Test of Cement

One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR

Recap of Previous Lecture

CEM
Stone and rocks
Classification
Brick

03
 Paint & Distemper and Varnish

One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR

 Miscellaneous

One Shot
One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR
Glass & Steel
One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR
Lecture No. 01 DEVES.H PATHAK SIR
Lecture No.- 02 DEVESH PATHAIK SIR
Lecture No.- 03 DEVESH PATHAIK SIR
 Stone Masonry

One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR

One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR
One Shot
One Shot DEVES.H PATHAK SIR
 Shoring, Flooring, Scaffolding, Underpinning

One Shot
 Concrete

Lecture No.- 02 DEVES.H PATHAK SIR

 Short Notes
Subject - BMC & CT

Introduction of BMC
Constituent of port and cement (Raw material)
Trick:
(ygj) – (lkbZ) – (eLr )
L – SAI – MAST

lime > Silica > Alumina > Ironxide > Magnesia > Alkalies > SO3
Sulphate
63% 20% 6% 3% 2% 1% tried

1.5%

Approx 1% both

Oxide Composite % Avg. % Function If excess quantity then?

Lime (CaO) 60-65 63 Control Unsoundness
• Strength
• soundness
Deficiency
• Strength
• Strength time
Silica (SiO2) 11-25 20% Strength Cause slow setting
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8 6% Quick setting Lowers strength
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6 3% Color + fusion of different Color + fusion of different ingredient
ingredient • axis as flux
• axis as flux
Magnesia (Mgo) 0.5-4% 2% color + hardness Cracks in mortar, makes on sound
cement.
Alkalies (Na20 + 0.5-1 1% Residues Efflorescence & cracks
u20)
Sulphertroxide 1-2 1.5% - Makes cement on sound.
(i) Strength responsibility
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.2
 BMC

• Lime
• Silica
(ii) Quick setting → Alumina
(ii) hardness → Magnesia oxide
(iii) soundless
• Sulphur
• lime
• magnesia
(iv) mitral setting lime
• gypsum
• silica
Test name Purpose Imp. Points
Fineness Test Measure mean size of grains Sieve method → use 30N sieve → Find %
Air per mobility method → Nurse & Balne’s method
Sedimentation method → Wanger turbidity method
• In Air per mobility method fineness measured in % residue
by weight
OPC 10 2250
PPC 5 3000
RHC 5 3250

Consistent Test To find quantity of water to form a Vicat apparatus

(P%) paste of normal consistion

10 mm diameter plunger

50 mm length
Setting time (0.85 to get FST Vicat apparatus
P%) Square needle, (1 × 1) mm

Note: OPC IST min = 30 min

Final setting time To get FST Vicat apparatus
(085 P) 5 mm diameter annular ring
OPC FST max = 40 hr
Soundness test To check soundness of cement Lech atelier test × for lime only free ×  10mm
(0.87 P)% means volume change Autoclave test → For lime & magnesia free →  0.8%
• no test for ‘sulphur’

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.3

 BMC

Compressive To check compaction strength • cube of 50 cm2 surface area eryc side = 50 cm
strength test (P/4 (OPC) MPa
• take cement : sand  1 : 3
+ 3)% Grad 3 day 7 day 28 d
• min 3 cube
± 1 hr ± 2hr ± 4 hr
• 27 ± 2°C
33 16 22 23
• cube cast in 2 layers in leak proof method
43 22 33 43
53 27 37 53
Tensile strength To get tensile strength Min 6 Briquette OPC
test or (P/5 + 3 days  2MPa
2.5)/Brigette test 7 days  2.5MPa
Heat of hydration To get tensile strength Colorimeter method
test (i) Rate of Hydration :
C4AF
C3A
Fraction
Hydrated C3S
C2S
log time, days
Trick: 4 – 3 = 1
4  3 1 2 
C4AF C3A C3S C2S

(ii) Ratio of neat evaluation:

(if equal amount of all taken)
Trick: 3 + 1 = 4
3  1 4  2 
C4A C3SC4AF C2S
865 500 420 260
Specific gravity To get tensile strength Literately Flask
test OPC specific gravity around = 3.15

Bought compound:

Name Symbol Nick name Avg% Compositi Properties

on (%)
Tr: Calcium Silicate C3S Aelite 40 30-50 • Best cementing matrix material
(3CaO-SiO2) • Early strength
 use
• road works
• cold
• prefabrication work
• Resistance to freezing & throwing
Di Calcium Silicate 2 C2S Belite 32 25-40 • late strength (ultimate strength)
CaO-SiO2 • dam
• bridge
• resistance to chemical attack
Tri-calcium aluminate C3A Celite 10 8-12 • Flash set {due to Alumina → quick
3 CaO-Al2O3 setting}
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.4
 BMC

• Most responsible for initial setting

time (IST)
• Resistance to sulphate attack
Tetra calcium Alumina C4AF Felite 8 6-10 • Poorest commenting material
ferrite • Responsible for flash set but generate
less heat

Difference between flash set & False set False set

Flash set (Quick set) False set

Rapid development of permanent rigidity along Rapid development of rigidity {premature stiffening or hardening}in fresh
with high heat of evolution mix cement paste, mortar, concrete with no appreciable evolution of heat.
Reasons: Reasons: (i) Intergrading too hot clinker, zypsum, dehydrates and forms
(i) C3A ↑ (more) zypsum hemihydrate (casuals, ½ H2O)
(ii) Zypsum ↓↓ (less) (ii) Presence of alkalis
(iii) Presence of Alkalies (normally sulphates)

Type of cement Imp. Points

(i) RHC (rapid hardening cement) • gives early strength
→ used where early development of strength required ex, repaired roads,
bridges and in structures where load is applied in short period of time.
(ii) Extra rapid hardening cement • RHC + 2% Cacl2 (accelerator)
→ maximum 20 min for mix, transport, placement, compaction, Finishing
→ Used for special purpose (repair work in cold weather)
→ not used in prestress concrete
(iii) Sulphate resisting cement • C3A ↓↓ (< 5%) [C35 = C2S = 40% approx]
→ Used in structure in sea water/marshy
land/sewage/cannellinis/culvert/syphon/marinist.
(iv) Super sulphates cement • C3A < 3.5%
• T  40
• Should not used with any admixture
(v) High Alumina cement IST = 3.5 to 4 hr. • made by fusion of time + Boxite
FST = 5 to 5.5 hr. • Used for refractory concrete
• In Industries for pre casting works
• Extremely resistance to fire, chemical, seawater, acid attack, sulphate
atleast.
(vi) Low head cement IST = 1 hr. • Low heat evolution
• Used in mass concreting.
(C2S↑↑) {3A↓↓, 3S↓↓}
(vii) Quick setting cement • Zypsum free cement
IST = 5 min • Sets quick but not harden quickly.
FST = 30 min • Used in under water concreting/running water construction

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.5

 BMC

(viii) PPC • made by Pozzolanic martial like Rise husk, Fly ash, shale etc
• Use in mass concreting & place of high temperature.
(ix) Air entraining cement • Mode by air entraining agent like oil/fat/wood raise/vinsol resin etc.
• Grater resistance to freezing & throwing action
• Improve workability
• Reduce strength
• Higher IST, FST than OPC
(x) Blast furnace slag cement • Best for marine works
• For pipe carrying water containing chemicals,
• Sewage pipe
• Work exposed to sulphate environment in the soil or in grad water.
(xi) White & a lord Portland cement • For Flooring works
• Plastering of walls
• Or nonmental works

Composition of Good Brick earth

Ingredient Function Effect in excess
Silica (50-60%) • Responsible for strength, shape, hardness, durability • Bricks become brittle & weak
• prevent cracking, shrinkage, warping of green brick { excess of silica destroy the cohesion
between partied}
Alumina (20-30%) • Impart plastic qualities that Brick can be moulde • It causes cracks on drying and becomes too
Note: Clay having high Alumina are found to be hard when Burnt.
refractory
Lime (C  5%) • acts as flux • In the form of lumps cause brick to
• causes silica to fuse during burning and bind brick disintegrate & brick shape is lost.
particles together {Brick to melt → disintegrate → shape lost}
• prevent shrinkage on drying
Iron oxide (5-6%) • like lime it ads as a flux helping silica to fuse during • dark Blue color
burning and bind Brick particles together thus gives
strength, hardness
• Impart red color to brick {color intensity Iron oxide
quantity}
• Improve durability & Impermeability
Magnesia (< 1%) • gives yellow tint to brick & decrease shrinkage Decay of Bricks

Harmful Ingredient in brick earth

(1) Lime • If lime is present in lumps, It absorbs moisture, swells & cause disintegration of brick.
• prevent cracking, shrinkage, warping of green brick
(2) Iron pyrite • If iron pyrite present → It oxidise the brick → Crystallise the brick → splitting of
brick

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.6

 BMC

• pyrites → discolorise the bride

(3) Pebbles/gravels/grit • leads to not proper mixing →  weak & porous brick (not uniform mixing)
(4) Alkalies • Excess of Alkalies causes brick to melt & lack their shape
• These causes effloroscene {When brick absorb moisture, on drying moisture
evaporates leaving behind white or grey deposits which spoil appearance
(5) Organic matter and vegetation • organic matter burns → leaves pores → make brick porous
•  water absorption ↑↑
• strength ↓↓
(6) Sulpher If Insufficient time is given to burning for oxidation of carbon & sulpher then sulpher
will cause for mation of spongy, swellere structure in brick {Bloating phenomenon}
and brick will be discoloured by white blotches.

Defects in Bricks

Defect Explanation/reason
(i) Over-Burning of • if Brick overburnt → Soft molten mass → Brik loose shape → such Brick not use for construction
Brick
(ii) Oder-Burning • If Brik not burnt properly → pores not closed due to less-heat
of Brick  higher degree of water absorption ↑ → strength ↓↓
 Such brick not reamended for construction.
(iii) Bloating • This defect is observed as spongy sweller mass over the surface of burnt brick
• This defect is caused due to presser of Excess carbonaceous matter & sulpher in clay Brick
(iv) Black core • When Brick clay contains luminous matter or carbon and if they are not completely removed
oxidation. The brick result in black core mainly because of improper burning.
(v) Efflorescence • Cause because of Aikalies present in Brick when brick comes in contact with moisture, water is
absorbed, after drying → white power patches on brick surface (ugly appearance)
(vi) Checks or This is because of lump of lime or excess of water.
cracks
(vii) spots If sulphide is present in brick clay it causes dark surface spot on brick such brick not only harmful but
also unsuitable for exposed masonry work.
(viii) Blisters Broken Blisters generally caused on the surface of sewer pipes and draintiles due to air imprisoned
during moulding.
(ix) Laminations It is by the entrapped air in voids of clay
• Laminations produce lamina on the brick faces which weather out on exposure such bricks are weak
in structure
(x) Chuffs Deformation of the shape of brick cause by the rain water falling on hot bricks

Qualities of good brick

1. Size and shape

Brick should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surface with parallel sides and sharp straight edges.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.7

 BMC

2. Color
Uniform deep red/cherry color as indicative of uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of brick.

3. Texture and compactness

• Surface should be too smooth cause not slipping of mortar
• the brick should have pre compact and uniform texture.
• A fractured surface should not show fissures, hales grit or lumps of lime.

5. Soundness
When 2 bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.

6. Water absorption
W24  20% of its dry weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours.

7. Crushing strength
 10 MPa
{Note: common building brick should have min. crushing strength = 3.5 MPa}

8. Brick earth should be free from stones, grit, organic matter etc.

9. Brick should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of 1 meter.

10.When soaked in water for about 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when allowed to dry in shade.

11.Brick should have low thermal conductivity and should be sound proof.

Note:
Asper IS : 1077-1992 standard size of common building brick –
19  9  9
  cm
19  9  4

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.8

 BMC

Test of Bricks
water absorption depend on porosity
Water Absorption test all brick absorb water by copilbry adi on.

Absorption

Absorption Initial rate of absorption (IRA) or section

24 hr. immersion 5 hours Boiling Rate of how much water a

cold water test water test brick draws in during the first
minute after contact with water

(i) Dry bricks kept in oven (110 ± 5°C) till it attains constant mass (W1) the cool then weight-4
(ii) Brick immerse in water at (27 ± 2°C) for 24 hours
(iii) Bricks taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth & weight (W2) recorded.
Water absorption in W24%
W − W1
= 2 100
W1

Note:
1st class brick W24
 20%
nd
2 class brick  22%
3rd class brick  23
Common Building Brick  25%
• In some source 3rd class Brick 25% is given

(i) Dry bricks kept in oven (110 ± 5°C) till it attains constant mass (W1) the cool then weight-4
(ii) Specimen immersed in water
↓
Heated to boiling in 1 hr. and boiling continuously done for 5 hours.
Followed by cooling down to 27 ± 2° by natural loss of heating within 16-hours.
(iii) Brick taken out of water and wiped with a damp cloth & weight (W3) recorded.
• Water absorption
W − W1
W5 % = 3 100
W1

Note:
Saturation coefficient
24hour water apsorption(W24 )
=
5hour water apsorption(W5 )
aim → to Predict durability of Brick.
→ Rate of how much water a brick draws in during the first minute after contact with water
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.9
 BMC

→ Section has direct baring on bond between brik and mortar.

→ When a birch has hight section a strong, water tight joint may not be achieves. High section brick should be wetted for
three to 24 hr prior to laying to reduce the section and allow the bricks.

Surface to dry
→ Very low section brick should be covered and kept dry on jobsite

Note:
(i) Generally bricks are soaked in water before use in masonry work so that they don’t absorb water from cement.
(ii) Average water absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight upto 12.5 class brick and 15% by weight for higher class.
(iii) For water absorption less than 5% danger of frost action is negligible.

2. Compressive strength test:

• Compressive stresses of brick provides a basis of comparison of good quality of brick, but it is of little value in determining
the strength of wall wall strength mainly depends on strength of mortar.
• Take 5 brick sample → immerse in water at room temperature, for 24 hours.
• Frog and all voids in bed faces of brick are filled flush with cement mortar (1 : 3)
• It is then stored under the damp jute bags for 24 hours follow by immersion in clean water for 3 days
• the brick specimen is then placed with flat faces horizontal and mortar face facing upward between plates of compression
testing machine.
• Load is than applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 MPa per minute fill failure occurs and maximum load at failure is
noted.
maximumat failure
• compressivestrength =
loadedarea of brick
• Average of 5 results noted.

Types of brick Compressive strength MPa

1st class  10.5
2nd class 7
3rd class 5
Common building Brick  3.5

3. Efflorescence test:
Aim → to check presence of soluble salts ‘or’ alkalis
• Place brick specimen in glass dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in well ventilated room, after all the water is
absorbed or evaporated again water is added for a depth of 25 mm after second evaporation the bricks are observed for
white/grey deposits.

Category Deposits of efflorescence

Nil Imperceptible (no patches)
Slight >10%of exposedarea of brick
Moderate >50%(10 − 50%)of exposedarea of brick
Heavy >50%but depositsdon 't power or flake away the brick surface
Serious > 50%, deposits are heavy with powdering or flaking the surface

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.10

 BMC

Note:
For upto class 12.5 → should not be more than moderate (10-50%)
For higher class → should not more than slight (  10%)

4. Warpage test
Warpage → Bend or twist out of shape, especially from a straight or flat form.

Sampling: 10 bricks are taken randomly from a lot as a sample for warping test.

Apparatus: Warpage of brick is measured with the help of flat steel or glass surface and measuring ruler graduated in 0.5 mm
divisions or wedge of steel 60 × 15 × 15 mm.

Procedure
1. Resnove any adhering to the surface of Brice
2. Concave warpage: The flat surface of the brick is placed along the surface to be measured selecting the location that gives
the greatest deviation from straightness. The greatest distance of brick surface from the edge of straightness is measured by a
steel ruler or wedge.
3. Convex warpage: The brick is place on the plane surface with the convex surface in contact with the flat surface and the
distance of 4 corners of brick are measured form the flat surface the largest distance is reported as warpage.

Result: The highs of the distance measured in concave and convex warpage tests is reported as warpage.

5. Hardness Test
No impression should be left on the brick surface when scratched with a finger nail.

6. Soundness Test
2 bricks are stress with each other. They should not break and should produce a clear ringing sound.

7. Structure Test
A brick is broken and its structure is examined, it must be homogenous, compact and free from any defect such as hales,
lamps etc.

Special type of Brick

(used in Brick masonry)

(i)
Again
cut
Full Brick
Queen Closes Queen Closes
half (Quater)
  
Longitudinally
cut in 2 parts

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.11

 BMC

(ii) (iii) (iv)

60°
45° to

(King Closer)
Trick Mid-Mid Cut Bevelled closer
(Trick mid-corner cut) (Mitred closer)

(v) (vi) (vii)

(Half or bat or half float) There Quarter closes

or (Split)
three quarter bat
or
3/4th brick
(viii) (xi ) (x )

90°

(Cornice Brick) Voussoir

(Squint Brick) (Used in arch)

Classification of Bricks: Basically Burnt clay brick

First class Brick Second class Brick Third class Brick

Table moulded Brick + Burnt in Grd moulded Brick + Burnt in Ground moulded Brick + Burnt in clamp.
kiln. kiln.
The surface and edges of brick are The surface of these brick is Not hard and they have rough surface with
sharp square smooth and straight some want rough and shape is irregular and distorted edges.
slightly irregular
1st class Brick has all quality of - gives dull sound when stress together.
good Brick
Brick use: Uses where Brick work is to be Use: Un important and temporary structure.
st
1 class provided with coat of plaster
Superior work of permanent nature

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.12

 BMC

Manufacturing of Brick

Un soiling digging Cleaning Weathering Blending Tempring

Pugmills esa djrs gSa

Moulding

Drying

Burning

Brick

Moulding

hand moulding Machine moulding

(for soft mud) (for hard mud)
(for small scale) (for large scale)

Ground Table Plastic Dry clay

moulded moulded clay machine These bricks not requires drying
Brick Brick machine method

(wire cut Brick) (Passed Brick) directly sent for Bu rning

Drying 5 to 7& mc bounding time 7-14 days

Artificial Natural

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.13

 BMC

Burning of Brick aim : Provides hardness and

or strength to brick and
function make than corse & durable
over burnt brick → Bricks
under burnt → soft
In clamp/pazawah In kiln

Intermittent kiln Continuaslain

Bull’s Trench Muff mains Tunned kiln

kiln kiln

• require more fuel • less spacing

• more space • superior to Bull’s Trench
• initial cost low percentage of quality Brick more
• genially used in India
• not having permanent relief

Stages of Burning: (DOV)

Dehydration → Oxidation period → Vitrification

(400 - 500°C) (65 0 - 900°C) (900 - 1100)

Water Low melting lay

smoking
stage 1100 - 1250
high mating plan
Note:
Cement Rotary kiln tamp = 1300 – 1500 °C

Types of Bond in Brick masonary

1 Stretcher bond 2 Header bond 3 English bond 4 Flemish bond

1. Stretcher Bond:
Stretcher → longer face of Brick
→ 19 × 19 face in modular Brick

• In this bond, all bricks are arranged in stretcher courses, However care should be taken to break vertical joints.

Use: Construction of half Brick these partition wall.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.14

 BMC

4
3
2
1
Stretches
(Elevation)

2. Header Bond:
Neader → shorter face of brick (9 × 9 cm)
• All bricks arranged in the head or course

Used: Construction of one brick thick wall

4
3
2
1
3
3
bat 4 bat
4 Header
(Plan)
(Elevation)

3. English Bond: (Strongest Bond)

→ Alternate course consist of header & stretchers.

Uses: Commonly used bond for walls of all thickness

Stretcher
Heater
Elevation of English Bond

Elevation of English bord

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.15

 BMC

• In English bord, to break continuity of joint, queen closer used (all longitudinally in 2 parts)

4. Flemish Bond
In each course comprise of alternate after and stretcher.
• Samplers to break continuity queen closed required.

Used: For aesthetic point of view

Problem: needs greater skill for construction.

Types

Single Flemish Bond Double Flemish Bond

• Outer face of wall has • Both face of wall
Flemish look whereas have Flemish look.
inner face have look each course ensist
of English Bond of alternate header
and stretcher.

Different lime process

1. Calcination

limstone ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
heatingin contact with air
→

2. Hydraulicity
Property of lime by which it sets or harden in damp places (where there is no circulation of air)

3. Setting
Hardening of lime after it has converted into paste.

4. Quick lime or castic lime (CaO)

Calcination
Pure limestone ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ Quick lime

Properties: (a) It is capable of slaking with water.
(b) has no affinity for carbonic acid (H2CO3) but great affinity with moisture.
(c) Quick lime which comes out from kiln known as lump lime.

5. Slaking of lime/slake lime

• CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + heat  exothermicrxn
quick lime
• When water added to quick lime, chemical reaction happens, due to this quick lime cracks, swell & falls into power form
which is Ca(OH)2 known as hydrated lime. Process → slaking.

6. Milk of lime
A thin fluid pourable suspension of slaked lime.
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.16
 BMC

Note:
Purest form of lime stone → white clause
Impure form of lime stone → kankar

Types of lime

(e-5%) (s-30 %) (>30 %)

Fat lime Hydraulic lime Poor lime
or or or
Rich lime Water lime Impure lime
or lean lime
White lime
or
Pure lime

1. Fat lime/rich lime/white lime/pure time

• Impurity  < 5% (largamente of CaO 95%)
• Slaking  Fast (vigorously)
• It hardens very slowly and possesses a high degree of plasticity
• In the presence of air it sets slowly through carbonation (by reabsorbing CO2 from air)
• Fat lime does not set under water
• Uses → Plastering white washing

2. Hydrails lime/water lime

• Impurity : (5 – 30%) (eryc clay)
• Stronger than fat lime

Imp.
It sets under water and in thick damp condition with a air circulation.

Note:
Day → gives hydraulicity to lime
Clay % ↑  slaking ↓↓
 Hydraulicity ↑↑

Uses: in foundation under water work

3. Poor lime/impure lime/lean lime

• Impurity > 30%
• Slakes → very slowly.

Test on stones
1. Acid Test → more performed on sand stone, aim of test: is to investigate how much atmospheric action can be resisted by
stone.
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7 days
Process: Sample of stone 50 – 100 gm ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → if sharp edges & its surface free form powder → Then good for building
1% Hcl

material purpose.

Note: if sped men contains CaCO3 then its edge are broken and powder is formed on surface such stone has poor weathering
resistance.

2. Attrition test
Aim → Predicts rate of wear of stone against the grinding action under traffic primarily used for stones to be used in road
construction.
• Test performe in Devil’s attrition test machine.
lossin weight
%wear = 100
initial weight

3. Crushing test
Sample size = 40 × 40 × 40 mm cube

Plywood 5 mm
Stone
Load bearing surface
Load rate = 14 MPa/min

• min no. of sample = 3

• put sample 72hr. in water after test in saturated condition.
loadat Failure
Crushingstrength =
area of load Bearing Failure

4. Crystalline test
aim → to determine durability or weathering quality of stone.
Sample size = 40 × 40 × 40 mm ube min example = 4
• dry for 72 hr. then weight → 14% solution Na2SO4 For 2 hr. → dry at 100°C & weight
Change in weight → noted, repeat 5 times.

Note:
Although CaSO4 crystallization in the pores of stone causes decay of stone due to weathering, But as CaSO4 has low solubility
in water
• It is not used for test.

5. Freezing & Thawing Test

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@ -12°C
Stone in water Free Ching Put in atmosphere
For 24 hr. machine for
24 hours

6. Hardness Test
Apparatus used → Dorry’s Testing machine
loss in weight ( gram)
• Coff. Of hardness = 20 –
3
• Use → to judge stone suitability for use

7. Impact Test
aim → to determine toughness of stone
• The height of drop is increased successively from 1 cm to n cm in nth fall when specimen break here n gives the toughness
index for stone.

8. Micro-scopic test
aim → to predict Quality of stone
Apparatus → microscope

Properties which are checked

(i) Avg. grain size
(ii) Existence of pore Fissure, veins, shakes
(iii) mineral constituent
(iv) Nature of consenting material
(v) Presence of any harmful substance
(vi) Texture of stone.

9. Smitch test
aim → to find presence of any soluble matter

Stirring for 60 min

Chips
Glass
• If clear water then free from soluble matter

10. Water absorption test

Aim → to get water absorption.
Water absorption (W2 − W1 ) W24
Saturation on cofficient =
Totalporosity(W4 − W1 ) W5

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Some Process associated with stones

1 – Quarrying → Process of extracting natural stone from rock.
2 – Dressing → Process of giving a stone proper size, shape and finish to the roughly broken stones as obtain from quarry.
3 – Crushing → Process of obtaining construction aggregate produced by mining a suitable rock deposit & breaking the
removed rock down to the desired size using crushers.
4 – Seasoning → Drying of stone from Quary sap, as freshly Quarryied stones have moisture.
5 – Stone pitching → Interlocking of large stones placement of stones on sloped surface.
→ used for erosion protection of slopy area.

Types of stone masonary

Rubble masonary Ashlar masonary

• Use of irregular shape of stone

{ stones used are hard enough hence proper dressing not possible}
• These masonry having rough dressing & having wide joint
• Use smooth face of stone
• Smooth dressing & regular fine joints of 3mm thick

Property of good Building stone

(i) Appmrance: good uniform color
{dark color → more susceptible to weathering}

Imp.
(ii) Crushing strength = min 100 MPa
(iii) durability – high
(iv) Hardness → min hardness coefficient = 17 for road work
If hardness coefficient < 14 not used in road work
(v) % wear by Attrition Test < 3%
(vi) resistance to five
(vii) Specific gravity  2.7
(viii) Water absorption  0.6%
(ix) Texture: should be free from cracks, cavity.
(x) toughness index (by impact test)

High toughness 19
Moderate 13-19
Not tough < 13

XI Stone → sufficient weathering resistance,

Shard be well seasoned & Facilate dressing.

