknowledgment
d. Dedication
e. Table of Contents
f. List of Tables
g. List of Figures
h. Abstract

CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction
✓ Presents the problem. What the problem is all about
✓ Rational or reasons for conducting the study

Setting of the Study

✓ Locality of the study. Place where the study is to be conducted
Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
✓ Theoretical / conceptual foundation of the study
Statement of the Problem
✓ General and specific statement of the problem determined in the study
Assumption or Hypothesis
✓ Self-evident truth based upon known fact or phenomenon (Assumption) Tentative conclusion or
answer to specific questions (Hypothesis)
Significance of the Study
✓ Contribution of the result of the study to individuals, institutions, administrators, society, etc…
Scope and Limitation of the Study
✓ Boundaries in terms of time, sample, location (Scope)
✓ Weakness of the study beyond the control of the researcher (Limitation)
Definition of Terms
It can be lexical or operational definition or a combination thereof of different terms used in the study which are arranged
alphabetically

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Foreign Literature
✓ Published articles from foreign countries
Local Literature
✓ Locally published articles
Foreign Studies
✓ Foreign unpublished articles

The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
 CHAPS ONLINE TUTORIAL SERVICES
CRIMINOLOGY ● PENOLOGY OFFICER EXAMINATION ● FIRE OFFICER EXAMINATION
2780 Adriano St., Brgy. 182, Gagalangin, Tondo, Manila, Philippines 1012
Globe Contact no. (0926) – 056 – 8167; Email Address: noliboyingcad@gmail.com

Local Studies
✓ Locally unpublished articles
Synthesis
✓ Relevance of literature and studies to the present research

CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES Research Method
✓ Brief description and justification of the research method used in the study

Population and Sampling Scheme

Brief presentation of the entire population of the study and the type of sampling techniques used in selecting sample respondents

Description of the Respondents

✓ Contains detailed description of the respondents as to age, sex, marital status, nature of employment, etc… Research Instrument
✓ Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data was develop as well as its detailed description.
Validation of Instrument
✓ States brief discussion on how the instrument was validated
✓ Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject matter but are not part of the respondents of the study

Procedures in Gathering Data

✓ Contains the step-by-step procedures used by the researcher in reaching the respondents in order to gather data Statistical Treatment
✓ Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance with the specific problem and hypothesis to be tested

CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
✓ Contains the answers to all the sub-problems of the study
✓ Answers to the problems are stated one by one according to the arrangement of sub-problems for clarity and understanding
✓ Answers are presented in textual and tabular forms. Textual explanations come after the tables

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The introductory paragraph should contain the summary of statement of the problem, hypothesis as well as research design.

Summary of Findings
✓ Contains the specific findings/results of the study
✓ Presented as they were organized and categorized in the sub-problems of the study Written in past tense
Conclusions
✓ Written in present tense
✓ Should be based on the findings of the study
✓ Logical and valid outgrowth of the findings
✓ Should not contain any numerals from the findings
✓ Organized and categorized according to the sub-problems

Recommendations
✓ An appeal to people or institutions concerned to solve the problems discovered in the study
✓ No recommendations that will be made for problems that were not discovered in the study Practical and
attainable

CRIME STATISTICS - refers to the measure of the level or number of crimes.

- The collection or study of numerical data of crimes recorded/reported to the police.
- it uses the terms index crimes and non-index crimes in classifying crimes.

Index crimes are crimes which are sufficiently significant and which occur with sufficient regularity to be meaningful, such as murder, homicide,
physical injury, robbery, theft and rape.

Non-index crimes are crimes that are not classified as index crimes. Violations of special laws and other crimes against moral and order. These
crimes are generated from the result of positive police-initiated operations.

STATISTICAL FORMULA:
1. Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) – percentage of solved cases out of the total number of reported crime incidents handled by the police
for a given period of time. It is a general measure of law enforcement agency’s investigative capability or efficiency.

Formula:

CSE=

2. Crime Rate – the number of incidents in a given period of time for every 100, 000 inhabitants of an area/place.

Formula:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
CR =

3. Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) – the average number of crime incidents occurred per
month for every 100, 000 inhabitants in a certain area. Formula:

The text of this manuscript, or any part and/or portion thereof, shall not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical
such as but not limited to photocopying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and the publisher. Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, and/or dissemination of any portion of this book shall be prosecuted in accordance with
law.
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2780 Adriano St., Brgy. 182, Gagalangin, Tondo, Manila, Philippines 1012
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AMCR =

4. Variance (or % change) – one way of analyzing crime trends. It measures the percentage change over a given period of time.

Formula:

5. Crime Analysis

a. Percentage Share of Crime Volume of a Certain Area

Formula:

b. Percentage Share of the Occurrence of a Type of Crime

Formula:

Central tendency
a central tendency is a central or typical value for a probability distribution. Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages.
The term central tendency dates from the late 1920s. The most common measures of central tendency are the arithmetic mean, the median, and the
mode.

Range
the difference between the smallest and highest numbers in a list or set. To find the range, first put all the numbers in order. Then subtract (take
away) the lowest number from the highest. Interquartile Range
the spread of the middle half of your distribution. Quartiles segment any distribution that's ordered from low to high into four equal parts.

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