SOIL RESOURCES

Soil:
- the topmost layer of the Earth’s land surface
- a thin layer of loose mixture of small rock particles and rotting organic matter that covers much of the land
- Derived from parent rock material through a process of breakup or wear or tear
Formation of soil:
- Various forces of nature: changing temperature, running water, and wind
- Forces of nature + chemical and organic changes = evolution of soil
Soil Erosion:
- Faulty agricultural practices
- Overgrazing
- Deforestation
Constituents of soil:
- Decomposed vegetal and animal remains - humus - fertility of the soil - the strength of soil to support plant life
Fertile soil:
- Adequate moisture - supply essential nutrients to the plants
- Sufficient depth - enables the plants to grow their roots
- Rich in nutrients like N, P, and K - basic plant nourishment
- Organic matter - improve the structure of soil
Soil classification:
- Residuary/Sedimentary soil: in-situ - found in their original position by the breaking up of parent rocks
: Eg: black soil, red soil, laterite soil, desert soil
- Transported soil: ex-situ - transported by various agents of erosion and consist of sediments carried and
deposited by rivers and winds

GR: India is a vast region with a varied natural environment. There are several physiographic regions and different types of
climate. Hence, a number of soil particles are found in India.

Alluvial soil/riverine soil (mainly found in the river basins):

- Formed by the sediments brought down by rivers
- Rich in chemical ingredients
- Rivers deposit very fine particles of soil - alluvium
- A mixture of sand, clay, and silt-loam
- Found in northern plains, coastal plains, and deltas
- Formed by Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
- 2 types: Khadar & Bhangar
 BHANGAR/ OLDER ALLUVIUM KHADAR/YOUNGER ALLUVIUM

Composed of lime nodules (kanker) & have a clayey Light in colour & composed of newer deposits of fine
composition sil & clay

Not very fertile Very fertile and ideal for intensive cultivation

Above the flood levels of rivers and presents a Flood waters deposit new layers every year
terrace-like structure

Occupy the largest part of the northern plains The area in the northern plains that lies below the
flood levels.

GR: Khadar is more fertile than bhangar soil as new layers are deposited year after year during monsoon floods
● Distribution:
1) Inland Alluvium:
- Found: plains of the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers extending from Punjab and Sindh to
Bangladesh and Assam
- Eg: Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, WB, a part of Gujarat, patches in Rajasthan
2) Deltaic Alluvium:
- Found: deltas of Ganga-Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri
3) Coastal Alluvium:
- Tidal origin
- Found: coastal strips of Peninsular India & plains of Gujarat
● Characteristics:
- Formed- deposition of river load as it flows from its upper to its lower course
- Upper reaches of the river - soil is coarse, large, and non-uniform - piedmont plains;
Move down a river valley, the soil particles become smaller and more uniform
- Upper Ganga Valley - dry, porous, sandy, faint yellow, and consists of clay, and organic matter
Lower Ganga Valley - West Bengal and Bangladesh - more compact, less coarse, and more moist
- Light and porous - easily tillable
- Fertile soil - rich in potash and lime
- Deficient in nitrogen and humus except for the alluvium of the Ganga deltaic region which is rich in
humus
- Growth of a large variety of rabi and kharif crops
- The soil in the drier areas is more alkaline
● Crops:
- Rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, gram and oilseeds, jute (lower Ganga-Brahmaputra valley)
-
Black Soil/Regur Soil/ Black Cotton Soil/Lava Soil (formed by the denudation of volcanic rocks):
- Residual soil
● Distribution:
- Deccan lava tract-parts of MH, MP, GJ, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, RJ, UP, some parts of Tamil Nadu
 ● Characteristics:
- Fine textured and clayey in nature
- High quantities of lime, Fe, Mg, and generally poor in P, N, and organic matter
- Black in colour - formed from weathered lava rocks
- Very clayey - moisture retentive - expands when wet and becomes difficult to plough; during the dry season - black
soil shrinks and develops big cracks which help in air circulation (GR)
- Very fertile
- In any season it has moisture stored in its subsoil
● Crops:
- Cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits, and vegetables, tobacco, sugarcane, cotton
GR: The moisture retentiveness of black soil makes it suitable for dry farming.