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Stone Quarrying fn → Process of extraction

of stone

Hand tool Channeling Blasting

machine

By steam or By steam or
electrically electrically
operated operated

Dressing → to increase strength & durability

• Obtain desire appearance
• to reduce transportation and handling cost of stones
• to suit the requirement of stone masonry

Deterioration of stones
1-alternate drying & wetting
2-Frost action
3-Movenment of water/chemical
4-Vegetation or organism growth.

Precaution to avoid deterioration:

(i) Stone placed along their natural bed.
(ii) Proper seasoning before stone use.
(iii) No. of joint should be low (for this effect, large size stones are used)
(iv) All joints must filled to remove any cavity.
(v) For important Building → use compact silicious stones
• Limestone and calcareous stone must beaded.
• Sand stone cemented with silicious bolding material may be used.

How to preserve stone

(1) By coal tar
(2) Linseed oil
(3) Paint
(4) Paraffin
(5) Solution of alum & soap
(6) Solution of Baryta {When decay is due to CaSO4, this preservation is used}

Imp.

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Rocks

Geological class friction Physical class friction Chemical class friction

Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock Stratified rock Un Stratified rock
• From by • From by • When igneous • Rock showed • Not showing
coding & weathering action & sedimentary layer of structure layered str.
solid fraction of existing rock under gone
of magma & lava considerable Ex. Sand stone Ex. Granite
Ex. mud stone change with high lime stone Trap marble
sand stone pressure & temperature state
lime stone
Name Type of Rock of
lignite
rock Metamorphic rock Calcareous rock Argillaceous rock Silliciaus rock
shale
zypsum Granite Igneous Gneiss
• Rock having • Main component • Main component
sand Basalt Laterite calcium carbonate clay & Alumina silica
gravel as their main
Mud Sedi State component Ex. 1. Mud stone Ex. 1. Granite
stone 2. State 2. Sand stone
Sand Sedi Quartz or Quartzite Ex. 1. Lime stone 3. Latrite 3. Quartz
Stone 2. Marble 4. Clay 4. Trap
Lime Sedi Marbal
Stone

Igneous rock

Plutonic Volcanic
(Intrusive) (Extrusive)
• Formed beneath • Formed at earth
earth • Andesite
• Basalt
Ex. Diorite • Rhyolite
Granite] • Dacite
Gabbro
Pegmatite
Peridotite

Ex. of Igneous rock:

1- Trap
2- Basalt (volcanic)
3- dolomite
4- Granite
5- Pegmatite
6- Andesite
7- Diorite
8- Gabbro
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.22
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Sets mentary rock

Mechanical Chemical Organic

rock rock (Biolgical)
or or Ex.
Clastic None lastic • Coat
rock rock • Chert

Ex. Sand stone Ex. lime stone

mud stone
shale

5 Basic parts of paint (oil paint)

Base Vehicle Pigment Solvents Briers

(Binder/(carrier) (thinner) (Plasticizers)

1. Base: Principal constituent of paint

• Metallic oxide
• It makes the paint film opaque and possesses binding property which reduces shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.

Example: White lead, Red lead, zinc load, oxide of Iron, Titanium white, antimony white, Aluminium power, lithophone.

2. Vehicle (Binder carrier)

• It is an oil to which base is mixed.
• It holds constituents of paints in suspension and helps spread it over the surface to be painted.
• It imparts durability, toughness and water proofness and resistance to weaving

Example: linseed, poppy oil, tungoil, animal oil, animal oil

3. Pigrnents
fn → used to hide the surface imperfection, and gives desired lor
• They also improve impermeability of paint film & enhance its resistance to weathering.

4. Solvents (Thinner)
• These are oils used to thin paints & increase the spread
They make the paints of workable consistency & evaporate during drying of film.
Example: Naptha, Spirit, Petrdeum, turpentine oil

5. Driers (plasticizers)
• These are added in paint for specific purpose
• to accelerate drying of vehicle → (as catahst)
• for oxidation
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• for condensation.
• for polermisation

Example:
• Litharge
• lead acetate
• read lead
• manganese dioxide

Varnish:
Varnish is nearly homogenous solution of resin in oil, alcoholor turpentine.

Varnish objectives
(i) To intensify or brighten the surface.
(ii) To render brilliancy to the painted surface.
(iii) to protect from atmospheric action.

Ingredient of varnish:
(i) resin
(ii) Solvent/thinner
(iii) Drier

Type of Varnish

(1) oil varnish • Hard resin used (amber, Cold)

• Linsead oil used & takes hr. to dry
Used → interior and extra or surface
Most durable varnish hard resin used
(2) Oil varnish • Soft resin used (lac or shellac)
• spirit used
• not durable, easily affected by weathering action
(3) Water varnish • Shellac resindesolve in hot water to which enough a vanity of either
ammonia, borax, soda is added.
Used: For varnishing maps and pictures
(4) Asphalt varnish • made by dissolving melted hard ashphalt in linseed oil with a thinner
(turpentine oil/Petroleum sprit)
Used: over shop fricated steel works.
(5) Float varnish • materials such as wax, metallic soap on finely divided silica when
added to varnish produce a dull appearance on drying.
(6) Spar varnish • It derives its name from its use on sparand other parts of ship
Used: It gives sticky effect in warm weather and is not used indoors.

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Distempers : are white points/loater paints

Base Thinner
White chalk Water

• Binder → glue/casein
• color pigment
• cheaper than paints
• distempers washed away when used in exposed surfaces.
• distempers are workable and easy in application

Imp.
• Most suitable for plastered surface as well as white washed surface of interior walls.

Putty : Powered chalk + raw linseed oil

• It has highly plasticity characteristics.
• It is used for filling holes, micro cracks and defacement in wood.
• It is used in domestic constriction and repair as a sealant & filler.

mettalic oxide +
enamels: oil +
petrochemical sprit +
resinens matter

• The paint dries slowly, but on drying

• It produces a hard, impervious, glassy, elastic smooth and durable film.
Uses: Used on doors/windows/metal grills.

Types of paint

Cement paint • water based paint used to prevent water penetrating

redemption of dirt collection, Prevent fungal & algal growth
on interior as well as exterior walls.
Imp
• durable & water resistant point
• mainly used to decorate exterior surfaces
• ingredient → white Portland cement + lime + some
pigments
Enamel paint (Vehicle varnish) is a pint that air dries to hard usually glossy, Finish used
wating which are out drops surface
• used for coating surfaces subjected to hard/wear or variation
in temperature.
Cellulose paint • normally used by enthusiast, first timer or trade
professionals when an original finish required.

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• This paint can produce any flat color & needs only thinners
added to it prior to painting.
Asbestos paint • Asbestos was very inexpensive and was used as filler in
many different products throat may industries.

Aluminium point:
• Aluminium paint is a coating material which is made from a mixture of oil-varnish and Aluminium pigment in form of
thin flakes.
• It is used for painting wood work and the metal surface.
• It is highly heat resistant and also resistant to corrosive action
• It has brilliant – silvery shining texture therefore paint has advantage of being visible in the darkness.

Defects in paint:

(1) Flacking • Detachment of paint film from surface. (due to poor

adhesion between paint & surface)
(2) Chalking • Due to insufficient oil in primer, the formation of white
chalking power on surface → chalking
(3) Cracking • Formation of cracks on painted surface due to inadequate
surface penetration and shrinkage → cracking
(4) Wrinkling When thick layer of paint is applied on horizontal surface
(5) Blistering Formation of bubbles like snapes on painted surface is known
as → blistering
• It occurs when water vapours gets trapped under the paint
layer
(6) Blooming • Formation of sull patches on painted surface → Blooming
• Due to poor quality of paint and proper ventilation
(7) Fading When there is gradual loss of color from the painter surface
→ fading
• due to reaction of sunlight on pigment of paint.
(8) Grinning If the thickness of final coat of paint is very uses (thin) the
background can be seen clearly → grinning
• due to poor workmanship.
(9) Running When painted is very smooth, then paint runs back
surfactable and leaves small areas of surface uncovered. →
running

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Base on mode of growth of tree

Tree
Annular sing used for Agepradiction

Endogenous tree Exogenous tree grow outward mostly used for angg. Application

grow inward
Certifertrce In Himalya derived tree
• limited stage thin
engineering jungle
application (Soft axed) (hand hood )
Ex. Bamboo (Evergreen tree) (Board leaf tree)
Cane (csra ) • leaves don’t fall till • Leaves fall in autum and appear in spring.
Plam (rkM+) new Grows • Don’t show distinct annular ring.
• Needle sh ape leaves Ex. Vhd] egkxksuh] “kh”ke] vksd] lky] ccwy
• Cone shape forts
• Distinct annularring
Ex. gs{nksj
phM-
Pine
Timber

Group E (X103N/mm2)
A 12.6
B 9.8-12.6
C 5.6-9.8

Durability

Avg. life
Class 1 Highest > 25 year
Class 2 High 15-25 year
Class 3 Moderate 5-15 year
Class 4 Low < 5 year

Fibre saturation point (FSP)

(i) at which all free water removed.
(ii) Shrinkage rapid.
(iii) Strength gain rapid.
(iv) Cell cavities are empty but cell walls are still completely saturated.

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Cross section of exogeneous tree

Medullary rays (7)

Pith (1)

Heartwood (2)
Outer
base
(6) Sapwood (3)

Inner
base Cambium layer (4)
(5)

(1) Pith (medulla)

• Innermost central portion or core of tree
• Consist entirely of cellular tissue & it nourishes the plant in its yading age.
• As the plant become sold, pith dies up & decays and the sap is then transmitted by woody fibres deposited round the pith.
(2) Heartwood (True wood)
• Inner annular ring surrounding the pitch.
• It indicates dead portion of tree (dead wood)
• It does not take active part in growth of tree
• Impart rigidity to tree, provide strong & durable timber for engineering application.

3. Sapwood/Laburnum/xylenes
• Outer annual rings between heart wood & cambium.
• light in color & weight.
• It takes active part ingrowth of tree and xylem cassies water & nutrient upto leaves.
• It does not impart any strength.

4. Cambium layer
A thin layer of sap in between sapwood & inner basic
• It indicates portion of sap which is yet to be converted into sapwood hence decides the future growth of trees.

5. Inner bark (Phloem’s)

• Covers cambium layer
• Gives protection to cambium layer from any injury
• Phloem transports food from leaves to roots.

6. Outer basic (cortex)

Outer most protectionary, some time contains cracks & Fissures-consist of wood fibre cells

7. Medullary rays
Radial fibre extending from pith to cambium layer.
fn (1) to hold annular ring tightly together.

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(2) to carry sap from outer most to inner part of free.

Different timber & its uses

Timber name Property Use

Chirc (phM+) • moderately hard • usual in framing of doors, windows, pattern
• decays easily making etc.
Shisham (“kh”ke) • strong & tough • In high class furniture
Or • durable and maintain its shape • In sports goods
Sassed well • For decorative works & carvings
↓ • easily sea sand
Wooden moulds • difficult to work with it.

Sal (lky) • Hard & coarse grained • Medicinal use

• Light is color when freshly • Used in Ayurveda for thousands of years to
out treat variety of diseases including piles, skin
• Resinous and less durable disorder, dysentery rate.
• not suitable for painting
Teak (Vhd) • moderately hard • Limits to superior work only as it is
↓ • Fire resistant & daurade (non comparatively very costly.
(very Expansive) resinous) • For ship building furniture, railway carriages,
• life of teak wood door, window → • Easily seasoned & worked mallets
20 year • Not attacked by white ants &
dry rot
• Shrink less
Plywood • Made from hardwood, • Used for making doors, furniture ceiling,
softwood or combination of packing cases.
two • not suited for applications that Involves dirat
(some common hard wood → impact.
ash, maple, Hau oak)
• plywood has good and
uniform tensile strength both
along as well as across the
grains.
• Plywood are veneers placed
one above the other with the
direction of grains of
successive layers at 90° to each
other
• Plywood is specified by
thickness for common
commercial platform.
• Plywood is obtain by gluing
wooden sheets at a pressure of
100-150N/cm2

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Special points

Timber Use
(1) Alder Furniture, electric guitar
(2) A sanfona In musical instrument, heavy
construction, frunition flooring
(3) Mulbery Sport 1 industry
(4) Balsa Construction & model aircraft,
bridges model tests.

Sawing of timber

Ordinary or tangential Quarter or Radial

Flat or sawing rift sawing sawing
slab sawing
Weakest Strongest
Waste min timber timber

(1) Ordinary/Flat/Slab sawing

Saw
cuts

• quick, economical
• saw cuts parallel slices/planks
• Planks are liable to warp & twist because of unequal shrinkage of central portion (hear wood) bounders the ends by
sapwood, showing higher shrinkage.
• Wastage of timber → Minimum

(2) Tangential sawing → Weakest Timber

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Sawcuits

• Cutting is done tangentially to annular ring and right angle to medullary rays.
• rays are cut, the section is weak thus planks warp significant on drying.

3. vaster/rift sawing

Sawact

• First log is at into 4 quad rants

• each quadrant is further sawn by plain, tangential or radial sawing.
It wears better and shrinks more evenly.

4. Radial sawing (Strongest Timber)

• Sawing is done parallel to hays and 1 to rings

Sawact

• Radial sawing will produce the strongest timber medully rays are not cut as sawing is done parallel to rays.
• Strongest timber hence planks are suitable for hard wearing and abrasivealtion.

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Fire resistance of timbers

• with respect to fire resistance

Timber

Refractory timber Non Refractory timber

non resinou s resinous

(does not catch fire easily) (catch fire readily )
Ex. lky] Vhd Ex. phM+] nsonkj

Methods to make timber fire resistant

Sir Abel’s process Application of special chemical

1 - Ammonium sulphate
1 - Clean the timber Antipysine 2 - borax
2 - Coat with dilute solution of 3 - Zinc chloride
sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) 4 - Boric acid
3 - Cream like paste of slaked lime
is applied on it • A solution of special chemicals
4 - Finally concentrated saluting of coded antipysine issued to coat
silicate of soda is applied an timber surface the timber to make it more
Fire resistant.
• When temperature rises, they
either mett or give off gases
which hinder combustion.

• A solution of special chemicals called antipyrine issued to coat the timber to make it more fire resistant.
• When temperature rises, they either melt or give off gases which hinder combustion.

Seasoning of Timber
• Process by which moister content in a freshly cut tree is reduced to a suitable level, by doing so the durability of timber is
increased.

Objective of seasoning
1 - To reduce the weight
2 – To increase strength, durability, workability
3 – To allow the timber to burn easily if used as full
4 – Remove sap from timber
5 – Reduce tendency to split & decay

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6 – Reduce shrinkage & warping after placement in structure.

Note:
Moisture content in well seasoned timber
= 10 – 12%

Method of seasoning
A. Natural seasoning (air seasoning)
• Very cheap
• Very simple
• Slaw process
• Basic principle is to stack the timber so that plenty of air circulate around each piece, the timber is stacked with wide
spaces between each piece horizontally and with strips of wood between each layer ensuring that these is vertical separation
too and natural air is allowed to blow in between the timber stacse to bring moisture content 20-25%

Disadvantage: drying of different phases may not be uniform.

B. Artificial seasoning
In this method timber is seasoned in a chamber with regulated heat, control humidity and proper air circulation, therefore
specific conditions for different species can be maintained.

1. Outreasoning (Boling)
• Timber is immersed in water
• Water boiled for 3-4 hrs. then dried slowly
• In stead of boiling water hot stream may be circulated on timber, the process of seasoning is fast, but costly.

2. Kiln seasoning (kiln → air tight chamber)

• Timber to be seasoned is placed inside kiln then fully saturated air with a temp. 35-38°C is forced inside it
• The heat gradually reaches inside timber, relative humidity is gradually reduced and temp is increased and maintained till
degree of moisture content is achieved

kiln

Stationary kiln Progressive kiln

• In progressive kiln, the carriages carrying timber travel from one end to other end of kiln, hot air is supplied from
discharging and so that temp. increases is gradual from charging end to discharging end. This method of seasoning used on
large scale
3. Chemical seasoning (used solution of suitable salt)
• immerse timber in salt solution then dried in kiln.
Preliminary treatment by chemical seasoning ensures uniform seasoning of outer & inner parts of timber.

4. Electrical seasoning
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High frequency AC current pass through timber – Resistance to electric current is low, when moisture content is high
• Measure of resistance can be used to stop seasoning at appropriate level. It is costly process.

Preservation of timber
Objective 1-To increase life of timber
2 – To make timber structure durable.
3 – To protect the timber structure from attack of fungi & insect.

Requirement of good preservative

1 – Cheap, durable, easily availability
2 – Capable of covering large area with small quantity.
3 – Free from unpleasant smell.
4 – Penetrating power into wood should be high (at least for a depth of 6-25 mm)
5 – High resistance to moisture and dampness.
6 – Should not be easily washed away by water.
7 – Should not corrode metal with which it comes into contact.

Types of preservatives
Imp.
1 – As cu Treatment
1 – AS205.2H2O → arsenic pentoxide
3 – CuSO4.5H2O → cupper sulphate
4 – u2 cr207 → potassium dichromate.
Or
Na2cr207.2H20 Sodium dichromate.
• gives protection again + white ants
• surface treated with this preservative can be painted, polished, varnished, waxed.

2 – Chemical salts

CuSO4

Hg Cl2
NaF
Znd2

Odourless, non-inflammable

3 – coal tar
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.34
 BMC

Fire-resistant, cheap no paint after this.

Imp.
4 – Creosote oil → Best antiseptic
(tar and oil type)
→ Black or brown liquid.

• Doubles the life of timber (Ex. railway sleeper)

• Should not use for interior surface of dwelling houses, food stuff storage premises in under ground installation and near
inflammable source.

5 – Oil paints: apply 2-3 coats of oil paint.

→ preserve timber from moisture and make it durable.

6 – Salignum paints: Preserve timber from white ants

• Highly toxic in nature
• They can be mixed with color pigments and applied in hot state with help of Bruch.

Imp.

Tar oil type Creasote

Organic solvent type Dieldrin, DDT
Water soluble type (fixed) Chromated zinc chloride

Water soluble leachable type Borax zine chloride

Treatment methods of timber

1 – Surface application

Brushing
Spraying
Dipping

2 – Hot and cold process (hot & cold opentamy treatment)

3 – Bouchelie process
4 – Diffusion process
5 – Pressure or pneumatic process

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S - Pressure or pneumatic process

Fuel cell or Empty cell

Bethel process process

La wry Rueping
method process

6 – Charring process

Defect in timber

Defect due to fungi Defect due to Defect due to Defect due to Defect due to
scasoriuns Insect natural force conversion

1. Defect due to Fungi (microscopic plant organism)

Fungi Attack

Moisture content > 20% Presence of air and warmth

for growth of fungi

• both condition should satisfy for attack by fungi

Note:
Baderia don’t cause serious damage except discoloration.
2-decay process proceeds more in low density ( soft texture and higher moisture content)

Same of the defects caused by Fungi

1. Blue stain (sapstain)

Sap of wood color Blue
(due to attack of Fungi)

2. Dry rot (never in standing tree)

Imp.
Attack on sapwood by Fungi for feeding and convert into dry power.
• It is aggravated due to dry spell after heavy rain.

Causes

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1. absence of son light, presence of dampness, presence of sap, stagnant air & warmth.
2. Where there is no circulation of free air (i.e nonventilated Basement, damp situation (toilet, kitchen))
3. Easly attack on unseasoned soft wood
4. By charring, Painting, tarring of on seasoned timber.

Remark : use well-seasoned timber free from sap.

3. Wet rot
• Wet rot fungi causes chemical decomposition of timber convert wood into greyish Brown powder

Cause :
1. Alternate drying & welting condition {shrinkage & saddling accuses}
2. Improper seasoned timber exposed to rain & wind.

Remedy : wood cover by tar/paint to protect against moisture.

4. Brown Rot (Grey Rot) :

Fungi Breakdown cellulose Brown rot & hemicellulose compounds from wood & attains brown color.

5. White rot
Attack on lignin of wood and wood attains white mass consisting of cellulose.

6. Heart rot
When decay of wood at the centre of trunk and Branches due to fungi attack over heart wood.
• It reduces strength, sound → hallow (when hit by hammer)

Very Imp:
Rot: Rot in timber is decomposition/putrefaction generally caused by dampatrmosphere. Which causes emission of gases
mainly carbonic acid & hydrogen.

Defect due to seasoning

If seasoning is not uniform, the converted timber may wrap & twist in various direction.

1 – Spring:
(crook or free side bend)
→ Curvature of timber in plane of its wide face.

2 – Bow: Curvature formed in length direction.

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Cause by grain irregularity in board, can be eliminated by proper stacking.

3 – Cup:
• Curvature of timber in transverse dirtied.

Caused by unequal shrinkage Ishadial and tangential direction

4 – Twist : Spirally distortion along length. (curvature both along the length & width)

5 – Split

Endsplit

• Separation of fibre along grain extends from 1 end of plane to other end.

6 – Wrap: Timber has armature along length and in the plane. (when piece of timber has twisted out of shape)

Caused due to uncompelled and non-uniform loss of moisture from wood

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7 – Checks: It is a crack which separates fibre of wood due to rapid drying, It does not extend from one end to another.

• small cracks appearing at the ends of boards.

8 – Honeycombing: due to stress developed during drying, various radial & circular cracks develop in the interior portion of
timber, which resembles with honey comb texture.

Some other defects due to seasoning

• Radial shakes (radial cracks)
• Case hardening.
• Collapse.

Defect due to Insects

Tirmites
(White ants Bealtles Masine borers

These eat wood & weaken the timber

• Termites make tunnel inside the timber in different direction at centre leaving outer shell intact, therfore timber piece mass
look sound till it completely fails.
Note:
Teak, sal → can resist white ant (termite) attack.

Defect due to conversion

1 – Chip mark: marks placed by chips on finished surface of timber

Reason – due to pointed parts of sawing machine.

2 – Diagonal grain: Presence of diagonal mark over straight grain

Reason → Improper sawing.

3 – Iron grain: when tool falls →

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Small depression on finish surface.

4 – Wane: Due to on sound milling practice, corners of wood section having same part of bark
(Basically presence of original round corner)

Wane

Imp.

Defect due to natural face

Knot Foxiness Druxiness Twisted fibre Upset (resource) Shake

Burl or
Rindgals excre scene
Coarse grain Winderaule

1 – knot:

knot

Knots are formed in the timber, when free loose its branch.]
• In the sawn pieces of timber, the stump of fallen branches appears as knots. Knots are dark and hard pieces
• Grains are distorted in this portion knots are source of weakness.

2 – Foxiness: red or yellow tinge in wood ‘or’ reddish brown stains/spots around the pith of tree discolouring the timber.

Reason: due to poor ventilation during storage of timber.

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3 – Druxiness: white decayed spots formed by fungi

4 – Burl (excrescence): Formed when tree receivers shock or injury in its young age.

{due toits in jury, growth of tree is completely upset and irregular projections appear on body of timber.}

Rind galls → due to unsuccessful attemps at the formation of branches these are distinct outgrowth resulting due to swelling
caused by growth of layers of sap wood over wounds after branch is cut.
5 - Rind galls: Same as burl

6 – upset/ruptures:
• when wood fibres are injured by crushing or compression.
(during growth or Bad felling of tree)

7 – Twisted Fires:
• Caused by twisting of the young trees constantly in one direction by fast blowing wind.

Note:
Plank sawn from tree with normal growth are strong than the one sawn from trees with twisted fibre.

8 – Wind cracks: if wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, Drien cracks on the out side of a log due to shrinkage of the
exterior surface.
Such shrinkage results into crack, These are not very deep carack.

9 – Shakes

Shakes: It is longitudinal separations (cracks) in the wood between annual rings

• This length wise separation reduce the allowable shear strength without much effect on compressive & tensile strength.
• Wood appearance → undesirable

1. Heart shake

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Due to shrinkage of heart wood when tree is overmatured.

• Crack start from pith & run to wards sapwood.
• These are wider at centre and diminish outwards.

2. Star shake

Cracks wider at circumference (base) and diminishing towards centre of the tree.
• Cracks arises from severe frost and Fierce heat of sun.
• Star shakes appear as the wood dries below fibre saturation paint.
• It is fault leading to separation of log into no. of pieces when sawn.

3. Radial shake

Similar to star shakes but they are fine, irregular, numerous split starts from bark and sapwood and extends to heartwood
& pitch
• Ocaeres when outer tissue dry at faster rate than inner ones, this defect can also accuse during seasoning process due to
excessive heat of sun or cold of frost

4. Arpshake

appears as arve split which party or wholly separates annual ring form one onsetter.
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→ caused due to excessive frost action or non-uniform growth.

5. Ring shake

When cup shakes cover the entire ring.

Admixture

Chemical admixture Mineralodmixture

(i) Plasticizer (i) Pozzolanas

(ii) Accelerator (ii) Blast fumace slag
(iii) Retarder (iii) Silica fume
(iv) Air entrainer (iv) Risk husk

Chemical admixture are added at the time of mixing of concrete.

Mineral admixture are added after grinding of cement clinker, they replace the cement by 10-70 by mass.

Imp.
Antibleeding ragout – SO2(SO4)3

Use of admixture
(i) to reduce water cement without changing workability.
(ii) to increase workability without changing water content
(iii) 1 & 2 both
(iv) to accelerate the initial set of concrete (to speed up the rate of strength development at early ages)
(v) to decelerate initial set of concrete
(vi) to improve durability
(vii) to reduce permeability
(viii) to decrease density of concrete
(ix) to decrease/reduce segregation

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(x) to improve pumpability

Admixture Property/use Example

Plasticizer Reduce water content (Improve (i) lignoosulphonic acid
workability of fresh concrete (ii) Hydroxylated carboxylic acid
for given w/c ratio) (iii) polyglycol esters
Super plasticizer Reduce water content about 20- (i) SMF: sulphates melamine formidably
40% (workability greatly (ii) SF: naphthalene sulphonate formidably
chanced) by dispersion of (iii) MLS: mattified hinge sulphate
cement particles
Accelerator Accelerate rate of setting or (i) Cacl2 (<2%)
early grain of strength of (ii) Na, k → salt
conacred • Nal • Kou
• Na2SO • K2SO4
• Naon

Retarder Longer setting time, slower Calcium sulphate; sugar, cellulose

initial strength gain
Air entrainers • improved resistance to (i) wood resin
• Air entrainment in concrete damage from freezing & (ii) vegetable oil
incorporate millions of no relapsing thawing. (iii) Animal/Vegetable fat
air bubbles which acts as a flexible • Increase workability (iv) Olive oil
ball bearing and modify • Increase resistance to (v) Aluminium powder
chemical attack
• Decrease in segregation,
bleeding, permeability
• Reduce strength → hence
suitable adjustment in mixed
design for achiever required
strength.

