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Advanced Practical Electronics –
Circuits & Systems

P Malindi

MLD Technologies

i
Advanced Practical Electronics –
Circuits & Systems

P Malindi

Disclaimer
Circuits in this book have been done using CircuitMaker, SmartDraw, Visio and
LTspice VIII, and most of them have been verified by either building them
physically or simulating them using CircuitMaker or LTspice VIII. However,
neither MLD Technologies nor the author guarantees the accuracy or
completeness of any information published herein, and neither MLD
Technologies or the author shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or
damages arising from the use of this book.

CircuitMaker is a registered trademark of MicroCode Engineering, Inc.

SmartDraw is a registered trademark of SmartDraw
Visio is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation
LTspice is a registered trademark of Analog Devices, Inc.

MLD Technologies

ii
Advanced Practical Electronics – Circuits & Systems
MLD Technologies
Gonubie
East London, South Africa
www.mldtechnologies.co.za

First published 2021

Copyright © 2021 MLD Technologies. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-0-620-91554-0

South African National Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record of this book is available from the South African National
Library.

MLD Technologies
 MY PHILOSOPHY

The essence of technology is not about reciting the theories of science and
engineering or developing ideas that will end up on the shelves of colleges and
universities, but to apply those theories and ideas to come up with processes,
products and systems that will improve the lives of all humanity.

Dr. P Malindi, MLD Technologies

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

MY PHILOSOPHY......................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... xx
PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... xxi
1. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS.................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 INPUT STAGE ........................................................................................................ 2

1.3 SIGNAL CONDITIONING STAGE ..................................................................... 2

1.4 PROCESSING STAGE............................................................................................ 4

1.5 COUPLING OR INTERFACING STAGE ........................................................... 4

1.6 OUTPUT STAGE .................................................................................................... 5

1.7 WAVE GENERATION .......................................................................................... 5

1.8 POWER SUPPLY .................................................................................................... 6

1.9 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 7
2. POWER SUPPLIES ..................................................................................................... 8
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 8
2.2 STEPPING DOWN OF AC VOLTAGE ............................................................... 9

2.3 AC-TO-DC CONVERSION ................................................................................. 10

2.3.1 Rectification ..................................................................................................... 11

2.3.2 Filtering ............................................................................................................ 11

2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION.................................................................................. 13

2.4.1 Linear Voltage Regulators............................................................................. 13

2.4.1.1 Fixed Three-Terminal Regulators .......................................................... 14

2.4.1.2 Adjustable Three-Terminal Voltage Regulators .................................. 15

v
 2.4.1.3 Lifting Regulator above Ground............................................................ 17

2.4.1.4 External Capacitors and Protection Diodes ......................................... 18

2.4.1.5 Electronic Shutdown ............................................................................... 19

2.4.1.6 Outboard-Pass Transistor for Current-Boosting ................................. 20

2.4.1.7 Paralleling Regulators for Higher Current ........................................... 35

2.4.1.8 Adjustable Voltage and Current Regulators ........................................ 35

2.5 SWITCHING REGULATORS, DC VOLTAGE CONVERTERS AND

ISOLATED POWER SUPPLIES ................................................................................ 37

2.5.1 DC-to-DC Converters ................................................................................. 38

2.5.1.1 Boost converter ......................................................................................... 41

2.5.1.2 Buck converter .......................................................................................... 46

2.5.1.3 Boost/Buck/Inverting switching regulators ....................................... 48

2.5.2 Isolated Power Supply ............................................................................... 53

2.6 MISCELLENOUS POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS .............................................. 56

2.7 DC-TO-AC INVERTERS ...................................................................................... 58

2.8 CURRENT REGULATION.................................................................................. 63

2.9 SINGLE CHIP POWER SUPPLY ........................................................................ 64

2.10 NOTES .................................................................................................................. 65

2.11 PRACTICAL WORK .......................................................................................... 66

2.11.1 Stepping Down ............................................................................................. 66

2.11.2 AC-to-DC Conversion ................................................................................. 68

2.11.3 On/Off Indicator .......................................................................................... 71

2.11.4 Regulation ..................................................................................................... 73

2.12 REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 80
3. POWER DEVICES ........................................................................................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................
3.2 POWER DIODES ......................................................................................................
vi
 3.2.2 Schottky Diodes ..................................................................................................