Red Soil:
- Develops on old-crystalline rocks
- Under prolonged weathering by rainfall, ancient crystalline and metaphoric rocks of the Peninsular plateau
- Red due to large amounts of iron oxide and yellow in hydrated form
● Distribution:
- Second largest soil
- Found: plateau region of peninsular India from Tamil Nadu (S) to Bundelhand (N) and Rajmahal Hills (E) to
Kutch (W)
- States: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, South MH, parts of Odisha, TG
● Characteristics:
- Got its name from its colour
- Porous + high percentage of iron oxide
- Shallow; pH = 6.6 to 8.0
- Loose and aerated (loamy and sandy)
- Poor in N, P, K, and organic matter
- Ideal for farming as it is formed in poor rainfall area
- Not fertile but responds to fertilizers
- Needs irrigation support for cultivation
- Contains soluble slats in small quantities
- Deep and fertile in lowland; thin and poor in highlands
● Crops:
- Rice, Ragi, Tobacco
- Groundnut - coarse soil at higher levels; Sugarcane - heavy clays + lower levels
-
Laterite Soil:
- Atmospheric weathering of rocks under conditions of high rainfall and temperature with alternate wet and dry
periods
- Residual soil - formed by leaching (nutrients get percolated down below the soil due to heavy rain) due to the
tropical rains; thus leaving the top soli infertile - desilication
- 2 types: Upland laterites and lowland laterites
 Upland laterites: formed over hills and uplands - transported by streams towards lowlands - Lowland Laterites
● Distribution:
- Highlands areas of the Peninsular Plateau, summits of Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills
- States: MP, MH, Odisha, WB, Andhra Pradesh, TG, Karnataka, Kerala, TN
● Characteristics:
- Coarse, soft and friable
- Red due to iron oxide which is formed by leaching
- Porous soil; silica is removed from it by chemical action; poor in lime and Mg and deficient in N
- Does not retain moisture - not fertile
- Acidic in nature as alkalis are leached
- Suitable for building purposes
● Crops:
- Tapioca, cashew nuts, tea, coffee, ragi, rice, sugarcane, cinchona

Soil Erosion:
- The removal of the topsoil cover by water, wind, and human activities
1) Water:
(i) Sheet Erosion: occurs on gentle slopes and is the slow removal of a thin layer of soil when vegetation is
destroyed; rainwater washes away the thin layer of bare soils
(ii) Rill Erosion: sheet erosion continues for long, silt-laden run-off forms many finger-shaped rills or grooves
over a large area
(iii) Gully Erosion: heavy downpour - deep gullies are made on bare soils on account of water run-off
: removes nutrients and heavy load of loose soils, making the soil unproductive
: makes water muddy and is seen in the Chambal Valley region
(iv) Leaching: during rainfall the nutrients in the soil are leached or percolated below the top layer.
(v) Sea/Shore Erosion: tidal waters of the sea cause considerable damage to the soil along the coast
: eastern and western coasts of India
(vi) Stream Bank Erosion: Streams and rivers change their courses by cutting one bank and depositing the silt
loads on the other; during flash floods, the damage is accelerated
: Prevalent in the flood plains of Ganga, Yamuna, and other rivers
: States - UP, MP, RJ

2) Human Action:
(i) Loss of vegetation cover leads to sheet erosion on hilly slopes - water washes the soil down
Absence of vegetation cover and washing off of the absorbent topsoil, rills begin to appear on the landscape
Water runoff during heavy rains - deep groves - Gully erosion
(ii) Outer Himalayas (the Shiwaliks), Eastern and Western Ghats - deforestation + heavy monsoon rainfall +
shifting cultivation (local population) - Sheet/Rill/Gully erosion
(iii) Uncontrolled grazing of domestic animals in the valleys and the upper slopes
 3) Wind:
- Soil particles 0.1 - 0.5mm in size - bouncing/hopping fashion - saltation
- Greater than 0.5mm - rolling - soil creep
- Less than 0.1 mm - suspension

● Causes of soil erosion:

(i) Heavy Population Pressure on Land
(ii) Nature of rainfall: heavy downpour in monsoon season + drought at rest of the year
(iii) Overgrazing
(iv) Bad farming techniques
(v) Topography: Northern parts - steep slopes + heavy rainfall
(vi) Deforestation

● Regions of soil erosion:

- Rajasthan at the top of the soil eroded regions, followed by MP, MH, UP, GJ, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
- Badlands of Chambal and Yamuna rivers
- Piedmont zone of Western Himalayas
- Chota-Nagpur plateau

● Prevention:
(i) Terrace farming: Terraces - bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away by running water
(ii) Shelter Belts: plant trees in several rows to check wind erosion - wind breaks
(iii) Contour ploughing: prevents soil being washed away by rainwater or by surface run-off
(iv) Strip cropping: crops grown in alternate strips of land to check the impact of the winds
(v) Construction of dams: control erosion of soil
(vi) Plugging Gullies: gullies are plugged with deposition of silt during heavy rains
(vii) Planting trees: enhance capacity of the soil to retain water

● Soil conservation:
- Prevention of soil loss from erosion/ prevention of reduced fertility of soil caused by over usage, acidifciation,
salinisation or other soil contamination
(i) Loss of fertile topsoil - gradual loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity
(ii) Lowering of underground water table and decaying soil moisture
(iii) Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands; increase in frequency of droughts and floods
(iv) Silting of river and canal beds; recurrence of landslides; adverse effect on economic prosperity and cultural development