Durability of concrete
It is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical-attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration.

Factor affecting durability

Physical Chemical Other’s

(i) Temp. (i) Sulphate attack (i) Cinder → pyroclastic material (Extrusive Igneous rock)
(ii) Moisture (ii) Akali aggregate reaction (ii) Vinease → Promotes acid attack

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(iii) Freezing & Thawing (iii) chloride iron attack-corrosion (iii) Chloride iron attack-corrosion
(iv) Ice-melting (iv) carbonation
(v) Acid attack
1. Acid attack
When concrete exposed to acid, concrete disintegrate depending on the type and concentration of acid.
• The most vulnerable part of cement hydrate is Ca(OH)2, but CSH gel can also be attacked.
• If acids are able to reach the reinforcing steel through cracks/porosity of concrete then corrosion can ocaure which will
cause cracking.

2. Sulphate attack
• Sulphate in solution form, find entry into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement products.
• Calcium Aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) react with sulphates and produce sulphoaluminate which results in increase in
volume of solid phase which can go upto 227%, a gradual disintegration of concrete takes place. This phenomenon is
known as sulphate attack.
• This can be controlled by →
• Sulphate resisting cement
• Quality concrete
• Pozollona
• High pressure stream curing

3. Alkali Aggregate r × n (Alkali attack)

• Alkali present in cement reacts with reactive silica contained in aggregate as a result Alkali silicate gels of unlimited
swelling type are formed.

Progressive manifestation of swelling results in disruption of concrete with the spreading of pattern cracks and eventual
failure of concrete structure this phenomenon → (Alkali attack)

4. Frost Action
• Concrete affected due to being permeable or by temp below because of expansion of absorbed water on freezing ice builds
up in large causing large expansion in local areas cause designation.

Favourite Condition for Frost Action

1. Repeater freezing & thawing and use of dicing salts.
2. Low temp → resulting in freezing to greatest depth in concrete.

Durability Criteria:
Exposure Description Min Min Min RCC min Max.
Category RCC PCC Nominal cement water
grade grade cover (kg/m3) cement
ratio
Mild Protect against weather 20 - 20 300 0.55
or aggressive condition.
(Except if location in
coastal area)
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Moderate • Sheltered from sever 25 15 30 300 0.50

rain
• Continuously in water
• Non aggressive soil or
grd. Water
• Sheltered from
saturated salt air in
coastal area
Severe • Exposed to severe rain 30 20 45 320 0.45
• Alternate drying
wetting
• Severe merged in
seawaters
• Exposed to coastal
environment
Very severe • Sea water spray 35 20 50 340 0.45
• Contact with or buried
under
Extreme • Members in tidal zone 40 25 75 360 .40
• Members in direct
contact with liq/solids
aggressive chemical

Note:
1. Mild → If ϕmin ≤ 12 mm then wave reduced by 5 mm
2. Severe, very severe → if ≥ M35 then cover reduced by 5 mm

Permissible Limit for Solids

Organic 400 mg/t
Sulphate (ass03) 200 mg/lt
500 → For RCC works
2000 mg/lt → concrete
Chlorides (ascl)
work not containing
embedded steel
Suspended solids 2000 mg/lit
Inorganic 3000 mg/lit

Impurities in Mixing Water of Concrete

1. Carbonates of Na3H → Cause setting
2. Bicarbonates of Na3H → May either accelerate or related the setting.
3. Chlorides
4. Sodium anhydrides (300 ppm)
5. Calcium chloride (max 2% by weight of cement in presents concrete)
6. Sodium sulphate
7. Sodium hydroxide
8. Salt & Suspended solids
9. TDS
10. Organic mattes

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Proportioning of Concrete
Process of sticking quantity of cement, sand, coarse agg. And water.
• In concrete to obtain desired strength & quality props proportion need to be ensured.

Aim
i. Desired workability
ii. Desired strength
iii. Desired impermeability
(Water tightness & resistance to penetration of harmful chemicals from outside)
iv. Desired durability (to resist environment attack)
v. Cost of material & labour required should be min.

Method of Proportioning Concrete:

1. Arbitrary Method : (on the basis of past experience)
The general expression for the proportion of cement, sand is 1 : n : 2n by value.
Ex. 1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1·2 : 2·4
→ For very high strength
1:1·5:3 and 1 : 2 : 4
→ For normal work
1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 → For foundation & mass concreting works
2. IS code method (Recommended Module)
• The grade of concrete lower than M20 should not be used in RCC works.

Grade of Concrete Nominal Mix Proportion

M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1 : 1.5: 3
M25 1:1:2

3. Fineness Modulus Method

• Fineness modulus → Empirical factor obtain by adding the cumulative % of aggregates retained on each of the standard
sieve ranging from 80 mm-150 m & dividing this sum by 100.
Fineness modulus Causes particle 
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Range
Fine Sand 2.2 – 2.6
Medium Sand 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse Sand 2.9 – 3.2
• Fineness modulus is an index no. which is roughly proportional to the avg. size of the particle in the entire quantity of
aggregates.
• As per fineness modulus of mix design.
x−z
p= 100
z−y
x → Fineness modulus of cause aggregate.
y → Fineness modulus of fine aggregate.

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z → Fineness modulus of combined aggregate.

or
If proportion of fine Agg = P
If proportion of fine cause = 1
P( Fm FA) + (1 − P) FmCA
FM combined =
1
• As per Fineness modulus method
Maximum quantity of water added in 1st batch.
W
0.3P + 0.1Y + 0.01Z = P
C
P → Quantity of cement by weight
Y → Quantity of fine aggregate by weight
Z → Quantity of cause aggregate by weight
W/C → Water ratio method
4. Minimum Void Method
In this method quantity of sand used such that if completely fills the void of cause aggregate and cement quantity. This
method does not give satisfy result.
• In actual practices, the quantity of fine aggregate used in the mix is about 10% more than the voids in coarse aggregate.
5. Maximum Density Method
1
d 2
P = 100  
D
% of material finer than diameter ‘d’ by weight.
d → max. size of fine a aggregate
D → max size of coarse aggregate
• In this method, a box is filled with varying proportion of fine and coarse aggregate the proportion which gives heaviest
weight is then adopted.
6. Water Cement Ratio Method
A
As per Abram’s Law S =
Bx
• Lower the W/C ratio highest the strength of concrete.
• Strength  1W / C

→ The optimum water cement ratio for the concrete of required compressive strength is decided from graph & compression
developed from various experiments.

Defect in Concrete
1. Cracks: Acceptable limit = 0.1 − 0.3 mm
As per IS 456
Miss exposure category = 0.3 mm
Moderate exposure category = 0.2 mm
 Severe exposure category = 0.1 mm
Reasons:
1. Use of unsound material
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2. Excess water (W/C ratio → too high)

3. Bad joint technique
4. Freezing & Thawing
5. Thermal Effect
6. Early Loss of Water → Shrinkage radius or shrinkage

Note
Shrinkage: It is used to describe the various aspect of volume changes in corrects due to loss of moisture of difference stages
due to different reasons.

2. Crazing
• Development of a network of fine random cracks on surface of caused by difference in shrinkage b/w surface & interior.

How to Avoid Crazing:

1. Use earth moist mix
2. Use plastic mix (low w/c ratio)
3. Remove the cement skin to expose the aggregate.

3. Efflorescence
• Appearance of white patches on the surface of concrete member.
Reasons:
1. Use of poorly washed aggregate.
2. Salty water used
Remedies: Coat surface by water repellent.
4. Segregation
• Segregation of constituent matter of concrete because they have different specific gravity.
or
Segregation of coarse aggregate from concrete during transportation separation.
Causes of Segregation:
1. Excess water in concrete in mix.
2. Dropping concrete from height.
3. Badly proportional mix (poor aggregate grading)
4. Use of larger proportional max. size aggregate. (In this case aggregate will settle down at bottom of mix.)
5. Over vibration
6. For the floating and tamping.

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Effect of Segregation on concrete:

1. Strength reduces
2. Honeycombing in concrete
3. Porous layer in concrete
4. Sand Streaks in concrete
5. Segregated concrete does not give a homogeneous mix throughout the structure.
6. Excessive plastic shrinkage

Note :
• Honey combing in concrete: Honey are hollow spaces and cavities left in concrete mass on surface or inside the concrete
mass where concrete count not reach.
Reasons:
1. Improper vibration during concrete
2. Less cover to steel bars
3. Use of very stiff concrete
4. Segregation of concrete
5. Presence of more percentage of bigger size aggregate in cement.

Note :
Sand Streaking in Concrete
• A streak of exposed fine aggregate in the surface of formula concrete caused by bleeding.
How to avoid sand streaking
1. Reduce water concrete
2. Add air entrained admixture
3. Increase cement content
4. Adding flashy as displacement.

5. Bleeding
• Separation of water from a freshly mixed concrete to the top surface → Bleeding.
{Because of low specific gravity}
Reasons:
1. Highly wet concrete
2. Bad proportional mixes
3. Excessive vibration imported to concrete to achieve full compaction.

6. Laitance
• When water comes up with cement particles to the surface. It is called “Laitance”.
• Capillary action works here.

Bulking of Sand
1. The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand.
2. Bulking is due to the fact that.
Moisture causes film of water around sand particles which increases the volume of sand.
3. The moisture exerts surface tension and keeps every particle away from each other denying any point contact between there.
4. The finer the moisture more will be bulking for given moisture content.

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5. When moisture content is increased by adding more water, the sand particle pack near each other and amount of bulking of
sand decreases.

Note
It is noted from figure.
Increase in moisture content of 5-8% the increase in volume can be as such as 20 %.

Significance of Bulking.
1. Bulking affects volumetric proportion of sand, and hence if suitable allowance is not made for it, if will increase cost of
cement and worked.
2. It will lead to under samed mixtures which are very difficult for working & laying.

Determination of % Bulking Sand

1. Take moist sand in measuring cylinder ‘h1’.
2. Add water in cylinder & stirred by rod.
3. As the volume of fawned sand is same as dry sand, it will offset the bulking effects.
4. The level of sand is again noted (h2 → Say)
h1 − h2
5. %Bulking = 100
h2

Gradient of Aggregates

1. Grading Zones of Sand:

i. The sand must be proper gradation because that it will have less voids and hence the content required will be less. Such sand
will be more economical.
ii. As per IS 383-1970
There is 4 gradation mainly according to 600 μ sieve percentage passing criteria.

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zone -1 ⎯⎯
→ Wasest sand
zone -2
zone -3
zone - 4 ⎯⎯
→ Finest sand
• Fineness modulus increases with increase in size particles.
• From grading zone 1 to 4, the fine aggregates becomes progressively finer. The ratio of fine to coarse aggregate should be
progressively reduced.
iii. An aggregate falls in a particular grading zone of its % passing through 600 μ sieve falls in its range and is not allowed to
fall outside the limit of other sieve by more than 5%.
iv. The permissible limit for crushed stone on 150μ sieve is increased to 20%, but it does not affect % allowance permitted to
other sieve sizes.

2. Grading of Warse Aggregate

i. for coarse aggregate the grading is expressed in terms of % by weight retained on or passing through a sieves of sieves taken
in order 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm.
ii. A curve called grading curve is made showing cumulative % material passing sieves ordinate with the sieve opening to the
logarithm scale represented abscissa.

• Grading curve indicates wherever the grading of given sample is

iii. The main points governing the desired aggregate grading.

a. Surface area of aggregate
b. Relative volume occupied by aggregate
c. Workability of mix
d. Everyday to aggregate
iv. The smaller size of aggregate the greater is the surface area hence to fill the voids with minimum amount of fine aggregate,
the aggregate size should be as large as possible.

Stages of Concrete Production

Batching ⎯⎯
→ Mixing ⎯⎯
→ Transporting ⎯⎯
→ Placing ⎯⎯
→ Compacting ⎯⎯
→ Curing ⎯⎯
→ Finishing
1.

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Note:
1. For smaller works manual batching is done.
2. For large size works weigh bucket equipment used.
3. Now a days automatic batching plants sagging from small to large capacity are available

Note
Weight Batching→
The correct dry weight of each size range of each material is calculated from their actual weight and then weight of water is
measured about making compensation for absorbed & surface water.

2. Mixing of Material
Aim → To obtain homogeneous uniform color and consistent concrete of desired strength.

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1. Tilting mixer: T
• Use for large construction works.
• When agg. Size > 75 mm use.

2. no tilting type mixer (NT)

• Suitable for smaller works
• When agg. Size > 75 mm
3. Reversing Mixer (R) {Forced action type mixture}
→ For large size work
→ Horizontal non tilting type drum with 2 sets of blade.

Note
Paving mixer → For concreting of rigid pavement
Nominal volume of mixed concrete in cubic feet in one batch.
3. Transportation of Concrete

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Note:
Mixing + Transportation + Placing + Compaction  30 min. (IST of OPC)

Methods:
1. Mortar Pan: Labour intensive metho
• Use for small work.
• There are no chance of segregation.
• In that weather more loss of water may happen.
2. Wheel borrow/Hand Buggies or Hand
Used on level, road construction.
• Segregation can occur if done on rough roads.
→ Power buggies → Use of power to move
3. Tower bucket: Vertical host inform of tower escaped and wheel borrow moves within guide rails.
Advantage: Initial cost → Less and can be used in congested area as it requires less space.
4. Bucket & Ropeway:
• Used for works in valley over high piers and long dam sites.
5. Truck mixer and dumper:
• Improved & better method for long road concreting.

Note:
• If long distance involved, agitator should be used (max 1.5 hr distance) (Enroot agitation to prevent it from segregation)

6. Chute : Where accreting in duplication (at higher depth)

• Concrete discharge through steel shaft called chute.
7. Skip & Hoist:
Widely used for high rise structure. Concrete is fed into skip which travels vertically on rails like a lift.
8.

Suitable for limited space where large quantity to be pord.

9. Transit Mixer: Particular used in RMC plant capacity 4-7 m3.
10.Bett Conveyor: {Where concrete should be transported continuously and inaccessible area}
Advantage : Uniform flow concrete high capacity
Disadvantage:
• Segregation chances.
• Budy affected by sever hot or environment.

4. Placing of Concrete
Note:
1. For dry mix in the weather
- 0.30 − 1 hr allowed

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2. For wet mix in cold weather

- several hrs allowed
3. Max fall allowed – 1.5 meter {As per IS-456}
Note:
Mass Concreting:
Ex. In raft foundation dam bridge peir.
→ Place concrete in layers 350-450 mm
→ Used when concrete subjected to lateral thrust than bond bars bond stones are provided to for key between different layers.

Note:
Under water concreting “using tremie pipe”
• It uses vertical pipe through which concrete (high slump 150-200 mm) is placed by gravity feed below water level.
• Bottom end is closed with thin-polythene
• When pipe is completely filled by concrete, pipe is slightly filled and given after causing tearing of polythene sheet result
into discharge of concrete.
• It should avoid washout of cement due to turbulent water contact with the concrete while it is flowing this produces a more
reliable strength of product.
5. Compaction of Concrete.
• Process of removal of entrapped air
So as to increase density increase strength & durability of concrete.

Note:
Voids in harden Decrease in
concrete compressive strength
5% 30%
10% 60%
Ways of Compaction:
1. Hand rotating
2. High & Shock Pressure
3. Centrifugation & Spinning
Or
4. Mechanical vibration

Vibrator Types
1. Internal vibrator/Needle Vibrator or Immersion Vibrator:
• Most used
• Depth not more than 600 mm (D  600 mm)
2. Form Vibrator
Used in congested reinforcement where need vibrator cannot used.
Ex. Columns, Thin walls, Pre cast unit
3. Screed Vibrator/Surface Vibrator: (D < 200 mm)
• Is directly placed on the concrete mass for compaction of shallow cements such as road surface, concrete floors.
• Depth  200 mm
4. Vibration stable:
Efficient in compacting stiff and harsh concrete mix required for manufacturing of pre cast dement.
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5. Plate Vibrator:
Compaction of prefabricated roof elements, door & window frame and railway sleeper.
6. Cursing on Concrete:
Note:
As per IS → 456
• Concrete members shall be kept under curing for a minimum period of 7 days for OPC at 90% humidity and min 10 days
where mineral admixtures are blended cements used.
Objective of Curing:
1. To prevent loss of moisture from concrete.
(Loss due to evaporation or any other reason)
(Supply additional moisture gain of strength)
2. To ensure hydration process completely.
3. To keep capillary pores saturated.
4. To increase durability, impermeability of concrete and reduce the shrinkage.
5. It improves wear resistance and other resistance qualities.
Effect of Improper Curving.
1. Chances of ingress of chlorides & chemicals → very high
2. Cracks formed due to plastic shrinkage
3. Rates of carbonation increases.
4. Durability decreases due to high permeability.
Method of Curing
(Ponding Method) Use
1. Shading of concrete work or stagnating water For large concrete surface such as road slab, roof slab
2. Gunny bags For structural concrete
3. Sprinkling of water For vertical surface lite column
4. Membrane curing A places of scarcity of water
5. Stream curing For precast concrete member
• To increase the rate of strength development.
• Put concrete member
@ 93°C → low pressure
→ High pressure
• It reduce shear strength of concrete
• Results in increased resistance to sulphate at track and to
freezing thawing

7. Finishing
• Process of levelling & smoothing the top surface of freshly placed concrete to achieve desired appearance.
• Done by levelling.
1. Screeding:
Strike off the excess concrete to bring the top surface to proper grade.
2. Floating :
Removing the irregularities on surface of concrete which are still left after screeding.
• Fawning done by wooden float

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3. Trowelling : Final operation of Finishing to be done after all excess water has evaporated by steel float. (Conical shape,
gives very smooth finish)

Maturity Concept in Concrete

• The strength of concrete not only depend on time but also on temperature during hydration.
Maturity = (Time × Temp°C)
Unit = C − hrs °C days

Note:
• A datum temp. of is taken for maturity calculation since hydration is stared at thistemp.
• A sample of concrete curved at 18°C for 28 days is taken as fully matured concrete.
Maturity at 28 days = 28 × (18 – (– 11)) = 19488°C-hr
Gel space ratio of concrete
• Ratio of volume of hydrate cement paste to the sum of volume of hydrated cement and of capillary pores.
0.657C
• Gel space ratio =
319C + Wo
C → Weight of cement in gram
Wo → Volume of mixing water in ml
Or
Wo → Water cement ratio × weight of cement
• S = 240 x3
Constant 240 : intrinsic strength of gel in N/mm2.

1. Compressive strengthen test:

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• Fill mix in layers of 50 mm, tempt with bar/vibrator.

• Specimen is stored at
temperature = 27  3C  1
 For 24 per from the time of addition of water to dry ingredients.
Humidity = 90%  
2
• Take sample from mould & immersed in water till testing in machine.
• Specimen placed in compression testing machine CTM & apply load @ 14 N/mm 2/minute.
• IS code suggests 20 cube strength only.
• 7 days strength = min 2/3rd of 28 days strength.
• Avg. of 3 specimen is taken
{individual variation  15 % of average}

Note:
Cube strength more than cylinder because contact area of standard cube mould with upper plate in testing machine is more
which results into more confinement thus more strength.

2. Flexural Tensile Strength Test or Modulus of Rupture Test.

Aim → to determine tensile load at which concrete may crack.
• It is indirect test to assess tensile strength of concrete.
Direct measurement of tensile strength is difficult.
Specimen: − 150 150  700 mm
• Specimen are stored in water at temp. of 27  3C for 48 hr testing, testing is done for wet condition.

• Specimen placed in testing machine on 2-38 mm dia. rollers with c/c distance of 600 mm, than load is applied through 2
similar rollers mounted at the 3rd points of supporting span i.e. spacing 200 mm c/c.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.59

 BMC

P → max. load applied to specimen

l → length of span on which specimen supported

a → distance between line of fracture and nearest support, measured on centre line of side of specimen.
3. Split Tensile Strength Test: (Indirect Test)

300 mm
• Specimen l
d = 150 mm placed horizontally b/w the loading surface of CTM (compression testing machine)
•

Compression was applied diametrically and uniformly along the length of cylinder until failure of cylinder along vertical
diameter.
• On application of load uniform tensile stresses, acts over 2/3rd of loaded diameter.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.60

 BMC

• Between the loading platen and cylinder

→ Packing strips of plywood are ploud for uniform distribution of wood & to avoid high compression stress near point of
application.
Advantage:
i. Gives more uniform result than any other tension test.
ii. Strength close to actual tensile strength of concrete.
iii. The same mould & compression testing machine can be used to perform this test.
Limitation
i. Test calculates max. tensile stress assuming line load (↓↓↓↓) and uniform distribution of tensile stresses.
{But concrete has non-linear stress-strain relationship}
ii. Tensile strength depend on specimen diameter.

Factors in Florence Strength of Concrete

1. Aggregate Shape
• (Flaky aggregate, having → Low strength) elongated aggregates.
• Round aggregate are more workable than angular aggregate.
• Angular aggregate results into higher strength {Better interlocking and higher bond characteristics}

2. Aggregate Grading
• Well graded aggregates
→Voids
→  Less cement
→  Less drying shrinkage
→  Quantity of concrete produced → more durable.
Thus well graded aggregates → High strength of concrete

3. Strength of Aggregates
• For preparing high concrete we have high strength aggregates, but vice versa is not true.

Note:
We must read proper mix design foensuse high strength concrete.

4. Specific Gravity of Aggregate

• High specific gravity results in strong aggregates hence strong aggregates.

5. W/C Ratio
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.61
 BMC

• Lower the W/C ratio, higher the strength of concrete provided concrete is workable.
(Separate discussion → Given)

6. Cement Aggregate Ratio

• Of-high then ultimate strength increases provided all other things are constant.

7. Surface of Aggregate
• If high → W/C high →  Lower strength

8. Surface Texture of Aggregate

• If rough → Higher bond strength thus strength ↑

9. Compaction
• Higher comp active efforts → Lower voids air → Higher strength

Effect of W/C Ratio on Strength of Concrete

Effect of Workability on Strength of Concrete

Workability → Means high W/C ratio
• If water cement ratio too high → will lead to segregation which is not at all desirable.

Characteristics Strength of Concrete is Measured at 28 days

Age Strength
1 day 16%
3 day 40%
7 day 65%
14 day 90%
28 day 99%

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 BMC

Type of For Work Min period before removal of

formwork
Vertical formwork to column, walls, beams 16-24 hrs
Soffit form work to slabs (props to be refixed 3 days
immediate after removal of form work
Soffit formwork to beams 7 days
Props to slab 7 day
→ Span upto 4.5 m
→ > 4.5 m
Drops to beam & arch 14 days
→ Span ≤ 6 m
Span > 21 days

Note:
• Above specifications are valid for OPC & where ambient temp. don’t fall below 15°C and adequate curing is done.
• For other cement & lower temp. the stripping/removal time recommended above may be suitably modified/changed.

Physical Properties of Concrete

1. Poison Ratio
lateral strain
=
longitudinal strain
range = 0.10 − 0.30
avg. value = 0.15
μ = 0.1 → High strength concrete
μ = 0.2 → weak mix
2. Creep

Creep → Plastic flow/Time yield

→ Continued deformation with time under a constant load.
• Rate of creep decrease with time at 5 years, up strains are taken as terminal value.

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 BMC

Age Creep coefficient

7 day 2.2
28 days 1.6
1 year 1.1
Creep Increase Where
i. Loading occurs at early age
ii. Loading is sustained over along period
iii. Size/thickness of member → Small
iv. Cement content is high
v. W/C ratio is high
vi. Aggregate cement is low.
vii. Air entrainment is high
viii. Relative humidity is low
ix. Temp. is high

3.
1. Concrete is heterogeneous multiphase material, whose rheological behaviour is influenced by elastic properties and
morphology.
2. As a result, the stress strain curve does not exactly Hooke’s law.

2. Static Modulus of Elasticity

• It is defined as a slope of stress strain for concrete under-uniaxial tension/compression loading.

• But since this curve for concrete is not straight at any point, the modulus & elasticity is find out with reference to tangent
drawn to curve at the origin, this is called initial tangent modulus. But if gives satisfy factory result at low stress values only.
Tangent Modulus : A tangent drawn from any other point on stress-strain curve.
• But if gives satisfactory result in the vicinity of point considered.
Secant Modulus: Most Commonly Used
• Given by slope of line drawn connecting a specified point on curve.
• The value of secant modulus decreases with increases instress at which it is found should always be stated.
• Chord modulus : Find out by chord drawn b/w 2 specified point on stress strain ensure.

Note:
Static modulus of elasticity does not truly represents elastic behaviour of concrete due to creep. It will get affected max.
seriously at higher stresses.
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.64
 BMC

3. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

• It can be find out by subjecting the concrete member to longitudinal vibration at their natural frequency.
Ed = kn2 L2
4. Factors Affecting Modulus Elasticity
1. Effect of moisture condition
2. Effect of Aggregate properties
3. Effect of cement matrix
4. Effect of transition zone

Workability of Concrete
1. Workability is referred to as the case with which a concrete can be transported, placed and consolidated without excessive
bleeding or separation.
2. Workability defined as internal work done in overcoming the frictional forces between concrete ingredients for full
compaction. So water functions as a lubricant so that concrete can be compacted upto maximum possible extent.