3.3 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER ..................................................................

3.4 SILICON CONTROLLED SWITCH .......................................................................

3.5 GATE TURN-OFF SWITCH....................................................................................

3.6 TRIAC .........................................................................................................................

3.7 OPTO-THYRISTORS ................................................................................................

3.8 SHOCKLEY DIODE, DIAC AND QUADRAC ....................................................

3.9 POWER TRANSISTORS ..........................................................................................

3.10 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (IGBT) ....................................

3.11 SNUBBER CIRCUITS, FLYBACK DIODE AND VARISTORS ........................

3.11.1 Flyback Diode ...................................................................................................

3.11.2 RC Damping or Snubber Network ................................................................

3.11.3 Varistors .............................................................................................................

3.12 THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DEVICES ................................

3.12.1 Natural Convection Air Cooling ....................................................................

3.12.2 Forced Air Cooling ...........................................................................................

3.12.3 Liquid Cooling ..................................................................................................

3.12.4 Thermal Resistance, Derating and Heat Sink Design .................................

3.13 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF POWER DEVICES ...........................................

3.13.1 Light Dimmer....................................................................................................

3.13.3 Driving AC loads..............................................................................................

3.13.4 Simulation of the Light Dimmer ....................................................................

3.14 NOTES ......................................................................................................................

3.15 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ..................................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

vii
4.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AND CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION ........................

4.3 OPAMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND BANDWIDTH .................................

4.4 BASIC CLOSED-LOOP OPAMP CIRCUITS ........................................................

4.4.1 Amplifier .............................................................................................................

4.4.2 Voltage-follower .................................................................................................

4.4.3 Summing (Adding) Amplifier ..........................................................................

4.4.4 Integrator .............................................................................................................

4.4.4 Differential (or Subtractor) Amplifier .............................................................

4.4.5 AC Amplifier.......................................................................................................

4.5 OPAMP WITH SINGLE-RAIL SUPPLY ...............................................................

4.6 OPEN-LOOP OPERATION AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK ................................

4.6.1 Comparator .........................................................................................................

4.6.2 Schmitt Trigger ...................................................................................................

4.6.3 Window-Comparator ........................................................................................

4.7 OTHER OPAMP CIRCUITS....................................................................................

4.7.1 Constant Current Source ...................................................................................

4.7.2 Power Booster .....................................................................................................

4.7.3 Single-to-Dual Power Supply ...........................................................................

4.7.4 Peak Detector ......................................................................................................

4.7.5 Logarithmic Amplifier .......................................................................................

4.7.6 Transconductance Amplifier ............................................................................

4.7.7 Voltage Indicator ................................................................................................

4.7.8 Differentiator .......................................................................................................

4.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ............................

4.10 NOTES ......................................................................................................................

4.10 PRACTICAL WORK ..............................................................................................

viii
 4.11.1 Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifiers ......................................................

4.11.2 Summer (Adder) ...............................................................................................

4.11.3 Integrator ...........................................................................................................

4.11.4 Differential amplifier .......................................................................................

4.11.5 AC Amplifier.....................................................................................................

4.11.6 Comparator .......................................................................................................

4.11.7 Differentiator .....................................................................................................

4.12 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................
5. FILTERING THEORY AND CIRCUITS ..................................................................
5.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

5.2 FILTER CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS ....................................

5.2.1 Filter Classification .............................................................................................