Workability Test Order

Factors Affecting Workability

Factor Effect on Workability
Water content (direct relation) As water content increases, fluidity of mix increases so
workability increases
Aggregate/Cement relation (inverse relation) • Higher the ratio, learner the concrete, lower the
workability.
• Lean concrete means concrete having less paste available
for lubrication of penurity surface area of aggregates.
Aggregate size (direct relation) Workability ↑ ∝ avg. size ↑
• Big size aggregate, surface area to be wated less, paste
required for lubricating the surface will be less.
Shape of Aggregate • Angular & flaky aggregate
→ Less workable
• Rounded Cubical shape aggregates have less surface area,
so less amount of paste is required for lubrication. So they
are more workable.
Surface texture Smoother the surface, higher-workability
Grading of aggregates (direct elation) • Well aggregate are more workable frame.
• Such mix will have least voids hence excess cement past
will be available as lubricants.
Admixtures Plasticize increase workability.

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 BMC

Workability Test
1. Slump test:
→ Not for very wet concrete not for very dry concrete.

• Put would over smooth, horizontal rigid and non absorbent surface.
• Fill in 4 layers.
• Each layer tamped 25 times by rod.
• After top layer has beam rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel & tamping rod.
• The mould is removed immediately by lifting it vertically.
• The concrete will then subside and this subsidence is refer as slump (in mm)
• The difference b/w the height of mould and highest point of subsided concrete.

Workability
True
slump Collapse> Shear>
slump
(mm)

Note:
Shear slump indicates a non-cohesive concrete & may lead to segregation.
Degree of Consistency Slump (mm) CF VB Uses
workability (Sec)
Extreme low Moist earth 0 0.65-0.70 > 20 Precast paving slab
Very low Very dry 0-25 0.7-0.8 12-20 Roads vibrated by power operated
machine
Medium Plastic 50-100 0.85-0.95 3-6 • Flat slab reinforcement moderately
section
• RCC section
(manual vibrator)
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.66
 BMC

High Semi-fluid 100-150 0.95-1 0.3 RCC with congested reinforcement

• (cannot be vibrated)
Very high Fluid > 150 70.95 - Flow table test more suited.

Types of Concrete Slumps (mm)

Concrete to be vibrated 10-25
Road construction 20-40
Mass concreting 25-50
Parapets, piers, slab, beam, column, wall 40-50
Concrete 70-80
Normal RCC work 50-120

2. Compacting Factor test

(For low to medium workability)
(F = 0.80 – 0.90)

Note:
Concrete of very low workability not suitable because this concrete can not be fully compacted for in the manner described
in test.
• In this agg size  40 mm
• Weight of concrete (Falling freely) in the cylinder is determined to the nearest 10 gm is known as wt of partially computed
concrete.

• Cylinder is refilled with concrete from the same sample in layers of 50 mm deep, each layer being heavily rammed or
preferably vibrated so as to obtain full compaction.
• The mass of concrete in the cylinder should be measured & it is known as mass of fully compacted concrete.
Mass of partially compacted concrete
Compacting factor =
mass of fully compacted concrete
3. Vee-Bee Consistometer test
• Consistency expressed in VB degree → Recorded in second beam.
• This test determined time required for transforming (by vibration), a concrete specimen in the shape of conical frustrum into
cylinder.
4. Flow test : (High & Very High Workability)
• Including flowing concrete which would exhibit collapse slump.

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 BMC

Non-destructive Test of Concrete (NDT)

1. It is wide group of analysis technique used to evaluate property of concept without damage.
2. The strength of concrete is therefore inferred from some other properties values of which for a good concrete sample are
already known.
3. So, instead of absolute values an estimate of is strength durability and elastic parameter are obtained.
4. Through these tests are easy to perform but their analysis requires special knowledge.

Need of NDT

A. In New Structure
i. Quality control of construction.
ii. Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal curing, prestressing, load application.
iii. Uncertainties concerning the level of workman ship involved in construction operation affecting harden properties of mists
concrete.
iv. Non compliance of material supplied in terms of works specimen test results or other specified requirement.

B. In Existing Structure
i. Due to external & internal chemical attack, fire explosion and other environmental effect.
• By NDT we can find deterioration of concrete.
ii. Assessment of load carrying capacity of existing structure.

For change of its uses or for change of owner ship

Merits/Advantages of NDT
i. Don’t cause any damage to structure/specimen
 No wastage of material hence saves lot of time and money.
ii. Easy to perform (Relatively)
iii. Measurement can be done on concrete at site (insite) and hence representative samples are not required.
iv. NDT useful to study variation in quality of concrete with time and external influence.
v. We can perform test on existing concrete structure hence can devise repair plan.
vi. These test can be categorised into those that assess the strength of concrete insite and those that determine other
characteristics of concrete.

Different Method of NDT

1. Surface Hardness Test:
These are indentation on type, include Williams testing pistol and impact hammers, are used only for estimation of concrete
strength.
2. Rebound Hammer Test
Measures elastic rebound of concrete and is primary used for estimation of concrete strength and for comparative in
vesication.
3. Penetration and Pull Out Test:
Measure penetration and pull out resistance of concrete and are used for strength estimation, they can also used for
comparative studies.
4. Dynamic/Vibration/Ultrasonic Pulse velocity Test:

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.68

 BMC

Used to evaluate durability and uniformity of concrete and to estimate its strength and elastic properties.
5. Radioactive and Nuclear Method:
Uses x-ray and gamma ray penetration test for measurement of density and thickness of concrete. Also neutron scattering
and neutron activation method are used for moisture and cement contest determination.
6. Magnetic & Electrical Method
Magnetic method → Determine cover to bars
Electrical method → To get Moisture contest & (microwave absorption, thickness of concrete technique)
7. Acoustic Emission Technique:
To study the initiation and growth of cracks in concrete.



1.69
Lecture No.- O4 By- Devesh Sir
Torsion Design

02
 RCC IS recommendation

Lecture No.- 01 By- Devesh Sir

-02
Lecture No. 01
Lecture No. 02-. By- Devesh Sir
Lecture No. 03
Lecture No. 04 By- Devesh Sir
 RCC
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

SHORT NOTES
DEVESH PATHAK SIR
 R.C.C

1 BASIC INTRODUCTION
OF RCC
Introduction of RCC
Francois Coignet was a French industrialist of the nineteenth century. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a
technique for constructing building structures.

Ques: R.C.C. was developed and first used by:

(a) Joseph Monier (b) John Smeaton
(b) Francois Coignet (d) Joseph Aspdin

Joseph Monier founded ferro-cement. John Smeaton is considered the father of Civil
Engineering. Joseph Asphdin founded Portland cement. Francois Coignet was a French
industrialist and the first to use iron-reinforced concrete.

PCC (Plain Cement Concrete)

• ;g ,d ,slk Paste gS ftlesa Water, Binding materials, Fine Aggregate, Coarse Aggregate o Admixture (if Required)
dks fdlh fuf'pr vuqikr esa feykdj cuk;k tkrk gSA
• Generally PCC dh Strength, Compression esa vPNh gksrh gS tcfd Tension esa cgqr de gksrh gSA
• Tensile strength of concrete =1/10th of Compressive strength

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete)

• tc PCC esa fdlh vU; Material dk Reinforcement ¼izcyu½ djds Concrete dh Tensile Strength dks c<+k fn;k tkrk gS rks
mls RCC dgrs gSA
• Reinforcement ds :i esa lkekU;r% Steel dk Use fd;k tkrk gSA
• RCC ,d Composite Material gSA

Grade of Concrete:- According to New Code (2019)

M15 Grade • M → Mix • 15 → Characteristics Strength (fck) ¼vfHky{kf.kd lkeF;Z½ (N/mm2 )

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.2

 R.C.C

Type of Concrete Designation of Concrete Characteristics Strength (fck) (N/mm2)

Ordinary Concrete M-10, M-15, M-20 (M-10 to M-20) 10 N/mm2, 15 N/mm2, 20 N/mm2
Standard Concrete M-25, M-30, M-35, M-40, M-45, M-50, M-55, M-60 25 N/mm2 to 60 N/mm2
(M-25 to M-60)
High Strength Concrete M-65, M-70, M-75, M-80, M-85, M-90, M-95, M- 65 N/mm2 to 100 N/mm2
100, (M-65 to M-100)

Note:
• mijksDr Table esa (M-Mix) rFkk mlds side esa fy[kk gqvk Number dks Concrete dh Compressive Strength dgrs gSA tks fd
Concrete 150 mm ds Cube dh 28 days rd Curing ¼rjkbZ½ djus ds i'pkr~ izkIr gksrh gSA
• M-60 ds Above IS-456:2000 valid ugha gS vFkkZr~ M-60 ds Åij okys Concrete ds fy, Experimental Analysis fd;s tkrs gSA

Characteristics Strength
• ;g Concrete dh og Strength gS tks Test Result dh 95% dh iqf"V djrk gSA rFkk dsoy 5% Test Result viuh Strength ls
igys Fail gks tk;sA
• 1 Sample dk eryc 3 Specimen gksrk gsA rFkk izR;sd Specimen esa Strength dk Variation ± 15% ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A

Cubical (Specimen)
• 1 Sample = 3 Specimen
• Specimen ij Loading ges'kk Side Faces ij Apply dh tkrh gSA
• Specimen Size = 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm

Note:
• Cylinder dh rqyuk esa Cube Specimen dh Strength 1.25 Timex ¼xquk½ gksrh gSA tcfd Cube dh rqyuk esa Cylinder Specimen
dh Strength 0.80 Timex ¼xquk½ gksrh gSA
• Strength of Cylinder = 0.80 of Cube Strength (80% of Cube Strength)
• Strength of Cube = 1.25 of Strength of Cylinder (1.25% of Cylinder Strength)

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.3

 R.C.C

Aggregate

• lkekU; RCC Work ds fy, Nominal Size of Aggregate 20 mm fy;k tkrk gSA ysfdu ;fn laHko gks rks bldh Size dks 40 mm
rd c<+k;k tk ldrk gS rFkk Congested Reinforcement ds Case esa 10 mm size Hkh j[kk tk ldrk gSA

Note:
Aggregate dh Max. Size, Member dh Thickness ds 1/4th ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A

Water
• Concrete ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkus okyk Water, Drinking Water gksuk pkfg,A vFkkZr% bldh pH Value = 6.5 to 8.5 ds chp esa
gksuh pkfg,A
• Concrete ds fy, Sea Water dk use ugha fd;k tkrk gS D;ksfa d blesa Salt dh ek=k lcls vf/kd gksrh gSA
• Concrete ds fy, iz;ksx fdls x;s Water Source ls cuk;h x;h Concrete Mix o Distilled Water (Neutral Water pH = 7) ls
cuk;h x;h Concrete Mix dh Strength esa difference 10% ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A

Permissible Limit of Impurity in Water:- निम्नािुसार

(1) Chlorides (IS 3025-Part:32)

• For PCC 2000 PPM or Mg/Ltr
• For RCC 500 Mg/Ltr
(2) Organic Compounds(IS 3025-Part:18) 200 Mg/Ltr
(3) Sulphates(IS 3025-Part:24) 400 Mg/Ltr
(4) Inorganic Compounds(IS 3025-Part:18) 3000 Mg/Ltr
(5) Suspended Matters(IS 3025-Part:17) 2000 Mg/Ltr

Exposure Conditions

1. Mild Exposure
tc Concrete dh Surface, Atmospheric Effects ls vFkok fdlh vkØed fLFkfr (Dangerous Situation) ls safe gksA2. Moderate
Exposure
tc Concrete dh Surface vR;f/kd o"kkZ o Snowfall ds izfr Safe gks vFkkZr~ Concrete dh Surface fdlh Salt Chemical ds Contact
esa uk gksA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.4

 R.C.C

3. Severe Exposure
;fn Concrete dh Surface vR;f/kd o"kkZ Snowfall vkSj ,d ds ckn ,d Drying and Welting gksuk vFkok Sea Water ds Contact esa
Safe jgsA

4. Very Severe Exposure

Concrete dh Surface yxkrkj leqnzh ckSNkj Spray vkfn ds Contact esa gks rFkk mlds izfr Safe Hkh gksA

5. Extreme Exposure
tc Concrete dh Surface Acid Rain, bR;kfn ds Contact esa gksrh gS rks mls Extreme Exposure dgrs gSA vFkok Tidal Zone esa gksA

Proportions of Concrete
Lean Concrete Rich Concrete
C:S:A C:S:A
• M-5 → 1 : 5 : 10 M-15 → 1 : 2 : 4
• M-7.5 → 1 : 4 : 8 M-20 → 1 : 1.5 : 3
• M-10 → 1: 3 : 6 M-25 → 1 (Cement) : 1 (F.A) : 2(C.A)

Lean Concrete
Lean Concrete dk Use lkekU;r% Foundation ds Base es]a Flooring ds Base es]a vFkok Mass Concreting etc esa fd;k tkrk gSA

Reinforcement

• tc PCC ds lkFk esa fdlh vU; Material dk use djds bldh Tensile Strength dks c<+k fn;k tkrk gS rks bls Reinforcement
dgrs gSA
• Reinforcement ds :i esa Steel dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS D;ksfa d Coefficient of Thermal Expansion yxHkx Concrete ds leku
gksrk gSA

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

• For Steel =11106 /C
• For Concrete =12106 /C
• Steel dks fuEufyf[kr dkj.kksa dh otg ls Hkh Reinforcement ds :i esa use fd;k tkrk gS
1. Steel, Economical gksrk gS ckdh Materials ds Comparison esAa
2. Steel, Market esa Easily Available gksrk gSA
3. Steel dh Compressive vkSj Tensile Strength yxHkx leku gksrh gSA
4. Steel dk Concrete ds lkFk Bond, Proper and mÙke gksrk gSA
5. Steel dh Strength, Other Material dh rqyuk esa dkQh vf/kd gksrh gSA

Grades of Steel
• Fe-250 → Mild Steel
• Fe-415 → TOR Bar
• Fe-500 → TMT Bar

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.5

 R.C.C

• Fe-550 → TMT Bar HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed Bars)

• TMT→ Thermo Mechanically Treated
• TOR → Trade Name of Steel (Market Name)

Example:- Fe-250
• Fe → Ferrous
• 250 → Yield Stress of Steel (fy)/fy = 250 N/mm2

Tensile Strength of Concrete:- (Indirect Test)

A. Flexural (Bending) Tensile Strength

• 𝑓𝑐𝑟 = 0.7√𝑓𝑐𝑘
• fcr = Flexural Tensile Stress of Concrete

B. Spliting Tensile Strength

• fct = 0.66 fcr
• 𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 0.462√𝑓𝑐𝑘
• fct = Spiliting Tensile Stress of Concrete

C. Direct Tensile Strength

• fd = (0.5 to 0.625) fcr
• fd = direct Tensile Stress of Concrete
• fck = Characteristics Strength of Concrete
fct > fct > fd

Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (Young's Modulus)

Short Term Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

• 𝐸𝐶 = 5000√𝑓𝑐𝑘 → According to IS : 456 : 2000 (LSM)
• 𝐸𝐶 = 5700√𝑓𝑐𝑘 → According to IS : 456 : 1978 (WSM)

Long Term Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

𝐸
• 𝐸𝐶𝐿 = 1+𝜃
𝐶

where, θ → Creep Coefficient (Time Dependent Phenomena)

• Creep Coefficient dh value Time c<+us ds lkFk de gksrh tkrh gSA tcfd Creep dh value, Time ds lkFk c<+rh tkrh gSA
Time θ
7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
1 year 1.1

Creep

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.6

 R.C.C

• Concrete esa Creep ml ij Permanent Stress dh Value ij depend djrk gSA lkFk vU; Factors ij Hkh depend djrk gS tks
fuEu gS
1. Types of Loading
2. Quality of Material
3. Time Period of Loading
4. Age of Concrete
5. Temperature etc.
• Creep Strain dh value, Creep Coefficient dh Help ls Kkr dh tkrh gSA
• fdlh Concrete Member esa Creep Strain dk eku] Elastic Strain ds vykok Develop gksrk gSA
• Total Strain () = Elastic + Creep

Creep Coefficient
Creep Coefficient is the Ratio of Ultimate Creep Strain to Elastic Strain.
Ultimate Creep Strain
• Creep Coefficient = Elastic Strain

Shrinkage
Concrete esa Total Shrinkage fuEufyf[kr ckrks ij fuHkZj djrk gSA
1. Concrete ds Components ij
2. Environmental Condition ij
3. Water-Cement Ratio ijA
4. Quantity of Cement ijA etc.

***Concrete esa Total Shrinkage 3 × 10–4 (0.003) ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A

Stripping Time

• Concrete dh Casting ls ysdj Shuttering dks Remove djus rd ds Time dks Stripping Time dgrs gSA
• fdlh Concrete ds fy, Stripping time, Span, Type of Cement, Type of Loading rFkk Grade of Concrete vkfn ckrksa ij depend
djrk gSA

Cover
• Reinforcement ds fy, iz;kZIr Cover cuk;s j[kus ds fy, fdlh Nominal Thickness ds Cement Block dk Use fd;k tkrk
ftls Cover dgk tkrk gSA
• Reinforcement dks Cover Provide djus ls Concrete o Steel ds chp Stress-distribution leku :i ls gks ikrk gSA rFkk Steel
dks Atmospheric effects ls Hkh cpk;k tk ldrk gSA
• Cover lkekU;r% nks izdkj dk gksrk gSA

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 R.C.C

1. Clear Cover
2. Effective Cover

Placing
• Concrete dks Plant ls Transport djds Site ij Mkyuk Placing dgykrk gSA
• Concrete dh Placing djrs le; Free Fall Height 1.5 m ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A

curing

• Concrete dh Surface dks yxkrkj Wet cuk;s j[kuk pkfg, ftlls Hydration Process vklkuh ls gks lds rFkk Concrete ds
Surface ij de ls de Cracks Develop gksA
• ;fn Concrete esa Admixture dk Use fd;k x;k gks rks mldk Curing Time Period 14 days rFkk Normal Condition esa Curing
Period 7 days fy;k tkrk gSA
Ultimate Stress
• Permissible Stress = Factor of Safety

For Concrete For Steel

𝑓ck 𝑓𝑦
• 𝜎cbc = FOS
• 𝜎st = FOS



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 R.C.C

2 WORKING STRESS METHOD

Working stress Method (WSM)

• bldks Elastic Method ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA

• WSM ls izkIr Section, Bulky (Heavy) gksrs gSA vFkkZr~ Material dk Consumption dkQh T;knk gksrk gSA ftldh otg ls
section uneconomical gks tkrk gSA
• bl Method esa Factor of safety vf/kd fy;k tkrk gSA tks fuEu gS &
FOS value →
Concrete = 3
Steel = 1.78
Direct compression = 4
• WSM ,d Traditional Method gSA
• ;g Deterministic Approach (Theoretical) ij vk/kkfjr gSA

Singly Reinforced Beam

Assumptions of WSM Method

(1) dksbZ Hkh Section Bending ls igys rFkk Bending ds ckn Plane gh jgrk gSA
(2) Concrete o Steel ds chp Perfect Bond curk gSA
(3) Concrete dks dkQh gn rd Elastic Material ekuk tkrk gSA
(4) Stress o Strain curve, Linear gksrs gSA vFkkZr~ stress is directly proportional to strain gksrk gSA   
280
(5) Modular Ratio 𝑚 = 3𝜎 fy;k tkrk gSA
𝑐𝑏𝑐

(6) Hook’ law is valid (  )

𝐸
𝑚 = 𝐸𝑠
𝑐
ultimateLoad
• Permissible stress =
FOS

Singly Reinforced Beam

• tc fdlh Beam ds dsoy Tensile zone esa Reinforcement provide fd;k tkrk gSA rks mls singly R/F Beam dgrs gSA
• IS-Code ds vuqlkj Singly R/F Beam ds Tensile zone esa fLFkr Concrete, fdlh Hkh Type dk Tensile Load, Bear ugha djrh
gSA

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 R.C.C

• C.Z. → Compression zone • T.Z.→ Tension zone

• d → Effective depth of Beam • D → Overall depth of Beam

• b → Width of Beam • E.C. → Effective cover

• N.A. → Neutral Axis • Ast → Area of steel in Tension

Note:
• Stirrups dks Secondary R/F/(Transverse R/F)/Shear Reinforcement ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA

Analysis of Singly Reinforced Beam

Compressive Force: (c)

• C = Area of stress Block × Width of Beam
1
C = 2 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝑥 × 𝑏
𝑏.𝑥.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
• 𝐶= 2

Tensile Force: (T)

• T = Stress × Area

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 R.C.C

• T = st.Ast
𝒙
Lever Arm (z): 𝒛 = 𝒅 − 𝟑

Moment of Resistance for compression zone: (Mr)

𝑏.𝑥.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
𝑀𝑟 = 𝑐 × 𝑧 = 2
(𝑑 − 3)

Moment of Resistance for Tension zone:

𝑥
𝑀𝑟 = 𝑇 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − )
3

Depth of Actual Neutral Axis:

• taking moment of area →
𝑥
𝑏 × 𝑥𝑎 × 2𝑎 = 𝑀. 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
𝑏.𝑥𝑎2
2
= 𝑀. 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )

Depth of Critical Neutral Axis:

→ From strain diagram applying similar Triangle Property →
𝜀𝑐 𝑠 𝜀 𝑑−𝑥𝑐 𝜀
𝑥𝑐
= 𝑑−𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥𝑐
= 𝜀𝑠
𝑐 𝑐
𝜎
∴𝐸=
𝜀
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝜎
𝜀𝑐 = |𝜀𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡
𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑆
𝑑 𝑥𝑐 𝜎𝑠𝑡/𝐸𝑆
− =
𝑥 𝑥𝑐 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐/𝐸𝐶
𝑑 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝐶
−1= ×
𝑥𝑐 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝐸𝑆
 M = ES/EC
𝑑 𝜎 1
𝑥𝑐
− 1 = 𝜎 𝑠𝑡 × 𝑀
𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑑 𝜎
𝑥𝑐
= 𝑀𝜎𝑠𝑡 + 1
𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑑
𝑥𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡
1+
𝑀𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑀𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 .𝑑
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑀𝜎
𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡
xc = k.d
Where k = Neutral Axis Factor
𝑀𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑘 = 𝑀𝜎
𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡

Lever Arm :
𝑥𝑐 𝑘.𝑑 𝑘
• 𝑍=𝑑− 3
=𝑑− 3
= 𝑑 (1 − 3 )
• Z = J.d
• Where J = Lever arm Factor
𝑘
• 𝐽 =1−
3

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 R.C.C

Moment of Resistance for compression zone:

𝑏𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3)
•  x = xc
𝑏𝑥𝑐 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥𝑐
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3
)
𝑏. (𝑘. 𝑑)𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑘. 𝑑
𝑀𝑟 = (𝑑 − )
2 3
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝑏. 𝑘. 𝑑2 𝑘
𝑀𝑟 = (1 − )
2 3
1
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝐽. 𝐾. 𝑏𝑑2
• Mr = Q. bd2
• Where Q = Moment of Resistance Factor
1
• 𝑄 = 2 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 . 𝐽. 𝐾

Where → st = Permissible stress steel in Tension

•  = Permissible stress • C = Strain in compression
• S = Strain in steel • Ast = Area of steel in Tension
• ASC = Area of steel in compression • cbc → Permissible stress of concrete in Bending compression
• Mr → Moment of Resistance • J → Lever arm Factor
• K → Neutral Axis Factor • Q → Moment of Resistance Factor
• xc → Depth of Critical Neutral Axie] • xa → Depth of Actual N.A

Types of Section:
(1) xa > xc → Over Reinforced section
(2) xa < xc → Under Reinforced section
(3) xa = xc → Balanced section
(1) Under Reinforced section: (xa < xc)
→ bl Type ds section esa Concrete viuh Permissible stress rd igq¡pus ls igys gh steel viuh Permissible stress rd igq¡p
pqdh gksxhA
• vFkkZr~ bl izdkj ds section esa steel igys Fail gksrh gSA tks Fail gksrs le; i;kZIr Warning nsrh gSA (Ductile Failure show djrk
gSA)
• IS-code lkekU;r% Under Reinforced section dks design djuh dh lykg nsrk gSA
• bl izdkj ds section ds fy, xc > xa gksrk gSA
• bl Type ds section ds fy, Moment of Resistance →
𝑥
• Moment of Resistance (𝑀𝑟 ) = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 3)
• Under R/F section esa Failure Tension Zone esa gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ steel Fail gksrh gSA
(2) Over Reinforced section: (xa > xc)
• bl Type ds section esa steel ls igys concrete vius permissible stress rd igq¡p tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ Concrete, Brittle Failure nsrk
gSA tks fd Safety purpose ls safe ugha gksrk gSA
• IS code ds vuqlkj over R/F section dks design djus ls cpuk pkfg,A
• bl Type ds section ds fy, Moment of Resistance →
𝑏.𝑥.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• Moment of Resistance (𝑀𝑟 ) = 2
(𝑑 − 3)

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 R.C.C

• bl Type ds section esa compression zone esa Failure gksrk gS vFkkZr~ concrete Fail djrh gSA
(3) Balanced section: (xa = xc)
• tc Concrete o steel nksuksa esa develop, Actual stress ,d lkFk vius Permissible stress rd igq¡p tk;s rks mls Balanced section
dgrs gSA
• bl section esa compression o Tension zone nksuksa ,d lkFk Fail gksrs gSA
• bl Type ds section ds fy, Moment of Resistance →
• Moment of Resistance
• (Mr) = st.Ast (d – x/3)
Or
𝑏.𝑥.𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3)

Percentage of steel for Balanced section:

• C=T
𝑏. 𝑥𝑐 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡
2
𝑏. 𝑘. 𝑑𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 .
2
𝑘𝜎 𝐴𝑠𝑡
100 × 𝑐𝑏𝑐 = × 100
2𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑏. 𝑑
50. 𝑘. 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 𝑃𝑡 % ∴ 𝑝𝑡 =
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑏. 𝑑
50𝑘. 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝑃𝑡 % =
𝜎𝑠𝑡

Doubly Reinforced Beam:

→ tc fdlh Beam ds Tensile zone ds lkFk&lkFk compression zone esa Hkh Reinforcement provide dj fn;k tk;s rks bl Type
dh Beam dks Doubly Reinforced Beam dgrs gSA
→ Doubly R/F beam fuEu conditions esa cuk;h tkrh gSA
(1) tc Beam ds cress-section dks Restrict dj fn;k tk;sA
(2) tc Room esa Ik;kZIr Head room dh आवश्यकता gksA
(3) tc Beam ij Earth-quake ;k Wind load dh otg ls Reversal stress आने dh lEHkkouk gksA (Reversal = Tension
⇇ compression)
(4) tc Beam ij Impact Load / Rolling Load (Wheel Load) vkus dh lHkkouk gksA

Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beam:

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 R.C.C

Compressive Force for compression concrete:

1
C1 = Area of stress Block × width of Beam = 2 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 × 𝑥 × 𝑏
𝑏. 𝑥. 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
𝐶1 =
2
Compressive Force of compression steel:
C2 = cb' × (1.5 m ASC – ASC)
C2 = (1.5 m – 1) ASC.cb'

Lever Arm:
𝑥
• 𝑍1 = 𝑑 − 3
• Z2 = d – d'

Moment of Resistance for compression zone:

MOR Due to compression concrete →

𝑏𝑥.𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝐵𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐1 × 𝑧1 = 2
(𝑑 − 3)

MOR Due to compression steel →

𝑀2 = 𝐶2 × 𝑍2 = (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑐 . (𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′)(𝑑 − 𝑑′)

MOR for compression zone→

• Mr = MBal + M2
𝑏⋅𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3) + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑐 ⋅ (𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′)(𝑑 − 𝑑)′

MOR For Tension zone:

MOR due to (𝐴𝑠𝑡1 ):

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 R.C.C

𝑥
• 𝑀𝐵𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡1 (𝑑 − 3)

MOR due to (𝐴𝑠𝑡2 ):

• 𝑀2 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ (𝐴𝑠𝑡2 )(𝑑 − 𝑑′)

Total MOR for Tension zone →

• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑦)
𝜋
𝐶1 × +𝐶2 ×𝑑′
• 𝑦̄ = 3
𝐶1 +𝐶2

Critical Neutral Axis:

𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑥𝑐 =
𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡

Actual Neutral Axis:

𝑥𝑎
𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥𝑎 ⋅ + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑥𝑎 − 𝑑′) = 𝑚. 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
2

Types of section:
(A) Under R/F section:
• Failure occurs in Tensile zone.
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑦)
𝑥
𝐶1 ⋅ +𝐶2 ×𝑑′
• 𝑦= 3
𝐶1 +𝐶2

(B) Over R/F section →

• Failure occurs in compression zone.
𝑏⋅𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3) + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑐 . (𝜎𝑐𝑏 )′(𝑑 − 𝑑′)

(C) Balanced section →

• Failure occurs in Both compression & Tension zone.
𝑏.𝑥𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 3) + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴𝑠𝑐 ⋅ (𝜎𝑐𝑏 )′(𝑑 − 𝑑′)
or
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑦)

Note:
(1) Compression zone esa mifLFkr steel dks concrete ds Equivalent Area ds convert djus ds fy, (1.5 m) ls xq.kk dj nsrs
gSA tcfd Tensile zone ds fy, dsoy (m) ls xq.kk djrs gSA (According IS code)
(2)

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.15

 R.C.C

From similar Triangle property:

𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝜎 ′
𝑐𝑏
𝑥
= (𝑥−𝑑′)
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 (𝑥−𝑑)′
(𝜎𝑐𝑏 )′ =
𝑥

Note:
1) tc problem Type-II esa cbc Kkr gks tk;s rks fuEu fyf[kr Relation ls st dks Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
𝑀⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥𝑐
• =
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑑−𝑥𝑐

• Assume → 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑐
2) Compression zone esa mifLFkr steel esa mRiUu stress Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu fyf[kr Formula use dj ldrs gSA
• 𝜎𝑠𝑐 = 1.5𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′
𝜎𝑐𝑏 (𝑥−𝑑′)
• 𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′ =
𝑥
Steel Beam Theory:–
→ tc Compression zone a Tension zone nksuksa esa Equal Amount of Area of steel dk Reinforcement dj fn;k tkrk gS rks bl
प्रकार ds Beam Steel Beam Theory ds vUrxZr design fd;k tkrk gSA
• bl Type ds Beam lkekU;r% Uneconomical gksrs gSA D;ksafd Beam eSa Used concrete dh strength dk dksbZ Hkh Use ugha gksrk
gSA vFkkZr~ concrete dksbZ Hkh Load Bear ugha djrh gSA
According to Principle of Steel Beam Theory:-
1) Beam Section dh concrete dks calculation esa 'kkfey ugha fd;k tkrk gSA
2) Compression a Tension nksuks Steel & Equal Amount of stress mRiUu gksrk gSA vFkkZr
𝜎𝑠𝑐 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡
3) Compression o Tension steel ds Area dks Equal eku fy;k tkrk gSA vFkkZR
4) bl Type ds Beam dh Lever Arm] compression o Tension Force nksuksa steel ds centre of Gravity ds chp dh distance gksrh gSA
•

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Moment of Resistance →
For compression zone →
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝐶 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
For Tension zone →
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝐶 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
Total MoR →
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝜎𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 ) = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
Flanged Beam:-
→ tc slab rFkk blds uhps Mkys tkus okys Beam dks Monolithically cast ¼,d lkFk <kyuk½ fd;k tkrk gS rks mls Flanged
Beam dgrs gSaA
→ ;fn Flanged Beam slab ds nksuksa fdukjksa ij fLFkr gks rks mls L & Beam dgrs gSA rFkk e/; esa fLFkr gks rks mls T&Beam
dgrs gSaA
• T&Beam o L Beam ds Flange part dks ,slk ekuk tkrk gS fd compressive strength esa ;g viuk ;ksxnku nsrk gSA vFkkZr~
Bear djrk gSA
• T&Beam o T&Beam ds Åijh slab dks Flange rFkk uhps yVds gq;s Hkkx dks web/Rib/stem dgrs gSaA

Where
• Bf → effective width of flange • b → Actual width of flange
• bw → width of web/Rib/Stem • dw → depth of Web/Rib/Stem
• d → effective depth of T-Beam • D → Overall depth of T-Beam
• Df → depth of flange/thickness of slab • Ast → Area of steel in tension zone
• l → Effective span of beam • l0 → distance between point of zero moment
• l0 → 0.7 l (For Continuous Beam) • l0 → l (For simply supported beam)
Advantage of T-Beam Consecutions: –
(1) Slab dk dqN हिस्सा Beam ds lkFk feydj compression stress dks Bear djrk gSA ftldh otg ls Neutral axis ds Åij
fLFkr Compression Area Increase dj tkrk gS vkSj T & Beam vU; Beam dh rqyuk esa T;knk Load Carry djrh gSA
(2) Monolithic construction gksus ds dkj.k lHkh Span dh slab] continuous :i ls cast dh tkrh gSA ftlls slab esa Bending
Moment de mRiUu gksrk gSA
(3) Rectangular Beam esa T&Beam Most Economical gksrh gSA vFkkZr~ T& Beam O;oLFkk Use djus ls 40% concrete rFkk 50%
steel dh cpr gksrh gSA
Effective Width of T-Beam (bf):-
• According to IS : 456 : 2000 →

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.17

 R.C.C

(A) For Monolithic T-Beam →

𝑙0
• + 𝑏𝑤 + 6𝐷𝑓
6
𝐴+𝐵
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑏𝑤 + 2
→ whichever is less
(B) For Isolated T-Beam →

𝑙0
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑙
+ 𝑏𝑤
( 𝑏0 +)
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑏 → Whichever is less
Analysis of T-Beam:–
(A) Analysis of singly R/F T-Beam

Case-I When N.A Lies in Flange: – (xa < Df)

Critical N.A → • Depth of Actual N.A →
𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 .𝑑 𝑥𝑎
• 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑚𝜎 • 𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝑥𝑎 ⋅ = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡 2

𝑏𝑓 ⋅𝑥𝑎 2
• = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
2
Compressive force → • Tensile Force →
1
• 𝐶= 𝜎 ⋅𝑥
2 𝑐𝑏𝑐
× 𝑏𝑓 • 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑏𝑓 × xσcbc
• C= 2
• Lever arm →
𝑥
• 𝑍=𝑑−3
MoR for compressive zone
𝑏𝑓 ⋅𝑥⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑥
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝐶 × 𝑍 = 2
(𝑑 − 3)

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.18

 R.C.C

MoR for tension zone

𝑥
• Mr = T × Z = σst × Ast (d– 3)

Case-II When Neutral Axis Lies in Bottom of Flange :– (xa = Df)

Critical N.A→ • Depth of Actual N.A →

𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡
• since 𝑥𝑎 = 𝐷𝑓
𝐷𝑓
• 𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓 ⋅ 2
= 𝑚. 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝐷𝑓 )
𝑏𝑓⋅𝐷2
𝑓
• = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝐷𝑓 )
2
Compression Force → Tensile force →
1
• 𝐶= 𝜎 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓
2 𝑐𝑏𝑐
⋅ 𝑏𝑓 • 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑏𝑓 .𝐷𝑓 ⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
• 𝐶= 2
MoR for compressive zone • Lever arm →
𝑏𝑓 ⋅𝐷𝑓 ⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝐶 × 𝑍 = 2
(𝑑 − 3
) • 𝑍=𝑑− 3

MoR for Tension Zone →

𝐷𝑓
• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝑇 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − )
3

Case-III When Neutral Axis Lies Web/Rib/Stem: (xa > DF)

• Depth of critical Neutral Axis →

𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑚𝜎
𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑠𝑡

Depth of Actual Neutral Axis →

𝐷𝑓 𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓
𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥𝑎 − 2
) + 𝑏𝑤 ⋅ (𝑥𝑎 − 𝐷𝑓 ) ⋅ ( 2
) = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
2
𝐷𝑓 𝑏𝑤(𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓 )
• 𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥𝑎 − 2
)+ 2
= 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.19

 R.C.C

After Neglecting Web Part →

𝐷𝑓
• 𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥𝑎 − 2
) = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )
Compression Force →
Compression force due to flange →
• C1 = Area of stress block of flange × width of beam
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′
𝐶1 = ( 2
)× 𝐷𝑓 × 𝑏𝑓
𝑏𝑓 ⋅𝐷𝑓 (𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′)
• 𝐶1 = 2
Compression force due to Web/Rib/Stem:
1
• 𝐶2 = 𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′ ⋅ (𝑥𝑞 − 𝐷𝑓 ) ⋅ 𝑏𝑤
2
𝑏𝑊 ⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′⋅(𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓 )
• 𝐶2 =
2
Lever Arm
Lever arm for flange part
• 𝑧1 = (𝑑 − 𝑦1 )
𝜎 +2𝜎 ′ 𝐷𝑓
• 𝑦1 = ( 𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎 𝑐𝑏′ ) × 3
𝑐𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑏

Lever arm for web part

• 𝑧2 = 𝑑 − 𝑦2
𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓
• 𝑦2 = 𝐷𝑓 + ( )
3
Combined Lever arm
• 𝑧 = (𝑑 − 𝑦)
𝑐1 ⋅𝑦1 +𝑐2 ⋅𝑦2
• 𝑦=
𝑐1 +𝑐2
MoR for compression zone
• Mr = MoR due to flange + MoR due to web
• M r = c1 × z 1 + c2 × z 2
𝑏𝑓⋅𝐷𝑓 (𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′) 𝑏𝑊 ⋅𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′(𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓 )
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
⋅ (𝑑 − 𝑦1 ) + 2
(𝑑 − 𝑦2 )
After Neglecting Web Part
𝑏𝑓 ⋅𝐷𝑓 (𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 +𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′)
• 𝑀𝑟 = 2
(𝑑 − 𝑦1 )
𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 (𝑥𝑎 −𝐷𝑓 )
• 𝜎𝑐𝑏 ′ = 𝑥𝑎

MoR For Tension Zone

• 𝑀𝑟 = 𝑇 × 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑦)

Note
1) T-Beam esa Actual N.A dh Position Kkr djus ds fy, ;g eku fy;k tkrk gS fd N.A ;k rks Flange ds vUnj fLFkr gS
vFkok Flange ds ckgjA
2) vf/kdrj Conditions esa ;g ns[kk x;k gS fd N.A. T;knkrj Flange ds ckgj Web esa fLFkr gksrh gSA vr% Actual N.A fudkyrs
le; loZizFke N.A dks Web esa ekurs gq, Calculation djsaA
3) ftl T-Section dh N.A Web esa fLFkr gksrh gS ,sls T-Section Ideal ekus tkrs gSA rFkk Most Economical gksrs gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.20

 R.C.C

4) Calculation dks Easy cukus ds fy, (Case No-III) esa (N.A ls Åij okys½ Web Part dks Neglect fd;k tk ldrk gS D;ksfa d
;g cgqr de Moment of Resistance carry djrk gSA

Design of T-Beam
Step-I
• fn;s x;s Span o Load ds vk/kkj ij Bending Moment Kkr dj ysA

Step-II
• Section dk mi;qZDr dimension eku ysAa

𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
• 𝑑= 12
to 0

1 2
• 𝑏𝑊 = (3 to 3) of 𝑑 or bW = 2 to 3 times of thickness of slab

Step-III
• Effective Width of Flange IS: 456: 2000 ds vuqlkj Kkr dj ysA

𝑙0
• 𝑏𝑓 = 6
+ 𝑏𝑤 + 6 𝐷𝑓

𝐴+𝐵
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑏𝑤 + Whichever is less
2

Step-IV
• Lever arm (0.87 d to 0.92 d) rd eku ysaA (Generally = 0.90 d)

Step-V
• Area of Tensile Steel Calculate dj ysa
𝑀𝑟
• 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 𝜎
𝑠𝑡 ⋅𝑍

Step-VI
• Section dh Actual Neutral Axis fuEu Formula ls Kkr dj ysaA
𝐷𝑓
• 𝑏𝑓 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥𝑎 − 2
) = 𝑀 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 ) →
𝑏𝑓 .𝑥𝑎 2
• tc 𝑥𝑎 < 𝐷𝑓 → 2
= 𝑚. 𝐴𝑠𝑡(𝑑 − 𝑥𝑎 )

Step-VII
• Concrete o Steel esa mRiUu Stress dh tk¡p dj ysa

L-Beam/Ell-Beam

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.21

 R.C.C

• L-Beam dh design, T-Beam dh rjg gks dh tkrh gS rFkk blesa Hkh mrus gh Type ds Problem curs gS ftrus T-Beam esa curs
gSA
• vFkkZr T-Beam ds Actual N.A o MOR ds lHkh Formula ;gk¡ ij Valid gSaA

As per IS : 456 : 2000 the Effective width of flange of L-Beam

𝑙
• 𝑏𝑓 = 120 + 𝑏𝑊 + 3 ⋅ 𝐷𝑓
or
𝐴+𝐵
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑏𝑊 + ( 2
) Whichever is less
For Isolated
0.5𝑙0
• 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑙
( 0+4)
𝑏
Or
• bf = b Whichever is less


AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.22

 R.C.C

3 LIMIT STATE METHOD (LSM)

Design Methods of RCC-Section

1. Working Stress Method or Elastic Method (WSM)
2. Ultimate Load Method or Plastic Method (ULM)
3. Limit state Method (LSM)
I. Limit State of Strength/Collapse
II. Limit State of Serviceability

1. WSM Method:- Elastic Method

• ;g Section ds Design dk Old Method (Traditional) gSA ftlesa Material dh Strength dks Under Estimate dj fn;k tkrk gSA
ftldh otg ls Heavy vFkok Bulk Section cukus iM+rs gSA
• Heavy vFkok Bulk Section gksus dh otg ls Material Consumption vf/kd gksrk gS vFkkZr~ ;g Design Method Most
Uneconomical gks tkrk gSA
• mlesa Material ds fy, Factor of Safety vf/kd fy;k tkrk gS] tks fuEu fyf[kr gSA

Factor of Safety
• Concrete → 3
• Steel → 1.78
• Direct Compression → 4
• ;g Method Deterministic Approach (Theoretical) ij vk/kkfjr gSA

2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM)/Plastic Method

• ;g Method esa Member dh Strength dks yxHkx Ultimate Strength ds cjkcj eku fy;k tkrk gS] ftldh otg ls fdlh
Particular Material dk Consumption cgqr de gksrk gSA rFkk ;g Design Method Most Economical gksrk gSA
• ysfdu bl Design Method esa Serviceability Criteria ij ckr ugha fd;k tkrk gSA ftldh otg ls bl Design Method dks use
esa ugha fy;k tkrk gSA

3. Limit State Method (LSM)

• ;g Section ds Design dh ,d Latest Method gSA ftlesa WSM o ULM Method dh dfe;ksa dks nwj djds cuk;k x;k gSA
• ;g Method WSM ds Compare esa Economical rFkk ULM Method ds Compare esa Uneconomical gksrk gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.23

 R.C.C

• ;g Method Probabilistic Approach ij depend gSA vFkkZr~ fdlh Hkh Structure ij Future esa dkSu&dkSu ls Load vk ldrs gS
mu lc ij fopkj djds Section dkss Design fd;k tkrk gSA
• bl Method esa → Limit State of Strength/Collapse ability rFkk Limit State of Service ability nksuksa Criteria dks /;ku esa j[kdj
Section dks Design fd;k tkrk gSA
• bl Method esa WSM dh rjg Factor of Safety uk ysdj Partial Factor of Safety fy;k tkrk gSA

Partial Factor of Safety

• For Concrete → 1.5
• For Steel → 1.15

• Bending/Flexure • Durability
• Torsion • Deflection
• Shear • Corrosion
• Tension • Fire Resistance
• Compression • Vibration
• Non-Repairable Cracks due to Fatigue • Repairable Cracking due to Fatigue

Characteristics Strength of Material:- fck

• Material dh Characteristics Strength og Strength gS ftldh iqf"V 95% Test Sample vo'; djs vFkkZr~ 5% Test Sample gh
ml Strength dks izkIr djus ls cafpr jg tk;sA
• Test Sample esa 3 Number of Specimen gksrs gSA rFkk izR;sd Specimen esa Strength Variation ± 15% ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A

Characteristics Load
• fdlh Structure ij yxus okyk og Load ftldh Possibility 95% rd] mlds Design Period esa cnyus dh uk gks mls
Characteristics Load dgrs gSA
• ,slk Load ftldh cnyus dh Tendency 5% rd gksA

Design Load/Factored Load:- Fd

1. Design/Factored Load For Material

Ultimate Stress (𝑓ck or f𝑦 )
• 𝑓𝑑 =
Partial FOS for Material
• Partial FOS (m)
• For Concrete = 1.5
• For Steel = 1.15

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.24

 R.C.C

Note
• IS Code ds vuqlkj] ds fy, Concrete dh Compressive Strength mldh Characteristics Strength dk dsoy 67% fy;k tkrk
gSA vFkkZr~ 0.67 fck

Design Strength of Concrete (fckd)

0.67𝑓𝑐𝑘 0.67𝑓𝑐𝑘
• = 𝛾𝑚
= 1.5
• fckd = 0.446 fck ≃ 0.45 fck

1. Design Strength of Steel (fsd)

𝑓 𝑓
• 𝑓𝑠𝑑 = 𝛾𝑦 = 1.15
𝑦
𝑚

• fsd = 0.87 fy
• fd = Design or Factored Strength of Material
• m = Partial Factor of Safety () for Material
• fck = Characteristics Strength of Concrete (0.45 fck)
• fsd = Design Strength of Steel (0.87 fy)

2. Design or Factored Load (fd)

• f d = f × f
• F = Working Load on Structure
• f = Partial FOS for Load

Note
• LSM Method esa vkus okys Load dks Over Estimate fd;k tkrk gs rFkk Material dh Strength dks Under Estimate fd;k tkrk
gSA ysfdu WSM Method esa dsoy Material ij FOS Apply fd;k tkrk gS vFkkZr~ dsoy Material dh Strength dks Under
Estimate fd;k tkrk gS tcfd Load dks Over Estimate ugha fd;k tkrk gSA
• vr% LSM Method }kjk design djrs le; Design or Factored Load ds vk/kkj ij Bending Moment ज्ञात fd;k tkrk gSA
• LSM Method esa nks ckj FOS use dh tkrh gS tcfd WSM esa 1 ckj FOS yxk;h tkrh gSA

Value of Partial FOS for Load (f)

Load Limit State of Collapse Limit State of Serviceability
Combination DL LL WL/EL DL LL WL/EL
DL + LL 1.5 1.5 - 1 1 -
DL + WL/EL 1.5/0.9 - 1.5 1 - 1
DL + LL + 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 0.8 0.8
WL/EL

Note
• Wind Load rFkk Earthquake Load dHkh Hkh ,d lkFk fdlh Structure ij ugha vkrs gSA vr% design djrs le; bu nksuksa esa ls
ftldh Value Maximum gks mlds vk/kkj ij Load Combination Kkr dj fy;k tkrk gSA
• tc Structure dks Sliding and Resistance against Overturning Provide fd;k x;k gks rks Dead Load ds lkFk 0.9 xquk djrs gSA
• tc rhuksa Load dk Combination ,d lkFk fy;k tkrk gS rks Factor 1.2 Multiply fd;k tkrk gS D;ksafd rhuksa Load dk ,d lkFk
Higher Magnitude ij gksuk cgqr de Possible gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.25

 R.C.C

Q. Calculate the design Load for Beam if it is Having Working Load as following? Dead Load = 20 kN, LL = 15 kN,
Earthquake Load = 17 kN Wind Load = 15 kN.
Ans. Load Combination
Maximum of  1.5 (DL + LL), 1.5 (DL + WL/EL), 1.2 (DL + LL + WL/EL) 
Maximum of  1.5 (20 + 15) = 52.5 kN, 1.5 (20 + 17) = 55.5 kN, 1.2 (20 + 15 + 17)  = 62.4 kN
So, Beam will be design for 62.4 kN Load

Stress-Strain Relationship For Concrete

Actual Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete Ideal Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete

lkekU;r% Testing ds vk/kkj ij Concrete ds fy, Stress-Strain Curve cuk ikuk cgqr gh eqf'dy Task gSA ysfdu IS 456:
2000 us Concrete ds Stress-Strain Curve dks Simple cuk fn;kA rFkk mlus 0.002 Strain rd Curve dks Parabolic rFkk 0.002
ls ysdj 0.0035 rd Linear ekukA

Stress-Strain Relationship for Mild Steel :- HYSD Bar

Actual Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel Ideal Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.26

 R.C.C

Actual σ – ε curve for HYSD Ideal σ – ε curve for HYSD

Assumption in Limit State of Collapse in Flexure (Bending)

1. dksbZ Hkh Section Before Bending o After Bending Plain gh jgrk gSA vFkkZr~ Stress is directly Proportional to Strain gksrk gSA
(σ × ε) (Hook's Low is Valid)
2. Concrete dh Tensile Strength dks Consider ugha fd;k tkrk gSA
3. Bending esa Concrete ds lcls Åijh Compression Fibre esa lHkh Grade dh Concrete ds fy, Maximum Strain 0.0035 fy;k
tkrk gSA
4. Concrete ds Compressive Stress distribution diagram esa Shape Parabolic, Rectangular, Trapezoidal, Triangular vFkok fdlh
Hkh vU; Shape esa gks ldrk gSA
5. Design ds fy, Concrete dh Compressive Strength, mldh Characteristic Strength dk 0.67 Times fy;k tkrk gSA ml ij
(1.5) dk Partial Factor of Safety Hkh yxk;k tkrk gSA
0.67𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑓𝑐𝑘𝑑 = 1.5
= 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘
6. Reinforced Steel ds fy, Design Stress, Yield Stress esa (1.5) ls Divide djds izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA
𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑠𝑑 = = 0.87𝑓𝑦
1.15
7. Member ds Tensile Reinforcement esa Failure ds nkSjku Maximum Strain fuEufyf[kr ls de ugha gksuk pkfg,A
𝑓𝑦
𝐸𝑠𝑢 = + 0.002
1.15𝐸𝑠
0.87𝑓𝑦
𝐸𝑠𝑢 = + 0.002
𝐸𝑠
8. Member ds Failure rd Concrete o Steel esa Bond Perfect ekuk tkrk gSA

Analysis of Singly Reinforced Beam

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.27

 R.C.C

From Similar Triangle Property in Strain Diagram

0.0035 0.002
=
𝑥𝑢 𝑦1
0.002𝑥𝑢 20
⇒ 𝑦1 = = 𝑥
0.0035 35 𝑢
4
𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑢 = 0.57𝑥𝑢
7
4
𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑢 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑢 − 𝑥𝑢
7
3
𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑢 = 0.43𝑥𝑢
7

Area of Stress Block

A. Area of Rectangle = 0.45 fck × 0.43 xu

• 𝐴1 = 0.19𝑓𝑐𝑘. 𝑥𝑢

B. Area of Parabolic Part

2
• = × 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 × 0.57𝑥𝑢
3
• A2 = 0.17 fck. xu

Total Area of Stress Block

• (A) = A1 + A2 = 0.19 fck. xu + 0.17 fck. xu
• A = 0.36 fck . xu

Location of Combined C.G

0.43𝑥𝑢 3
𝐴1 .𝑥1 +𝐴2 .𝑥2 0.19𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑥𝑢 × +0.17𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑥𝑢 ×(0.43𝑥𝑢 + ×0.57𝑥𝑢 )
• 𝑦= 𝐴1 +𝐴2
= 2
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥𝑢
8

4.3 3
𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑥𝑢 2 (0.19× +0.17×(0.43+ ×0.57))
• 𝑦=
2 8
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑥𝑢
• y = 0.42 xu

Compression Force
• Cu = Area of Stress Block × Width of Beam = 0.36 fck. xu × b
• Cu = 0.36 fck. b. xu

Tensile Force
• Tu = Stress × Area
• Tu = 0.87 fy. Ast

Lever Arm
• Z = d – y = d – 0.42 xu
• It is the Perpendicular distance B/W Cu & Tu

MOR For Compression Zone

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.28
 R.C.C

• Mu = Cu × Z = 0.36 fck. b. xu (d – 0.42 xu)

MOR For Tension Zone

• Mu = Tu × Z = 0.87 fY. Ast (D – 0.42 × xu)

Depth of Actual N.A

• Cu = Tu 0.36 fck. xu. b = 0.87 fy. Ast
0.87𝑓𝑦 .𝐴𝑠𝑡
• 𝑥𝑢 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑏

Limiting Depth of N.A (Xulim or Xumax)

By Similar Triangle Property

𝑥ulim 𝑑 − 𝑥ulim
= 0.87𝑓
0.0035 𝑦
+ 0.02
𝐸𝑆
0.87𝑓𝑦
𝐸𝑆
xulim + 0.002 xulim + 0.0035 d – 0.0035 xulim

0.0035𝑑 700𝑑
𝑥ulim = 0.87𝑓𝑦 or 𝑥ulim =
0.0055+ 1100+0.87𝑓𝑦
𝐸𝑆

Maximum (Economical) Percentage of Steel (Ptlim)

𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑡 =
𝑏. 𝑑
Cu = Tu = 0.36 fck. xulimb = 0.87 fy. Ast
𝐴𝑠𝑡 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥ulim
=
𝑏. 𝑑 0.87𝑓𝑦 . 𝑑
0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥ulim 0.414𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥ulim
𝑃tlim = =
0.87𝑓𝑦 . 𝑑 𝑓𝑦 . 𝑑
Grade of Steel xulim Rulim Ptlim%
Fe 250 0.53 d 0.149 fck 0.087 fck
Fe 415 0.48 d 0.138 fck 0.047 fck
Fe 500 0.46 d 0.133 fck 0.038 fck
Fe 550 0.44 d 0.129 fck 0.033 fck

Rulim → MOR Factor

Area of Steel:- (As Per Codal Provision)

0.85𝑏𝑑
• Minimum Area of Steel (𝐴𝑠𝑡 )min ≥
𝑓𝑦
• Maximum Area of Steel (Ast)Max  0.04 b.d

Limiting Area of Steel

0.5𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑏𝑑 4.6𝑀𝑢
(𝐴𝑠𝑡 )lim = [1 − √1 − ]
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑏𝑑2

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.29

 R.C.C

Types of RCC Sections

1. Balanced section xu = xulim

• Failure will occurs in Both Compression and Tension Zone.
• Both concrete & steel Reaches its design stress
• MOR can be calculated
• 𝑀ulim = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥ulim 𝑏(𝑑 − 0.42𝑥ulim )
• 𝑀ulim = 0.87𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥ulim )

2. Under-Reinforced Section:- xu < xulim

• Failure will occurs in Tension Zone.
• Steel Can Reach firstly at design stress but in concrete, stress always will be less than design stress of concrete
• MOR can be calculated by
*** 𝑀𝑢 = 0.87𝑓𝑦 . 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑢 )

3. Over-Reinforced Section:- xu > xulim

• Failure will occurs in Tension Zone.
• Concrete can Reach firstly at design stress but in steel stress always will be less than the design stress of steel
• MOR can be calculated by
*** 𝑥𝑢 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥𝑢 . 𝑏(𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑢 )

Note
As per IS Code: 456 : 2000
1. (IS 456:2000) ds According Over Reinforced Section ugha Design fd;s tkrs gSaA vFkkZr~ tc dHkh Over Reinforced Section
izkIr gks rks ,sls Condition esa mldks Balance ekudj Design dj fn;k tkrk gSA
2. Parabolic Area Kkr djrs le;] Rectangle ds Area dks 2/3 ls xq.kk djds Kkr dj fy;k tkrk gSA
2 2
Parabolic Area = 3× Rectangle Area = 3b.d

C.G. of Parabola
3 3
𝐶. 𝐺 = 𝑑 or 𝑏
8 8

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.30

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Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beam

• tc fdlh Section ds Tension Zone ds lkFk&lkFk Compression Zone esa Hkh Reinforcement Provide fd;k tkrk gS rks mls
Doubly R/F Beam dgrs gSA

Mu = Mulim + Mu2
Mu2 = Mu - Mulim

Compression Force

Compression Force due to Concrete

Cu1 = 0.36 fck. xu. b

Compression Force due to Comp. Steel

Cu2 = fsc. Asc – fcc. Asc = Asc (Fsc – Fcc)

After Neglecting Concrete Strength

Cu2 = fsc. Asc

Tensile Force
• Tu = 0.87 fy. Ast
• Tu1 = 0.87 fyAst1
• Tu2 = 0.87 fyAst2
• Tu = Tu1 + Tu2

Lever Arm
• Z1 = d – 0.42 xu
• Z2 = d – d'

MOR For Compression Zone

• Mu = Mulim + Mu2 = Cu1 × Z1 + Cu2 × Z2
• Mu = 0.36 fck.xu.b (d – 0.42 xu) + Fsc.Asc × (d – d')
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.31
 R.C.C

MOR For Tension Zone

• Mu = Mulim + Mu2
• Mulim = 0.87 fy Ast1 (d – 0.42 xu)
• Mu2 = 0.87 fy Ast2 (d – d')
• Mu = Tu × Z = 0.87 fy. Ast (𝑑 − 𝑦̄ )
𝐶𝑢1 ×(0.42𝑥𝑢 )+𝐶𝑢2 ×𝑑′
• 𝑦̄ = 𝐶𝑢1 +𝐶𝑢2
]
Depth of Actual N.A
• Cu = Tu
• Cu1 + Cu2 = Tu
• 0.36 fck. xu.b + Fsc. Asc = 0.87 Fy.Ast
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑡 −𝑓𝑠𝑐  𝐴𝑠𝑐
• 𝑥𝑢 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 .𝑏
Limiting Depth of N.A
0.0035𝑑
• 𝑥ulim = 0.87𝑓𝑦
0.0055+
𝐸𝑠
700𝑑
• 𝑥ulim =
1100+0.87𝑓𝑦

Value of fsc
Grade of Steel d'/d
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Fe – 250 217 217 217 217
Fe – 415 355 353 342 323
Fe – 500 424 412 395 370
Ex:- d' = 30, d = 400 mm, fe – 500 than fsc = ?
𝑑′ 30
Ans. = = 0.075
𝑑 400
By Interpolation
12 12
• 𝑓𝑠𝑐 = 424 − (0.075 − 0.05) = 424 − × (0.025) = 418 N/mm2
0.05 0.05

Design of Flanged Beam/T-Beam

All Concept of WSM is valid Here.
Analysis of Singly R/F Beam

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When N.A Lies B/W Flange:- xu < Df

tc N.A Flange esa fLFkr gks vFkkZr (xu < Df) gks rc T-Beam dk Analysis, Rectangular Beam dh rjg gh fd;k tkrk gSA ysfdu
(b) dh जगह (bf) fy;k tkrk gSA

Step – I

𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚 . 𝑨𝒔𝒕
𝒙𝒖 =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒇𝒄𝒌 . 𝒃𝒇

Step – II

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝒅
𝒙ulim = 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝒇𝒚
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓 + 𝑬𝑺

Step – III

I. xu < xulim → So Section is under R/F

Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d – 0.42 xu)
II. xu = xulim → So, Section is Balanced
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d – 0.42 xu)
III. xu > xulim So, Section is over R/F But design as Balanced Section
Mulim = 0.36 fck xulim bf (d – 0.42 xulim)

When N.A Lies in Web Part:- xu > Df

tc N.A. Flange ds ckgj fLFkr gks vFkkZr~ (xu > Df) gks] rc T-Beam dk Analysis Df  0.43 xu vFkok Df > 0.43 xu ds vk/kkj ij
fd;k tkrk gSA
tc N.A Flange ds ckgj fLFkr gksrh gS rc Beam dk Analysis djuk cgqr gh Critical gksrk gSA ysfdu B.I.S (C;wjks of Indian
Standard) ds fuEufyf[kr :i esa Recommend fd;k gSA

Case – I
𝐷𝑓
If 𝑥 ≤ 0.43
𝑈
𝐷𝑓
𝑀𝑈 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥𝑈 . 𝑏𝑊 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑢 ) + 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 (𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑊 )𝐷𝑓 (𝑑 − )
2

Case – II
𝐷
If 𝑥 𝑓 > 0.43
𝑈
𝐷𝑓
I. 𝑑
≤ 0.20 ⇒ 𝑥𝑈 = 𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝐷𝑓
𝑀𝑈 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚. 𝑏𝑊 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚) + 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 (𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑊 )𝐷𝑓 (𝑑 − 2
)
𝐷𝑓
II. 𝑑
> 0.20 ⇒ 𝑥𝑈 = 𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑦𝑓
𝑀𝑈 = 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚. 𝑏𝑊 (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥𝑈 𝑙𝑖𝑚) + 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 (𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑊 )𝑦𝑓 (𝑑 − 2
)
𝑦𝑓 = 0.15𝑥𝑈 + 0.65𝐷𝑓

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.33

 R.C.C

Note
Value of ‘yf’ should not be more than ‘Df’.

Design of Cantilever Beam :

Self wt. of Beam :

• WD = b × D × 1 × SRCC
𝑊𝑙 2
• 𝐵𝑀 = 2
(𝑈𝐷𝐿)
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
• 𝑑= (𝑊𝑆𝑀)
5

Self wt. of Beam :

• WD = b × Davg × 1 × SRCC
𝐷1 +𝐷2
• 𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑔. = 2
𝑊𝑙 2
• 𝐵. 𝑀 = (𝑈𝐷𝐿)
2


AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.34

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4 CODAL PROVISION
(FOR BEAM)
(I) Effective span

• A for SSB :-
𝐿+𝑑
• 𝑙 = 𝑀 𝑖𝑛. 𝑜 𝑓 [ 𝑊 𝑊
𝐿+ +
2 2

B. For continuous Beam:

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
I. If width of support is less than ( 12𝑡ℎ )then: – Similar as SSB
𝐿+𝑑
• 𝑙 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑜𝑓– [ 𝑊 𝑊
𝐿+ 2 + 2
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
II. If width of support is more then ( 12𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟600𝑀𝑀) which is less, then :–

𝐿+𝑑
• 𝑙 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝑜𝑓 [ 𝑊 (Whichever is less)
𝐿+ 2

C. Roller or Rotler bearing support :- (Rocket)

• tc Beam Roller o Rocket Bearing support ij continuous gks] rc Effective span, bearing ds C/C distance dks fy;k tkrk
gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.35

 R.C.C

NOTE:
• Roller vFkok Rocket bearing support, Horizontal rFkk Vertical Load dks Resist djrk gSA tcfd Moment dks Allow djrk
gSA
• Reaction = RV o RH
• Mr = 0

D. Cantilever Beam:
𝑑
• 𝑙=𝐿+
2

E. Rigid Frame:
• Frame ds case esa Effective span, vertical Member ds C/c distance ds cjkcj fy;k tkrk gSA

2. Longitudinal reinforcement:

A. Longitudinal tension R/F:

I. Minimum R/F:

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.36

 R.C.C

• Member esa Min. area of steel, brittle Failure ls cpus ds fy, Member dks i;kZIr Ductility provide djus ds fy, Mkyk tkrk
gSA
II. Maximum RF:-
• (Ast) max. ≤ 4% Of gross C/s area
Member esa max. Area of steel dks blfy, Limited.
• (Ast) max. ≤ 0.04 b.D
dj fn;k x;k gS ftlls mldk Proper compaction fd;k tk ldsA

NOTE:
Is Code us Beam ds Compression.

B. Longitudinal compression R/F:

Zone ds fy, dksbZ Recommendation ugha fn;k gSA fQj Hkh Member dks ductility provide djus ds fy, (Ast)min vo'; :i
ls Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• 𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒 𝑐 𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

C. Side- Face R/F: (in Beam):

Side face R/F rc Provide fd;k tkrk gS tc
• D > 750 MM

• Side face R/F =0.1% of gross C/s Area

tc Beam dh overall depth (D) 750 mm ls vf/kd gks rks side face R/F ds :i esa 0.1% Gross C/S Area of steel provide
djrs gSA
• Side face R/F = 0.1% of gross C/S area = 0.001 b.D
• tc beam dh depth 450 mm ls vf/kd gks rFkk Beam Bending ds lkFk&lkFk Torsion dks Hkh Resist dj jgk gks rks bl Case
esa Hkh Side face R/F mijksDr tSlk gh Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• mijksDr R/F dks nksuksa Faces esa cjkcj&cjkcj Provide fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk muds eè; Spacing fdlh Hkh Condition esa 300 mm
Centre to centre ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A
• Side Face R/F lkekU;r% Vertical cracking o Lateral Buckling dks jksdus ds fy, Provide fd;k tkrk gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.37

 R.C.C

3. Minimum Nominal cover: (clear cover)

• Minimum Nominal cover fuEufyf[kr criteria dks è;ku esa j[kdj decide fd;k tkrk gS&
I. Types of member→
Ex. Slab, beam, column, footing etc.
II. Exposure condition→
Ex. Mild, Moderate, severe, very severe, Extreme etc.
III. Fire Resistance→
(Ex. 30 Minutes to 4 hrs)
• R/F ds fy, i;kZIr cover cuk;s j[kus ds fy, fdlh Nominal thickness ds cement block dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
• Cover lkekU;r% steel dks corrosion rFkk Weathering effect ls cpus ds fy, Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• i;kZIr cover provide djus ls concrete o steel ds chp stress distribution leku :i ls gks tkrk gSA
• cover lkekU;r% fuEufyf[kr izdkj ds gksrs gSA
I. Clear cover/ min. Nominal cover
II. Effective cover
• Genral condition esa fofHkUu Types ds Members ds fy, Cover fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls fy;k tkrk gS&
Member clear cover (SP–cover) Clear cover (IS – 456)
Slab 20 mm 20 mm
Beam 25 mm 20 mm
Column 40 mm 40 mm
Footing 50 mm 50 mm
• Nominal cover vFkok Clear cover, Exposure condition ds vk/kkj ij fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls fy;k tkrk gSA
• As per IS code: 456: 200→
Exposure condition Min. Grade of concrete for RCC Min. Nominal Cover
Mild M–20 20 mm
Moderate M–25 30 mm
Severe M–30 45 mm
Very severe M–35 50 mm
Extreme M–40 75 mm

Ques.Find out the depth of nominal cover?

I. If a column in mild exposure II. If a column in very sever condition
• Clear cover as per (SP-34) = 40 mm • Clear cover as per SP- 34 = 40 mm
• Clear cover as per exposure = 20 • Clear cover as per Exposure = 50 mm
so, clear cover = 40 mm so, clear cover = 50 mm

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.38

 R.C.C

4. Maximum permissible crack width in RCC structure:

Exposure conditions Width of crack
I. Mild exposure (cracks not Harmful) 0.3 mm
II. Moderate & severe (cracks Harmful) 0.2 mm
III. Very severe & Extreme (Cracks Not Allowed) 0.1 mm

5. Horizontal and vertical spacing Between reinforcement: (In beam)

A. Minimum Horizontal spacing between R/F: (Clear spacing)
I. Equal to dia of Bar, when dia of bars is same.
II. Equal to large dia of Bar, When Unequal dia of bars is used.
III. Nominal size of aggregate + 5mm
• Which ever is max. of above I, II and III
Ex. If dia of bar = 22 mm, Nominal size of aggregate = 20 mm
22𝑚𝑚
So, min. Horizontal cover/ spacing is = max. of [
20 + 5 = 25𝑚𝑚
Horizontal spacing: = 25 mm
B. Maximum clear Horizontal Spacing Between R/F: (Beam/slab)

Grade of R/F Max. clear spacing

Fe – 250 300 mm
Fe – 415 180 mm
Fe – 500 150 mm
Note
1. RCC member esa Crack width, Strain of steel and Shrinkage of concrete nksuksa ij depend djrh gSA
2. fdlh design stress ds fy, steel dh grade c<us ds lkFk&lkFk Strain in steel c<+rh gSA vFkkZr~ High grade dh steel ds
fy, max. spacing dh value ?kVrh tkrh gSA
C. Minimum clear vertical spacing between R/F:
I. 15 mm

II. 2/3 Times of Nominal size of aggregate } Whichever is maximum

III. Equal to dia of Bar

6. Lateral stability:

A. For laterally supported continuous or S.S.B:

60b
• Unsupported length ≤ Minof {250b2
d
• b = Width of Beam
• d = Effective depth of beam

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.39

 R.C.C

A. For laterally Cantilever Beam at end:

25b
• Unsupported length ≤ Min of {100b2
d
• b = Width of Beam
• d = Effective depth of beam

7. Effect of shrinkage:
A. Beam section esa deflection, Differential shrinkage dh otg ls gksrk gS D;ksafd Tension zone esa steel T;knk Provide
djus dh otg ls shrinkage de rFkk compression zone esa steel dh ek=k de gksus dh otg ls shrinkage T;knk gksrk
gSA
• Shrinkage dh otg ls deflection dks] Tension o compression nksuksa esa Equal area of steel provide djds jksdk tk ldrk
gSA
B. Total deflection in Beam:

•
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
• 𝑦𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≤ 250
For (Loads + Temperature + shrinkage + creep)
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
• 𝑦𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≤ 350
For (Temperature + shrinkage + creep)
• fdlh Beam esa Total deflection 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
250
ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,] tc lHkh Vkbi ds Loads, temperature, shrinkage rFkk
creep ds Effect dks Hkh Consider fd;k tk;sA
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
• fdlh Beam esa Total deflection [( 350 ) 𝑜𝑟20𝑚𝑚] (Whichever is less) ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A tc Temperature,
shrinkage rFkk creep ds izHkko dks consider fd;k tk;sA
𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛
• 𝑦𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≤ 350
𝑜𝑟20𝑚𝑚(𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠) (Temp. , Shrinkage , creep)-Secondary Effect
• Secondary effect→ ,d Vkbi dk effect gksrk gS tks uk pkgrs gq;s Hkh vk tkrk gSA Ex. temperature, creep, shrinkage
etc.
C. Deflection control:
• Exact deflection dks calculate djuk dkQh dfBu task gS] vFkkZr~ bldksa simple djus ds fy, IS : 456 : 2000 us dqN
Conditions तय dj d[kh gS tks fuEufyf[kr gS&
• Valid upto (10 meter) span only: –

Member 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒍
( )
𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒅
Cantilever beam/slab 7
S.S.B/slab 20 One way slab
Continuous beam/slab 26
Mild steel HYDS bar
simply supported slab 35 28
continuous slab 40 32 Two way slab

8. Minimum Reinforcement in slab:-

• For Fe – 250: (Mild steel)
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.40
 R.C.C

• Min. R/F in slab ≥ 0.15% of gross C/S area = 0.0015 b.D

• For HYS D Bar: (Fe – 415 & 500)
• Min. R/F in slab ≥ 0.12% of gross C/S area = 0.0012 b.D
9. Min. & max. R/F in column:
• Min. Area of steel in column ≥ 0.8% of gross C/S area
• Min. Area of steel in column ≤ 6% of gross C/S area
• Practically ≤ 4% of gross C/s Area (Due to lapping of column)
Note
S.N. Member Min. area of steel Max. area of steel
1 Slab 0.15% of Gross C/S area → mild steel –
• 0.12% of gross C/S area → HYSD
2. Beam (Ast)Min.≥
0.85𝑏.𝑑 (Ast)max. ≤ 0.04 b.D
𝑓𝑦
3. Column 0.8% of Gross C/S Area 6% of gross C/S area
4. Side Face R/F 0.1% of gross C/S Area –
5. Hanger/Anchor Bar – 0.2% of gross C/S Area
6. Shear R/F 0.4𝑏. 𝑆𝑉 –
𝐴𝑆𝑉 ≥
0.87𝑓𝑦
10. Max. C/C spacing B/W Bars in slab:-

• Max. C/C spacing B/W main Bars should not be more than (300 mm or 3 d) (whichever is less):-
 3d
• S / Min.of 
300MM
• Max. c/c spacing B/W distribution bars should not be more then (5d or 300 MM) (whichever is Less):
 5d
• S / Min.of 
300MM
• Some Important statements:
1. Is 456 : 2000 ds vuqlkj Plain cement concrete (PCC) ds fy,
Min. Grade of concrete (M–15) rFkk RCC ds fy, (M–20)
Grade fy;k tkrk gSA tcfd IS 456 : 1978 ds According Min. Grade of RCC (M–15) fy;k tkrk gSA
2. ;fn Building dh Height 15 ehVj ls vf/kd gks rFkk og Seismic zone III, IV & V esa gks rks Min. Grade of RCC (M–
25) fy;k tkrk gSA
3. Pre-stressed concrete ds fy, Min. Grade of concrete fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls fy;k tkrk gSA
• Pre – Tensioned member → M – 40
• Post – Tensioned member → M – 30
4. Beam rFkk Column esa 12 MM ls de diameter ds main bar ugha Provide fd;s tkrs gSA tcfd slab ds case esa 10 MM
ls de dia ds Bar ugha Provide fd;s tkrs gSA
• Some Important IS code:–

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.41

 R.C.C

Confirming code Purpose

IS : 456 : 2000 Design of RCC member (LSM)
IS : 456 : 1978 Design of RCC member (WSM)
IS : 800 : 1984 Design of steel structure (WSM)
IS : 800 : 2007 Design of steel structure (LSM)
IS : 875 (Part - I) Dead Load
IS: 875 (Part-II) Imposed Load/Live Load
IS : 875 (Part-III) Wind Load
IS : 875 (Part-IV) Snow Load
IS : 875 (Part-V) Same special types of Load
IS : 269 33 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑃𝐶
43 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑃𝐶 } According to New code all grades comes in (IS: 269)
53 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑃𝐶
IS : 1893 Earthquake Load/Seismic Load
IS : 1343 Pre-stressed concrete
IS : 3370 RCC water Tank
IS : 2062 Steel for structural Purpose
IS : 1642 Fire safety for Building
IS : 1904 Design and construction of foundation
IS : 1905 Unreinforced Brick Masonry work
IS : 4326 Earth quake Resistance design & construction of Building
IS : 2919 Pile Foundation
IS : 1489 Portland Pozolona cement (PPC)
IS : 8041 Rapid Hardening cement (RHC)
IS : 12600 Low Heat cement (LHC)
IS: 455 Portland slag cement (PSC)
IS : 12330 Sulphate Resisting Portland cement
IS: 432 Mild steel Bar
IS : 1786 HYSD bars

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.42

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5 SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

Limit State of Collapse in Shear :

Analysis of SFD & BMD Diagram :

Shear Stress (τ):

• Shear Force = Shear Stress × C/S Area
Shear Force
• Shear stress =
C/S Area
𝑉 𝑉
• 𝜏 = 𝐴 = 𝑏⋅𝐷

Avg. Shear Stress :

𝑉
• 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔. =
𝑏⋅𝐷

Shear Stress Distribution Equation :

𝑉𝐴𝑦̄
• 𝜏= 𝐼⋅𝑏
• V = Shear Force
• A = C/S Area
• I = Moment of Inertia
• b = Width of Beam/Section
• 𝑦̄ = Distance B/W N·A & C·G. of region
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.43
 R.C.C

Shear Stress Diagram For Section :

• τmax = 1.5 τavg

• 𝐴 = 𝑏 × (𝐷/2 − 𝑦)
1
• 𝑦̄ = 𝑦 + (𝐷/2 − 𝑦) ×
2
𝑏𝐷 3
• 𝐼= 12
• From shear stress – distribution equation

𝐷 1
𝑉𝐴𝑦̄ 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑏 × ( 2 − 𝑦) × 𝑦 + 2 (𝐷/2 − 𝑦)
𝜏= = 𝑏𝐷 3
𝐼⋅𝑏 ×𝑏 12
𝐷 𝐷 𝑦
12𝑉( −𝑦)(𝑦+ − )
• 𝜏= 2
𝑏𝐷3
4 2

1
12𝑉(𝐷/2−𝑦)(𝐷/2+𝑦)×
• 𝜏= 2
𝑏𝐷 3
𝐷 2
6𝑉[( ) −𝑦 2 ]
2
• 𝜏= 𝑏𝐷 3
𝐷2
6𝑉( −𝑦 2 )
4
• 𝜏= 𝑏𝐷 3
… (i)
𝐷
• 𝑦2
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷2 𝐷2
6𝑉( − )
4 4
• 𝜏 𝑏𝐷 3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
• τmin = 0
• ymin = 0
𝐷2
6𝑉 3 𝑉
4
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝐷 3
= 2 𝑏⋅𝐷
3
• 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔

Shear stress diagram for Rectangular RCC Beam:

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.44

 R.C.C

τmax = 1.5τavg

mijksDr Analysis ds vk/kkj ij fuEufyf[kr statement izkIr gksrs gS%

(1) fdlh SSB ds fy, Bending Moment dh Max.value, Beam ds centre ij izkIr gksrh gSA vFkkZr~ support ls centre dh rjQ tkus
ij BM dk eku yxkrkj c<+rk tkrk gSA tcfd centre ls support dh rjQ tkus ij BM dk eku yxkrkj ?kVrk tkrk gSA (Look
BM diagram)
(2) fdlh SSB ds fy, shear force support ij Max. gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ support + ls Beam ds centre dh rjQ tkus ij Shear Force
dk eku ?kV Hkh ldrk gS vFkok constant Hkh gks ldrk gSA (Look S.F. diagram)
(3) Bending compression stress o Bending Tension stress dk eku ckgjh Fibre ij Max. rFkk Neutral Axis ij zero gksrk gSA
tcfd shear stress dk eku Neutral Axis ij Max. gksrk gSA (Look shear stress diagram both homogeneous & non
Homogeneous material)

Nominal shear stress

• According to IS : 456 : 2000
𝑉
• 𝜏𝑣 = 𝑏.𝑑
Note
fdlh Hkh structural member ij 3 types ds shear stress vk ldrs gS &
1. Flexural Shear Stress
2. Punching Shear Stress
3. Torsion Shear Stress
1. Flexural Shear :
• Generally flexure member esa vkus okys Load ds dkj.k BM o Shear force mRiUu gksrk gSA rFkk mijksDr shear force dh otg
ls mRiUu shear stress dks Flexural shear dgrs gSA ftldh Tendency ¼laHkkouk½ Beam dks c/s ls dkVus dh gksrh gSA
2. Punching Shear :
• bl Type dk shear lkekU;r% Footing esa mRiUu gksrk gSA ftlesa Column, Footing ds vUnj /k¡l tkrh gSA
3. Torsional Shear :
• lkekU;r% Torsion member esa ejksM+ ds dkj.k mRiUu shear stress, dks Torsional shear dgrs gSA
Note:
• Generally flexural shear, diagonal tension o compression ds combined effect ls mRiUu gksrk gSA

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 R.C.C

Example:

1. Cracks due to diagonal compression

2. Cracks due to diagonal tension
3. Cracks due to bending
4. Cracks due to diagonal tension
5. Cracks due to diagonal compression

• fdlh SSB ij vkus okys shear stress dh otg ls Support ds utnhd 45° vFkok 135° ds Angle ij Inclined crack develop gksrs
gSA bl crack dh width Bottom Surface ij Max. rFkk N.A dh rjQ tkus ij yxkrkj ?kVrh tkrh gSA
• mijksDr developed cracks Mid span ij 90° dk Angle cukrs gSA
• bUgh Cracks dks jksdus ds fy, Shear Reinforcement dh Requirement gksrs gSA tks fuEfyf[kr :i esa fn;k tk ldrk gSA
A. Vertical stirrups ds :i esAa
B. Bent-up Bar or Inclined Bar ds :Ik esaA
C. Both vertical stirrups & Bent-up Bar ds :i esaA
(A) Vertical stirrups:
• lkekU;r% Vertical stirrups dk diameter 6mm – 12 mm rd fy;k tkrk gSA ftldks compression zone ls ?kwekdj Tension
zone rd yk;k x;k gksrk gSA
• Vertical stirrups, Rectangular, square, Triangular, Trapezoidal, circular fdlh Hkh shape esa gks ldr gSA
• lkekU;r% Main Bars dks 22-24 Gauge ds Binding wire ls ck/kk tkrk gSA
• Shear Resistance ds vk/kkj ij vertical stirrups one-leg, two-legs, Three legs, Four legs vFkok six leg okys gks ldrs gSA

Area of Vertical Stirrups :

𝜋
• For two leg → 𝐴𝑠𝑣 = 2 × 4 × 𝜙 2
𝜋
• For four leg → 𝐴𝑠𝑣 = 4 × 4 × 𝜙 2

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.46

 R.C.C

Shear Force Resistance of stirrups

• By WSM →
𝑑
• 𝑉𝑆 = 𝜎𝑆𝑉 ⋅ 𝐴𝑆𝑉 ⋅ 𝑆
𝑣
• By LSM →
𝑑
• 𝑉𝑢𝑆 = 0.87𝐹𝑦 ⋅ 𝐴𝑆𝑉 ⋅ 𝑆
𝑉

c/c spacing B/W stirrups

• By WSM →
𝜎𝑆𝑉 ⋅𝐴𝑆𝑉 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑆𝑣 = 𝑉𝑆
• By LSM →
0.87𝐹𝑦 ⋅𝐴𝑆𝑉 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑈𝑆
Note:
0.75𝑑
• 𝑆𝑉 ≯ Min.of [
300mm
• IS : 456 : 2000 ds vuqlkj Max. spacing B/W stirrups should not be more than 0.75d or 300 mm (Whichever is less)
• VS = shear force Resistance (WSM)
• VUS = Factored force resistance (LSM)
• SV = Permissible stress in stirrups
• 0.87 fy = design stress in stirrups
• d = effective depth of Beam
• SV = C/C spacing Between stirrups
• ASV = Area of steel of vertical stirrups
•  = diameter of vertical stirrups

(B) Bent-Up Bar/Inclined Bar :

→ Bent-up Bar ds fy, Tension R/F ds :i esa Use fd xbZ steel dks gh Alternate Bend djds iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
→ budks lkekU;r% 30°-60° ds Angle ij Bend fd;k tk ldrk gSA ysfdu 45° dk Angle vf/kd izHkkoh gksrk gSA D;ksafd support
ds utnhd crack Hkh 45° ds Angle ij Genrate gksrs gSA
• tc Bent-up Bar dk use shear reinforcement ds :i esa fd;k tkrk gS rks bldk dqy ;ksxnku Net shear force ds 50% ls vf/kd
ugha gksuk pkfg,A (IS : 456 : 2000) clause 40.4
vFkkZr~ Remaining 50% ds fy, Vertical Stirrups design fd;s tkrs gSA
• IS:456:2000 ds According Bent-up Bar ds chp esa Max. Spacing effective depth से vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.47

 R.C.C

• •

Shear Force Resistance of Bent-Up Bar

By WSM :
𝑉𝑏
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑉𝑏 = 𝜎𝑠𝑣 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑣 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝑠𝑣 ⋅𝜎𝑠𝑣
• If α = 45°
• Vb = 0.707 Asv·σsv

By LSM :
𝑉𝑢𝑏
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑣 ×0.87𝑓𝑦

• VUb = 0.87fy·Asv.Sin

If α = 45°
• VUb = 0.615 fy·Asv

Note

Shear Force Resistance of Inclined Stirrups

• By WSM
𝜎𝑠𝑣 ⋅𝐴𝑠𝑣 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑆𝑣
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)
• By LSM
0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅𝐴𝑠𝑣 ⋅𝑑
• 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑆𝑣
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼)

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 R.C.C

Nominal Shear Stress (τv) :

For prismatic beam
𝑉
• 𝜏𝑣 = 𝑏⋅𝑑 (Prismatic Beam)

Net Shear Force :

• VN = VU – VC

Design Shear Strength of Concrete : τc

• ;g Percentage of steel o Grade of concrete ij depend djrh gSA
• c (Shear strength of concrete) dh value dks Interpolation Method }kjk Kkr fd;k tkrk gSA ftlds fy, Table-19 (Page
No. 73) dh Help yh tkrh gSA
• tc dHkh Solid slab ds fy, c Kkr djuk gks rks mlds fy, ‘k’ ls Multiply dj nsrs gSA

Value of ‘k’
Thickness of Slab Up to 150 mm 175 mm 200 mm 225 mm 250 mm 275 mm 300 mm or more
Value of ‘k’ 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.10 1.05 1

Shear Force Resistance of Concrete :

• Vc = τc·b·d

Note :
The above value of ‘k’ does not valid for flat slab.

Maximum Shear Stress for RCC Beam (τc)max :

• (c)max dsoy Grade of concrete ij depend djrh gS rFkk bldh Maximum value IS:456:2000 ds vuqlkj Table-20 (Page-73)
esa nh xbZ gSA

Value of (τc)max :
Concrete Grade M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 or more
(τc)max 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0

Minimum Shear Reinforcement :

• tc fdlh Beam esa shear R/F dh t:jr uk gks rc Hkh mlesa ukeek= ds stirrups provide fd;s tkrs gSA D;ksafd ;gha stirrups
Main Bars dks viuh Exact Position esa cuk;s j[krs gSA
•
0.4𝑏 ⋅ 𝑆𝑣
𝐴𝑠𝑣 =
0.87𝑓𝑦

c/c Spacing
0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅𝐴𝑠𝑣
• 𝑆 0.4𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Design Steps of For Shear Reinforcement :

Step -1 : fn;s x;s Load ds vk/kkj ij Beam ds critical section ij total shear force dk calculation dj ysrs gSA
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.49
 R.C.C

𝑣
Step -2 : Section dh Nominal shear stress 𝜏𝑣 = 𝑏𝑑 Kkr djs ysrs gSA
Step -3 : Grade of concrete vkSj section esa fn;s x;s Reinforcement ds Percentage ds vk/kkj ij c rFkk (c)max. Kkr djs ysrs gSA
(Table - 19) and (Table-20)
Step -4 : ‘v’ rFkk (c)max. dks compare djrs gSA ;fn v > (c)max.- then section dks Redesign djrs gSA
𝜏𝑐
Step -5 : ;fn 𝜏𝑣 < 2
ls rks shear R/F dh Requirement ugha gksrh gSA
𝜏𝑐
Step -6 : ;fn 2
< 𝜏𝑣 < 𝜏𝑐 gks rks rc ukeek= ds shear reinforcement dh vko;drk gksxhA ftldh spacing fuEu Formula ls Kkr
dh tkrh gS&
0.87𝑓𝑦 .𝐴𝑠𝑣
• 𝑆𝑣 = 0.4𝑏

Step -7 : ;fn v > c but < cmax. rc bl case esa complete shear R/F dks Design fd;k tk;sxkA
→ ftlds fy, loZizFkr design shear strength of concrete (VC) Kkr djsA o vkus okys Total shear force ls ?kVkdj Net shear
force (VN) Kkr djsA
• VN = VU – VC
• mijksDr net shear force ds fy, Vertical stirrups provide djsAa
Note
c
(i) v  No shear R/F is required
2
τc
(ii) τ v > But τ v < τc → Nominal shear R/F is required
2
0.87 f y . Asv
• Sv =
0.4 b
(iii) v  c → proper shear R/F is required

0.87 f y  Asv  d
• Sv =
VN
(iv) v  ( c )max → Redesign is required

Bond Strength & Development Length

→ steel Bars rFkk muds pkjksa vksj Mkyh xbZ concrete ds chp mRiUu surface Resistance dks Bond strength dgrs gSaA
→ Bond ds dkj.k Load iM+us ij Hkh steel Bars, concrete Block ds vUnj ls slip ¼ljdrh½ ugh gksrh gSA
• Cement concrete rFkk Steel Bar ds chp Bond fuEufyf[kr mik; djds c<+k;k tk ldrk gSA
(I) High Grade dh concrete dk use djdsA
(II) Concrete dh vPNh ls compaction djdsA
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.50
 R.C.C

(III) de dimeter ds Bars iz;ksx djdsA

(IV) Deformed Bar vFkok Twisted Bars dk use djds rFkk steel ds surface dks vf/kd Rough djdsA
(V) Steel ds Bars ij concrete cover dh thickness vf/kd j[kdjA
(VI) Bars ds Ends ij standard Hook cukdjA
(VII) Development Length dks c<+kdjA

Bond Stress : bd

• steel o concrete dh contact surface ds chp per mm2 Area ij mRiUu Bond strength dks Bond stress dgrs gSA
BondStrength
• 𝜏𝑏𝑑 = Area
• Area = 1 mm2
• bd = Bond Strength

Types of Bond :
1. Direct Bond/Anchorage Bond/Development Length
2. Flexural Bond/Local Bond

1. Direct Bond/Anchorage Bond/Development Length :

→ tc concrete o steel ds chp Axial Tensile o Compressive Load ds dkj.k Bond mRiUu gks rks mls Direct Bond dgrs gSA
Tensile Load dh rqyuk esa compressive load esa Bond strength vf/kd fudydj vkrh gS D;ksafd steel ds End ij mifLFkr
concrete Hkh Resistance Provide djrh gSA
• Steel dh Bar dkQh yEckbZ rd concrete esa nch jguh pkfg, ftlls Bar ij ykus okys pull ;k Rush ds dkj.k Concrete ls vyx
ugha gksuk pkfg,A
• Concrete o Steel Bar ds bl Direct Bond dks Development Length ds uke ls Hkh tkurs gSA
• Tensile strength = design stress × C/S area of steel
T = 0.87 fy × Ast …1
• Bond strength = Surface Area × Bond Stress
= π·ϕ·Ld × τbd …2

At equilibrium condition
• Bond strength = Tensile strength
π·ϕ·Ld·τbd = 0.87fy·Ast
𝜋
π·ϕ·Ld·τbd = 0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅ 4 × 𝜙 2
0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅𝜙
• 𝐿𝑑 = 4⋅𝜏𝑏𝑑
→ For LSM
𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅𝜙
• 𝐿𝑑 = → For WSM
4⋅𝜏𝑏𝑑
• Ld = development length
• fy = yield st. of steel
• ϕ = dia for bar
• τbd = design bond stress

Development Length for Compressive Load :

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.51

 R.C.C

0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅𝜙
• 𝐿𝑑 = 5⋅𝜏𝑏𝑑
→ For LSM
𝜎𝑠𝑡 ⋅𝜙
• 𝐿𝑑 = 5⋅𝜏𝑏𝑑
→ For WSM

Note
• bd dh Permissible value IS:456 : 2000 ds According fuEufyf[kr gksrh gS &
Design Bond Stress for Concrete for Plain Bar in Tension
Grade of Concrete WSM LSM
M-15 0.6 -
M-20 0.8 1.20
M-25 0.9 1.40
M-30 1.0 1.50
M-35 1.10 1.70
M-40 or more 1.20 1.90

Remarks :
• IS code: 1786 ds vuqlkj] Deformed o Twisted Bar ds fy, mijksDr bd dh value dks 60% c<+k fn;k tkrk gSA
Tkcfd compression force dh fLFkfr esa mijksDr bd dh value dks 25% c<+k fn;k tkrk gSA
Fusion Bended Appoxy. coated (FBAC) deformed Bar ds fy, mijksDr bd dh value 80% gh yh tkrh gSA vFkkZr~
Q. M-25 & Deformed Bar in tension then τbd = ?
Ans. Bt WSM
τbd = 0.9 × 1.60 = 1.44 N/mm2
By LSM
τbd = 1.40 × 1.60 = 2.24 N/mm2

Q. M-30, Deformed Bar in compression then τbd = ?

Ans. Bt WSM
τbd = 1.0 × 1.60 × 1.25 = 2 N/mm2
By LSM
τbd = 1.50 × 1.60 × 1.25 = 3 N/mm2

Q. What is the development length for a bar in LSM. If the grade of concrete M-25 and HYSD Fe-415 steel.
Ans. M-25 & Fe-415
τbd from table = 1.40 × 1.60 = 2.24 N/mm2
0.87𝑓𝑦 ⋅𝑑 0.87×415×𝜙
𝐿𝑑 = = = 40.29𝜙 ≈ 41𝜙
4𝜏𝑏𝑑 4×2.24

2. Flexural Bond/Local Bond :

• Tensile Force ds Effect esa Beam ds izR;sd section ij ,d Un Balanced Tensile Force mRiUu gksrk gS tks Bar dks Concrete
ls vyx djus dh dksf”k”k esa yxk jgrk gSA
D;ksfa d ;g Un Balanced Tensile Force Beam ds Span esa Bending Moment ds ifjorZu ds dkj.k mRiUu gksrk gS blfy, bls
Local Band/ ;k Flexural Band dgrs gSA

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.52

 R.C.C

• Moment at section A – A→
M = T·Z = T·Jd …1
• Moment at section B – B →
M + dM = (T + dT) × J·d …2
From 1 & 2
dM = dT·J·d
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑇 =
𝐽⋅𝑑
• Bond strength = Surface area of Bars × Flexural Bond Stress
= (ΣO·dx) × τbf
• At equilibrium
dT = ΣO·dx·τbf
𝑑𝑀
𝐽⋅𝑑
= 𝛴𝑂 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ 𝜏𝑏𝑓
𝑑𝑀 1
𝜏𝑏𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥
⋅ 𝛴𝑂⋅𝐽𝑑
𝑑𝑀
= Rate of change of moment
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉(Shear Force)
𝑉
𝜏𝑏𝑓 = 𝛴𝑂⋅𝐽𝑑
• ΣO = Summitition of perimeter of all bars
• If ‘N’ No. of bars of equal to dia. Then
ΣO = N·πϕ
• V = Shear force
𝐾
• J = Lever Arm factor = 1 − 3
• d = effective depth of beam
• τbf = flexural bond stress

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.53

 R.C.C

Development Length Requirement For Simple Support

When no. confinement is available

𝑀1
• 𝐿𝑑 ≤ 𝑉
+ 𝐿0

When confinement is available

1.30𝑀1
• 𝐿𝑑 ≤ 𝑉
+ 𝐿0
• M1 → Moment of resistance for tension zone
• M1 = T × Z = 0.87 fy·Ast·Z
• L0 = Anchorage length (provided due to safety reason)
• L0 = 12 ϕ or d (Whichever is more)
• ϕ → dia of bar
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝜙
• 𝐿𝑑 = 4𝜏𝑏𝑑

• V = Shear force
𝑊𝑙
• 𝑉= 2
(𝑆𝑆𝐵& 𝑈𝐷𝐿)
W
• V= 2
(SSB& Point load at centre)
• Z = d – 0.42 xu.

Bundled Bar:
→ Bundled Bar dh Total surface Area, Summaition of Individual Bar dh rqyuk esa de gksrk gSA
→ bundles Bar iz;ksx djus ij development Length (Ld) fuEu :i ls c<+ tkrh gSA

I. For 2 bar in bundled → Ld is increased by 10%.

II. For 3 bar in bundled → Ld is increased by 20%.
III. For 4 bar in bundled → Ld is increased by 33%.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.54

 R.C.C

• 36 mm ls vf/kd dia ds Bars dks Bundles ds :i esa ugha iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

Bend & Hook’s

→ tc support ds utnhd i;kZIr development Length Available uk gks] rks bl voLFkk esa Bend vFkok Hooks dk iz;ksx dj fy;k
tkrk gSA
→ IS Code : 2502 ds vuqlkj Common Hook, L-Type & U-Type gSA
→ lkekU;r% Bend vFkok Hook cukrs le; izR;sd 45° ds fy, Anchorage Length, 4 times of diameter (4) fy;k tkrk gSA
→ Anchorage Length 4 ls de rFkk 16 ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A
→ Anchorage Length ds ckn Bar dks 4 rd Extra c<+k fn;k tkrk gSA

Angle = 90°

• 90° = 45° + 45° = 4ϕ + 4ϕ = 8ϕ

Angle = 135°

• 135° = 45° + 45° + 45° = 4ϕ + 4ϕ + 4ϕ = 12ϕ

Angle = 180°

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.55

 R.C.C

• 180° = 45° + 45° + 45° = 4ϕ + 4ϕ + 4ϕ + 4ϕ = 16ϕ

Development Length & Anchorage length for stirrups should be taken as :

• Angle = 135° • Angle = 90° • Angle = 180°

 ϕ = dia. of stirrups

Curtailment of bars :
(i) In simply supported beam Ast/3 bars and is continuous because Ast/4 bars should extend upto Ld/3 distance from
the inner face of support.

(ii) Each bar, which is to be cut, should be cut extending to a distance of effective depth ‘d’ or 12 which ever is greater from
the theoretical point of cut (T.P.C)

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.56

 R.C.C

(iii) In simply supported beam let Nx bars can be curtailed at a distance of x from mid span. If at mid span let the No of
𝑙 𝑁
bars in NC then x can be calculate from the relatives. 𝑥 = 2 √𝑁𝑥
𝑐

The pint at a distance ‘x’ is T.P.C but for band point of view these bars are curtailed or bent up at a distance d or 12, which
ever is greater, beyond TPC.

Beam Subjected to torsion

• Due to warping to section and cracking of concrete analysis of RCC member to non circular section subjected to torsion
becomes complicated IS 456 : 2000 provides a simplified approach (based on stero bending theory) to design member
subjected to torsion into equivalent shear and equivalent moment.

Equivalent Shear (IS 456 : 2000 41.3.1)

1.6Tu
• Vue = Vu +
b
• Now section is designed to Vue instead of Vu.

Equivalent Moment (IS 456 : 2000 41.3.2)

• Moment due to torsion.
 D
Tu 1 + 
• Mt =
 b.
1.7


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6 DESIGN OF SLAB
• Slab og structural member gS ftldh ,d dimension (thickness) other two dimensions dh rqyuk esa cgqr de gksrh gSA
• Slab izkFkfed :i ls Flexure member gksrk gSA
• fdlh Hkh Building dk og structural member tks mlds Åijh surface dks <dus ds fy, iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gS] Slab dgykrk gSA
• Slab dh thickness 90mm ls 300mm rd dqN Hkh gks ldrh gSA
• Generally, normal structures esa 150 mm (Slab) ls vf/kd thickness ugha Provide djrs gSA
Types of Slab
• Slab dks fuEufyf[kr vk/kkj ij Classify fd;k tk ldrk gSA
1. On the Basis of Shape
I. Rectangular Slab
II. Trapezoidal Slab
III. Triangular Slab
IV. Any Other Slab
2. On the Basis of Bending Behaviour : Two Types
I. One-way Slab
II. Two-way Slab
3. On the Basis of Types of Construction :
I. Solid Slab/Slab
II. Flat Slab
III. Slab with Opening
IV. Waffle Slab
4. On the Basis of Types of Load :
I. Subjected to point load
II. Subjected to UDL load
Note :
• bl Topic esa dsoy Solid, rectangular, one- way vFkok Two – way UDL loaded slab dk design djsx
a sA
One-way Slab : (Rectangular, Solid, UDL Loaded)
• tc fdlh slab ij Bending Moment dsoy ,d Direction esa vf/kd izHkkoh gks rks mls one-way slab dgrs gSA
A. tc Rectangular slab dsoy nks supports ij supported gks rks og Always one way slab dgykrk gSA
• (One way slab irrespective of dimension ly & lx)

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Only Two Side Supported :

• One-way slab (always)

When All 4-side Supported

• tc slab pkjksa direction esa supported gks

Longer span of slab

• Aspect ratio(𝑟) =
Shorter span of slab
𝑙𝑦
• 𝑟=
𝑙𝑥
𝑙𝑦
• 𝑟 = 𝑙 > 2 → One-way slab
𝑥

Flat Slab :
• tc fdlh slab dks directly column ds Åij Rest djk fn;k tkrk gS rks mls flat slab dgrs gSA ¼vFkkZr& fcuk Beam dh slab½
• dHkh&dHkh Flat slab ds uhps drop pannel or column capital Hkh Provide dj fn;k tkrk gSA ftldh otg ls Punching failure
ds Chances de gks trs gSA

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• Flat slab ds fy, critical section, support surface ls 'd' distance ij gksrk gSA
(d = effective depth of slab)
• bl flat slab dh thickness, slab beam system okyh slab dh rqyuk esa vf/kd gksrh gSA ftldh otg ls Uneconomical gks tkrh
gSA
• Flat slab dh thickness 125 MM ls de ugha j[kh tkrh gSA

Codal provision For solid slab:

I. Nominal Cover :
• Generally slab ds fy, Nominal cover 20 mm use fd;k tkrk gSA ysfdu tc dia. of bar 12 mm ls de gks rks Nominal cover
dks 15 mm rd j[kk tk ldrk gSA

Reinforcement :
• Slab esa Compression R/F ugha Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• Slab esa Shear R/F Hkh ugha Provide fd;k tkrk gSA ysfdu tc Slab shear esa Fail djsa rks bldh thickness dks c<+kdj Failure
dks jksdk tk ldrk gSA
• tc Slab one = way gksrh gSA rks Mian R/f Shorter Span ds corresponding Provide fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk blh ds Perpendicular
direction esa distribution/temperature/shrinkage/secondary Bar provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• Generally distribution Bar, Temperature o shrinkage effect dks counter balance djus ds fy, Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• Max. dia. of Bar, slab dh thickness ds 1/8th Part ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A
𝐷
• 𝜙 > 8 𝑚𝑎𝑥.
• D = thickness of slab

Min dia. of main bar for slab :

• For Fe-250 → 10 mm
• For HYSD → 8 mm

Min dia. of distribution bar for slab :

• Mild Steel (Fe-250) → 6 mm
• HYSD (Fe-415 & Fe-500) → 6 mm

Min. area of reinforcement :

• Fe-250 (mild steel) → 0.15 % of cross c/s area
AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.60
 R.C.C

• HYSD Bar (Fe-415 & Fe-500) → 0.12% of cross c/s area

Min. area of reinforcement : (No recommendation)

• But should not be more than 4% of the cross c/s area for both main & distribution bar.

Min. spacing B/W main & distribution bar : (No recommendation)

• But follow criteria for min. spacing of horizontal bar.

Max. spacing :
 3d
• For main bar > Min. of 
 300mm
 5d
• Max. spacing for distribution bar > Min. of  (According to new revision)
 300mm

Design of One-way Slab

Step-1
• 'd' vFkok l –effective dh mfpr value eku ysAa
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝑑
= (value) × 𝐾1 × 𝐾2 × 𝐾3 × 𝐾4

Value :
Mild HYSD
Types of Slab Fe-250 Fe-415 & Fe-500
Simply supported slab 35 28
Continuous slab 40 32

• K1 → depends on span length (10 M rd k1 dh value = 1)

• K2 → % of tension R/F (1.2 to 1.6)
• K3 → 1 (singly R/F)
• K4 → 1 (Rectangular slab)

Step-2
• Calculated ‘D’ by assuming suitable cover (d’)

Step-3
• Calculate dead load of slab and also design bending moment.

Step-4
• Calculate ‘d’ required for balanced section:
• Mulim = RU·b·d2 → LSM
or
• MBal = Q·b·d2 → WSM
• (d)required < (d)provided

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 R.C.C

• Assume b = 1000 mm

Step-5
• Calculate ‘Ast’ for for under R/F slab
•
0.5𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝑏𝑑 4.6(𝐵𝑀)𝑈
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = [1 − √1 − ]
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝑏𝑑2
• Above calculated ‘Ast’ should be more than (Ast) min.

Step-6
• Calculate distribution bar.

Step-7
• Check the slab for deflection , shear and bond.

Two-way Slab :

• Two –Way slab esa deflection nksuksa orthogonal direction esa mRiuu gksrk gSA
• ly → longer span
• lx → shorter span
• 2 vFkok 2 ls de izkIr gksrk gSA
𝑙𝑦
• Aspect ratio (r) = ≤ 2→ Two way slab
𝑙𝑥

Types of Two-Way Slab

A. On the Basis of Area of Steel : Two types

1. Ortho tropically R/F Two-Way slab
2. Iso tropically R/F Two-Way slab
• tc fdlh Two – slab ds lx and ly direction esa area of steel same provide dh xbZ gks rks mls orthotropical R/F Two-Way slab
dgrs gSA
• bl izdkj ds slab esa nksuksa span ds fy, moment of resistance leku gksrs gSA

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B. Isotropically R/F Two-way slab :

• tc fdlh Two –Way slab ds lx & ly direction esa area of steel leku uk provide dh xbZ gks rks mls Isotropically R/F Two-
Way dgrs gSA
• bl izdkj ds Slab esa nksuksa span ds around MOR leku ugha gksrk gSA

C. On the Basis of Corner Condition :

1. Unrestrained Two-way slab : Corner not held in position.
2. Restrained Two-way slab : Corner held in position

Design of Unrestrained Two-way simply supported slab :

• According to Rankine Grass off Analysis :

Load on Shorter Span :

If total load on slab ‘W’
(𝑙𝑦 )4
• 𝑊𝑥 = [(𝑙 4 +(𝑙 )4 ]×𝑊
𝑥) 𝑦

Moment on shorter span :

𝑊𝑥 ⋅𝑙𝑥 2
• 𝐵𝑀𝑥 = 8

Load on Longer span :

𝑙𝑥 4
• 𝑊𝑦 = (𝑙 4 4) × 𝑊
𝑥 +𝑙𝑦

• 𝑊𝑦 = 𝑊 − 𝑊𝑥

Moment on Longer span :

𝑊𝑦 ⋅𝑙𝑦 2
• 𝐵𝑀𝑦 =
8

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7 COLUMN
Limit State of Collapse]

in Compression :
• Column fdlh dh RCC rFkk Steel Structure dk og Member gS ftlds Åij Compressive Load vkrk gSA
• Column dks Orientation ds vk/kkj ij] Column vFkok Strut esa Classify fd;k tk ldrk gSA
• Vertical Member in structure → Column
• Inclined Member in Truss → Strut

Type of Column

1. On the Basis of Types of Loading :

A. Concentrically Loaded Column
B. Axially Loaded Column
C. Axially Loaded with Uniaxial Bending Column
D. Axially Loaded with Biaxial Bending Column

A. Concentrically Loaded Column

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 R.C.C

• tc Column ij Load nksuksa Transverse Axis (x, y) ds Intersection Point ij yxs rks mls Concentrically Loaded Column dgrs
gSA
• fdlh Hkh RCC Structure ds fy, Concentrically Loaded Column dks Design ugha fd;k tkr gSA D;ksafd Exact Intersection
Point ij Loading djuk Possible ugha gksrk gSA

B. Axially Loaded Column:

• tc fdlh Column ij Load dh Eccentricity ¼mRdsUnzrk½ mldh Transverse direction ds (x, y) 5% ds vUnj gks] rks mls Axially
Loaded Column dgrs gSA
• IS Code ds vuqlkj RCC Column Axially Load ds fy, Design fd;k tkrk gSA

C. Axially Loaded with Uniaxial Bending Column :

• tc fdlh Column ij Eccentric Load dsoy ,d direction ds Corresponding yxs rks mls Axially Loaded With Uniaxial
Bending Column dgrs gSA

D. Axially Loaded with Bi-Axial Bending Column :

• tc fdlh Column ij Eccentric Load mldh nksuksa Transverse direction (x,y) ds Corresponding yxs rks mls Axially Loaded
With Bi-axial Bending Column dgrs gSA

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 R.C.C

Note :
• Concentrically loaded column → 5
• Axially loaded with uniaxial bending → 2, 4, 6, 8

• Axially loaded with Bi-axial bending column → 1, 3, 7, 9.

2. On the Basis of Slenderness Ratio :

A. Short Column
B. Long Column & Slender Column

A. Short Column :
• tc fdlh Compression Member ds fy, Slenderness Ratio 3 ls vf/kd rFkk 12 ls de gks rks mls Short Column dgrs gSA
• 3 <  < 12 (Short Column)
•  → slenderness ratio
• Short Column Always Crusting vFkok Crippling esa Fail djrk gSA

B. Long Column/Slender Column :

• tc fdlh Compression Member ds fy, slenderness Ratio () 12 ls vf/kd izkIr gks rks mls Long Column dgrs gSA
•  ≥ 12 (Long Column)
• Long Column Always Buckling esa Fail djrk gSA blfy, tc Column dh Strength Kkr djrs gS rks Reduction Factor (Cr)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 − 48𝐵
dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ¼tc   40)

Note :
Pedestral :- (Column ds uhps cuk;k x;k pkSdkj Member)
• tc fdlh Compression Member ds fy, Slenderness Ratio () 3 vFkok 3 ls de gks rks mls Pedestral dgrs gSA
• ≤3
• Pedestral, PCC vFkok R.C.C nksuksa dk cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
• Pedestral, Always Crushing esa Fail djrk gSA D;ksfa d bldh Height cgqr de gksrh gSA
• ;fn Pedestral RCC dk cuk;k tkrk gS rks blesa Steel dh ek=k mlds c/s Area ds 0.15% ls de ugha gksuh pkfg,A
• Min. of area of steel for pedestral < 0.15% of cross of C/S area

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 R.C.C

Slenderness Ratio :

In SOM
Eff. length of column
• Slenderness ratio = Least radius of gyration
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓.
• Slenderness ratio =
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

• leff → depends on end conditions of column

In RCC

Eff. length of column

• Slenderness Ratio = Least lateral dimension

•
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓.
=
Least lateral dimension (LLD)

• B>D

LLD = D

• leff → depends on end condition

• LLD → B & D (whichever is less)

Radius of Gyration

𝐼
• 𝑟 = √𝐴
𝐵𝐷 3
• 𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 12
𝐷𝐵3
• 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 12
B>D
• Ixx < Iyy

(𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝐼𝑥𝑥 )
• 𝑟min . = √ 𝐴

𝐵𝐷3 𝐷
• 𝑟min = √12×𝐵⋅𝐷 = 2
√3

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 R.C.C

Column 
Short < 32
Medium 32 to 120
Long > 120
3. On the Basis of Types of Reinforcement :
A. Tied Column
B. Spirally & Helically R/F Column
C. Composite Column
A. Tied Column

B. Spirally & Helically R/F Column:- (5% Strength T;knk gksrh gS½

C. Composite Column

• Composite Column
Unsupported Length of Column :
• Floor rFkk Beam ds Bottom Level rd dh Clear Length dks rFkk Height dks Unsupported Length of Column dgrs gSA
Effective Length of Column :
• leff

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 R.C.C

• fdlh Column dk og Part tks Effectively Buckling esa Participate djrk gS] Effective Length of Column dgykrh gSA
• Points of Zero Moment ds chp dh Length dks Effective Length of Column dgrs gSA
• Points of Contra-flexures ds chp dh Length dks Effective Length of Column dgrs gSA

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Effective Length of Member :

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 R.C.C

Assumptions
1. Plain section before bending remains plane after bending
2. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored. All the tensile stresses taken up by steel only
3. For axially loaded column, maximum compression strain in all fibres is limited to 0.002
4. The maximum compression strain in the column subjected to axial compressive and bending when part of column section
is in tension is 0.0035
5. The maximum compressing strain in the column subjected to axial compression and bending when not tension is considered
anywhere in column section is (Ech = 0.0035-0.75Ecl)

Codal Provision

1. Maximum Length of Column

A. Restrained Length of Column
• Length of column ≯ 60𝐵

• B = least lateral dimenstion

B. Not Restrained at End

100𝐵2
Length of column ≯
𝐷

2. Minimum Eccentricity in Column :

• fdlh Hkh RCC Column dks Concentric Load ds fy, Design ugha fd;k tkrk gSA D;ksafd fdlh Exact Point ij Loading djuk
djuk Possible ugha gksrk gSA vFkkZr Column dks Always Minimum Eccentricity ds fy, Design fd;k tkrk gSA
• ftldh Value fuEufyf[kr Formula ls Kkr dh tkrh gS

For Rectangular & Circular Column

𝐿 𝐵
+
• 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. of [500 30
20 𝑚𝑚

For Non-Rectangular & Non-Circular Column

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. of [ 500
20 mm

3. Longitudinal Reinforcement
A. Min. Area of Reinforcement
• Column esa Minimum R/F Creep Effect o Unanticipated Loading dks Counter-Balance djus ds fy, Provide fd;k tkrk gSA

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 R.C.C

• Min. area of steel (R/F) in column ≥ 0.8 % of cross C/S area.

B. Maximum Area of R/F

• Column esa 6% ls vf/kd R/F ugha Provide djrs gSA ysfdu ;fn Column esa Splicing (Over lapping) Provide dh xbZ gks rks
Maximum Area of R/F 4% of Gross C/S Area ls vf/kd ugha Provide fd;k tkrk gSA
• (𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥. ≯ 6% of gross C/S area
• (𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥. ≯ 6% of BD

4. Min. No. of R/F

A. For rectangular section = 4 Nos
B. For circular section = 6 Nos
C. In case of non-rectangular column → At least one bar must be provided at each corner.
Ex.

8 Nos

5. Statement
• Column Section ds fy, Longitudinal R/F dk diameter 12 mm ls de ugha j[kk tkrk gSA (To Avoid Buckling)
• ϕmin ≥ 12 mm

6.
• fdlh Hkh Longitudinal Bar ds chp Maximum Spacing C/C 300 mm ls vf/kd ugha gksuh pkfg,A

7.
• Pedestral ds fy, Minimum Area of Reinforcement, 0.15% of Gross C/S Area fy;k tkrk gSA

8.
• Column ds fy, Minimum Nominal Cover 40 mm fy;k tkrk gS ysfdu 12 mm rd dh Bar ds fy, इसको 25 mm rd j[kk
tk ldrk gSA (But D  200 mm)

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 R.C.C

9. Transverse Reinforcement (Ties/Spiral or Helical)

A.Purpose for which it is provided :
• ;s Longitudinal R/F dh Buckling dks jksdrk gSA
• ;s Longitudinal Bar dks mldh Position esa cuk;s j[krk gSA
• ;g Shear o Torsion ds fy, Resistance Provide djrk gSA
• ;g Concrete dks Confinement Provide djrk gSA
• Minimum diameter of Transverse R/F should be taken as following
 main R / F
• min for transverse R/F = max. of  4

 6 mm

Spacing B/W Transverse R/F

10. Spiral/Helical Reinforcement

• Spirally R/F Column esa Ductility vf/kd gksrh gSA rFkk Spiral use djus dh otg ls Column dh Strength 5% c<+ tkrh gSA
• Spirally R/F Column esa Concrete ij Triaxial Compressive Load vkrk gSA
• Column dks Spiral Column ds :i esa rHkh Consider djsxs tc fuEufyf[kr Condition follow gks
•
Volume of spiral R/F 0.36𝑓𝑐𝑘 A𝑔
[ Volume of core
] ≥ 𝑓𝑦
[ Ac ]-1
• Ac = core area of column
• Ag = gross area of column
• fck = characteristics strength of concrete
• fy = yield strength of steel
• D = dia. of column
• Dc = dia. of core = D – 2 × clear cover
• ϕs = dia. of spiral
• ϕL = dia. of longitudinal bars

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.73

 R.C.C

𝜋
• Volume of core = 4 ⋅ 𝐷𝑐2 × pitch
• Volume of spiral R/F = Area of spiral R/F × perimeter
𝜋
• Volume of spiral R/F = × 𝜙𝑠2 × 𝜋(𝐷𝑐 − 𝜙𝑠 )
4
𝜋
• 𝐴𝑔 = 4 × 𝐷 2
𝜋
• 𝐴𝑐 = 4 × 𝐷𝑐2

Min. dia. of Spiral R/F

𝜙𝑚𝑖𝑛
• (𝜙𝑠 )min ≥ 𝑚𝑎𝑥. of [ 4
6 mm

Min. pitch. of Spiral R/F

25 mm
• 𝑚𝑖𝑛. pitch/spacing ≥ 𝑚𝑎𝑥. of [
3𝜙𝑠

Max. pitch. of Spiral R/F

 75 mm
• min. pitch/spacing  max. of  Dia. of core (Dc )

 6
Note
• Axially Loaded Column ds fdlh Hkh Fibre esa Maximum Strain 0.002 ls vf/kd ugha gksuk pkfg,A

Design of Concentrically Loaded Column

• PU = PC + PS
• 𝑃𝑈 = 𝑓𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑐 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐
• 𝑃𝑈 = 𝑓𝑐𝑐 (𝐴𝑔 − 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ) + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐
• 𝑃𝑈 = 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐
• 𝑃𝑈 = 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 𝑓𝑐𝑐 )
Where,
• Ag = gross area of column

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.74

 R.C.C

• Asc = Area of steel in compression

• 𝐴𝑔 = 𝐵 × 𝐷
𝜋
• 𝐴𝑠𝑐 = 𝑛 × 4 × 𝜙 2
• fcc = stress in steel compression
→𝐹𝑒250 = 0.87𝑓𝑦
• 𝑓𝑠𝑐 = [→𝐹𝑒415 = 0.79𝑓𝑦
→𝐹𝑒500 = 0.75𝑓𝑦
• 𝑃𝑈 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.75𝑓𝑦 − 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) × 𝐴𝑠𝑐

If spiral column, then :

• 𝑃𝑈 = 1.05[0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.75𝑓𝑦 − 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) ⋅ 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ]
• PU = Ultimate load carrying capacity of column
• PC = Load carried by concrete
• PS = Load carried by steel

Design of Axially loaded short column

• Axially Loaded Short Column ds fy, Strength, Concentrically Loaded Column dh Strength ls 10% de izkIr gksrh gSA
• Short Column ds fy, Slenderness Ration 12 vFkok 12 ls de fy;k tkrk gSA
• Load carrying capacity of column
• 𝑃𝑈 = 0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.67𝑓𝑦 − 0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) × 𝐴𝑠𝑐

For spirally R/F column

• 𝑃𝑈 = 1.05[0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.67𝑓𝑦 − 0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) × 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ]

Design of Axially loaded long column

• blds fy, Slenderness Ratio 12 ls vf/kd gksrk gSA

• ;gk¡ ij ,d Reduction Factor (Cr) dks Multiply fd;k tkrk gSA
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 − 48𝐵
→ When  < 40
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 − 160𝑟 → When  ≥ 40
𝑚𝑖𝑛

• B = Least lateral dimension

• rmin = least radius of gyration
• 𝑃𝑈 = 𝐶𝑟 [0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.67𝑓𝑦 − 0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) × 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ]

If spirally R/F column:- (5% Strength Increase gks tkrh gSA)

• 𝑃𝑈 = 1.05𝐶𝑟 [0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⋅ 𝐴𝑔 + (0.67𝑓𝑦 − 0.40𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) × 𝐴𝑠𝑐 ]

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.75

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8 FOOTING
Footing
• ;g fdlh Hkh Structure dk lcls Bottom Most Member gksrk gS tks Column, Beam rFkk Slab etc ls vkus okys Load dks Soil
ds Åij Transfer djus dj dke djrk gSA
• Footing ges'kk Punching esa Fail gksrh gSA ftlesa Column Footing dks rksM+dj vUnj pyk tkrk gSA
• Punching Failure dks jksdus ds fy,] Footing dh depth vFkok thickness sufficient gksuh pkfg,A
• fdlh Hkh Structure dh Stability Footing rFkk Soil dh Bearing Capacity ij gh depend djrh gSA
• Footing dks fuEufyf[kr izdkj ls Classify fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Shallow Foundation
• tc fdlh Foundation dh depth mldh width ds cjkcj ;k mlls de gks rks mls Shallow Foundation dgrs gSA
• D≤B

I. Isolated Footing
• tc izR;sd Column ds fy, Individual Footing design dh tkrh gS tks mls Isolated footing dgrs gSA
• ;g Square, Rectangular, Trapezoidal, Circular fdlh Hkh Shape esa gks ldrh gSA
• bl izdkj dh Footing ds fy, Base Slab dh thickness 150 mm ls de ugha gksuh pkfg,A

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II. Combined Footing

• tc nks Column ,d&nwljs ds dkQh utnhd fLFkr gksrs gS vFkok mudk Footing Area ,d&nwljs dks Coincide djrk gS rks bl
fLFkfr esa Isolated Footing uk cukdj Combined footing cuk;h tkrh gSA

III. Strip Footing

• lkekU;r% bl rjg dh Footing wall foundation okys Structure esa fn;k tkrk gSA
• blesa Wall Foundation cukus ls igys Base esa ,d Strip Slab Mky nh tkrh gS ftldh otg ls Wall dk Uneven Settlement
ugha gks ikrk gSA vFkkZr~ Wall, Cracks ls cph jgrh gSA

IV. Strap Footing

• bl Type dh Footing esa nks Isolated Column dks vkil esa ,d Beam ds ek/;e ls Connect dj fn;k tkrk gS ftldh otg
mudk differential settlement ugha gks ikrk gS rFkk Moment dk Distribution Hkh Uniform :i ls gksrk gSA

V. Mat/Raft Footing
• bl Type dh Footing lkekU;r% Low Bearing Capacity okyh Soil ds fy, cuk;h tkrh gSA Ex- Black Cotton Soil
• tc dHkh Plot Area dk 70% Area Footing ds :i esa Use gks jgk gks rks bl Condition esa Mat/Raft Foundation cukuk T;knk
mfpr jgrk gSA
• tc cgqr T;knk Load vk jgk gks rc Hkh Mat/Raft Footing cuk;h tkrh gSA

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Note:

Deep Foundation
• tc Footing dh Depth, Footing dh Width ls vf/kd gks rks mls Deep foundation dgrs gSA
• Generally Deep Footing dh Depth, mldh Width dh rqyuk esa cgqr vf/kd gksrh gSA
• D >>> B
• Abutment → Bridge esa fdukjs okys Column
• Pier → Bridge esa chp okys Column

I. Pile Foundation
• bl rjg dh Foundation lkekU;r% Heavy Bridges vFkok High Rised Buildings esa cuk;h tkrh gSA
• Generally Pile Foundation dks Ground ds uhps Hard Strata ij fVdk;k tkrk gSA vFkkZr~ Pile Foundation ds fy, Åij Surface
dh Soil dh Bearing Capacity ls dksbZ izHkko ugha iM+rk gSA
• bl rjg dh Foundation Building vFkok Bridges dks Lateral Stability Provide djrh gS vFkkZr~ budks Over turning o Sliding
ls cpkrh gSA
• Depth of footing ≮ 300 mm

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II. Well Foundation

• bl Type dh Foundation esa Ground Level ds uhps High depth dh Trench ¼[kk¡bZ½ [kksn nh tkrh gSA tks lkekU;r% oSlh gh
fn[krh gS tSls dksbZ Well ¼dqvk¡½
• bl Foundation dh Depth, Pile Foundation dh rqyuk esa de gks ldrh gSA ysfdu Pile Foundation dh rqyuk esa bldh Width
dkQh vf/kd gksrh gSA
• bl rjg dh Footing lkekU;r% River Bridges esa iz;ksx dh tkrh gSA
• Depth of well footing ≰ 300 mm

Design Criteria

1. Depth of Footing
• fdlh Hkh Type dh Footing ds fy,] Depth 50 cm (0.5 m) ls de ugha gksuh pkfg,A
• Minimum Depth of Footing ≮50 cm
• Footing dh Depth, Soil dh Bearing Capacity rFkk Minimum Seasonal Variation of Water Table ij Depend djrh gSA
• izkjfEHkd rkSj ij Footing dh Depth Kkr djus ds fy, Rankine Formula dk use fd;k tkrk gS tks fuEu gS
𝑞 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 2
• Depth of footing 𝐷𝑓 = 𝛾 (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙) rankine formula
• q = gross bearing capacity
•  = unit weight of soil
• ϕ = Angle of internal friction/Angle of repose

2. Minimum Nominal Cover/Clear Cover

• Footing ds fy, Minimum Nominal Cover. 50 mm ls de ugha gksuk pkfg,A

• Minimum Nominal Cover decide djrs le; Exposure Condition dks Hkh /;ku esa j[kk tkrk gSA

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 50 mm
• Min. nominal cover < max of 
 min.nominal cover as per exposure condition

3. Minimum Thickness of Footing

• tc Footing, Soil ds Åij Rest dj jgh gksrh gS rks Footing Edges dh depth 150 mm ls de ugha gksuh pkfg,A
• Df ≮ 150 mm

• tc Footing, Pile ds Åij Rest dj jgh gks rks Footing Edge dh Depth 300 mm ls de ugha gksuh pkfg,A
• Df ≮ 300 mm
Or
• Df ≥ 300 mm

4. Critical section for bending

• Bending ds fy, Critical Section fuEufyf[kr :i ls fy;k tkrk gS
A. Bending ds fy, Critical Section Column, Pedestral, Wall ds Face ij fy;k tkrk gS tc os Concrete ds cus gksA
B. Bending ds fy, Critical Section For Brick Masonary Wall ds Centre ij fy;k tkrk gSA

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Note
• Masonary Wall ds fy, Critical Section, Centre Line ds lkFk&lkFk Wall ds Faces ij Hkh gks ldrk gS ;fn vPNh Quality dh
Masonary dh xbZ gks rksA

5. Critical Section of Shear

• Shear dks Completely Footing dh thickness ds }kjk Bear Resist fd;k tkrk gSA
• Shear ds fy, Critical Section fuEufyf[kr :i ls fy;k tkrk gSA

A. For one-way shear

• tc Footing, Soil ij Supported gks rks Shear ds fy, Critical Section Column, Wall ls 'd' distance ij fy;k tkrk gSA
• tc Footing, Pile ij fVdh gks rks Shear ds fy, Critical Section Column o Wall ds Face ls (d/2) distance ij fy;k tkrk gSA

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B. For Two-way Shear

• Two-Way Shear ds fy, Punching Failure, Column ds Face ls (d/2) distance ij mlds pkjksa vksj fy;k tkrk gSA

6. Critical Section for Bond

• Development Length ds fy, Critical Section Column, Pedestral, RCC Wall ds fy, buds Face ij fLFkr gksrk gSA

Note : R/F is designed in footing same as slab design

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 − 48𝐵
when l ≤ 40
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓
• 𝐶𝑟 = 1.25 − 160𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
when l > 40
• rmin = Least radius of gyration

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9 STAIRCASE
Types of Staircase:
1. By geometrical construction

2. By shape of staircase

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(e) Spiral Stairs (f) Helicoidal Stairs

General Dimensions:
Width = 1 m to 2 m
Residential Public space
Steps = 3 to 12 numbers
(T + 2R = 500) and (T × R = 40,000 to 42,000)
T and R for residential building
T = 250 to 300 mm 

R = 150 to 180 mm 

T and R for public building 
T = 250 to 300 mm 

R = 120 to 150 mm 


Load Calculation
1. Live Loads:
 5.0 kN/m 2 → In general
L = 
3.0 kN/m → When overcrowding is unlikely
2

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2. Dead Loads:

1 
W1 =   T  R  B   25 kN/m
2 
1
W1 = RB  25 kN/m
2
W2 = ( B  t  B)  25 kN
= R 2 + T 2  t  B  25 kN
R 2 + T 2  t  B  25
W2 = kN/m
T
Based on Structural System
(i) Spanning Longitudinally
Both landing and Going span in the same direction

Effective Span (Le) – Le = C/C distance between supports

(ii) Landings Spanning transverse to Going
Going is supported by landings

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Fig: Effective span for stairs supported at each end by landing spanning parallel with the rises
Effective Span Le-

X Y Span in meters
<1m <1m G+X+Y
<1m >1m G+X+1
>1m <1m G+Y+1
>1m >1m G+1+1

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.86

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10 RETAINING WALL
Retaining Wall

• Retaining wall is provided to retain earth at an angel steeper than angle of repose
β > ϕ → (Unstable)
β ≤ ϕ → (Stable)

Types of Retaining Wall

1. Gravity Wall
2. Cantilever Retaining Wall
3. Counterfort Retaining Wall
4. Buttress Retaining Wall

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Cantilever Retaining Wall

PP = 1 K P  s h  1  h
2
PP = 1 K P  s h
2
• It becomes uneconomical it height of retained earth goes beyond 8 m.
• Stem, heel slab and toe slab bend like cantilever.
• Thickness of any slab should not be less than 150 mm.
• Stem is generally tapered with maximum thickness at bottom.
• Main reinforcement of stem is provided on back face.
• Main reinforcement of heel and toe slab is on top and bottom respectively.
• Critical section for heel and toe slab are at back and front of stem respectively.
• Critical section for bending stem is at the junction of base slab and stem.
• Active earth pressure produces.
o Disturbing force for sliding.

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o Disturbing moment for over turning

Disturbing force  Pa = 1 K a  s H 2 Pa  H 2
2

Disturbing moment  M = Pa  H 3 = 1 6 K a  s H 3 M α H3

• Restoring moment is obtained by self weight of retaining wall and soil above heel slab.
Restoring moment = (0.9 W) × Perpendicular distance b/w ‘W’ and toe point
Where W = W1 + W2 + W + W3 + W4

• Restoring force sliding is obtained from friction b/w base and soil below it. If friction is not sufficient then shear key is
provided and placed in such as way that main reinforcement of stem can be extended inside the shear key for anchorage.
Restoring Force = Friction + Passive Earth pr = μN + PP
Restoring force = μ(0.5W) + PP
• While calculating restoring force and restoring moment only 90% of DL is considered.
• FOS against overturning and sliding should not be less than 1.4
Restoring Force/Moment
1.4
Disturbing Force/Moment

• For most economical design, resultant of pressure from soil should pass through front face of stem.

• Resultant of active earth pressure and dead load should pass through middle 3rd of base slab dimension for no lifting
condition.
• In general length of base slab is (0.6 to 0.8) times height of retained earth.
• For preliminary design, stem can be placed at 1/3rd of length of base slab.
• After every 30 m, a joint is provided to take care of expansion and contraction of retaining wall.

Counterfort Retaining Wall

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• It is provided if height of retained earth goes beyond 7 to 8 m.

• Cantilever action of stem and heel slab of cantilever retaining wall is converted to continuous slab.
• Design positive and negative B.M. are calculated using BM coefficient.
• Clear spacing b/w counterforts lie between H/2 to H/3.
• Counterfort is designed as T-beam and main reinforcement is provided on inclined face.
• For preliminary design, thickness of counterfort is taken as 0.05 H.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.90

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11 YIELD LINE THEORY

Yield Line Theory

• It is an inelastic method of analysis by which ultimate load carrying capacity of slab is calculated

Formation of Plastic Hinge

• Plastic hinge in the slab is the form of line hinge corresponding to widest crack pattern.
• This is also termed as yield line.

Guidelines to draw yield line

1. It must be straight line and it generally passes through the point of intersection of two axis of rotation.
2. It terminates at slab boundary or intersects other yield lines.
3. Yield lines act as axis of rotation.
4. Each segment of the slab should act as rigid body.

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After formation of yield line.

AE-JE SHORT NOTES : CIVIL ENGINEERING 1.92

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DEVESH SIR PW

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