5.2.2 Filter Parameters.................................................................................................

5.3 LOW PASS FILTER (LPF)........................................................................................

5.4 HIGH PASS FILTER (HPF) ....................................................................................

5.5 BAND PASS FILTER (BPF) .....................................................................................

5.6 BAND STOP OR BAND REJECT FILTER (NOTCH) .........................................

5.7 ACTIVE FILTERS .....................................................................................................

5.7.1 Active Low Pass Filter .......................................................................................

5.7.2 Active High Pass Filter ......................................................................................

5.7.3 Active Band Pass Filter ......................................................................................

5.7.4 Active Band Stop Filter ......................................................................................

5.7.5 Second Order and Higher Order Active Filters .............................................

5.8 ACTIVE FILTER DESIGN OPTIMIZATION ........................................................

4.6 PRACTICAL WORK ................................................................................................

5.9 REFERENCES............................................................................................................

ix
6. TRANSDUCERS ...........................................................................................................
6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................
6.2 SENSORS ..................................................................................................................
6.2.1 Acoustic Sensors ................................................................................................
6.2.2 Temperature Sensors ........................................................................................
6.2.2.1 Thermocouples .............................................................................................

6.2.2.2 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs) .................................................

6.2.2.3 Thermistors ...................................................................................................

6.2.2.4 IC Temperature Sensors ..............................................................................

6.2.2.5 Thermopile Infrared Sensors ......................................................................

6.2.2.6 Digital Temperature Sensors ......................................................................

6.2.3 Light/Optical Sensors .......................................................................................
6.2.3.1 Light dependent resistor (LDR) .................................................................

6.2.3.2 Photodiode and Phototransistor ................................................................

6.2.3.3 Photovoltaic cell ...........................................................................................

6.2.4 Pressure Sensors and Weight Sensors ...........................................................
6.2.4.1 Strain gauge ..................................................................................................

6.2.4.2 Load cell ........................................................................................................

6.2.4.3 Capacitance pressure sensors .....................................................................

6.2.5 Level Sensors ......................................................................................................
6.2.5.1 Point-contact level sensors..........................................................................

6.2.5.2 Continuous level sensors ............................................................................

6.2.6 Position Sensors.................................................................................................
6.2.6.1 Linear Potentiometer and Rotary Potentiometer ....................................

6.2.6.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) ...............................

6.2.7 Tilt Sensors .........................................................................................................

x
 6.2.8 Biomedical Sensors ...........................................................................................
6.2.9 Humidity sensors ..............................................................................................
6.2.10 Alcohol, Flammable Liquids and Gas Sensors.............................................

6.2.11 Magnetic Field [Proximity, Position, Speed] and Hall Effect Sensors ......

6.2.12 Soil Moisture Sensor ........................................................................................

6.2.13 Vibration Sensors..............................................................................................

6.2.14 Current Sensors ................................................................................................

6.3 ACTUATORS ............................................................................................................

6.3.1 Acoustic Actuators.............................................................................................
6.3.2 Temperature Actuators .....................................................................................
6.3.3 Light Actuators...................................................................................................
6.3.4 Motion or Movement Actuators: Electric Motors, Relays, Solenoids, and
Air Muscle ....................................................................................................................

6.3.4.1 Electric motors ..............................................................................................

6.3.4.2 Relays .............................................................................................................

6.3.4.3 Solenoids .......................................................................................................

6.3.4.4 Air Muscle ....................................................................................................
6.4 DETECTORS ............................................................................................................
6.4.1 Infrared Light-Based Detectors ......................................................................
6.4.1.1 Break-a-beam circuits ..................................................................................

6.4.1.2 Applications of Break-a-Beam....................................................................

6.4.1.3 Point level monitoring .................................................................................

6.4.1.4 Smoke detection ...........................................................................................

6.4.1.5 Intruder/entry detection.............................................................................

6.4.1.6 Gate/door-way clearance detection ..........................................................

6.4.1.7 Object counting.............................................................................................

6.4.1.8 Proximity sensing.........................................................................................
xi
 6.4.1.9 Application of proximity sensing ..............................................................

6.4.1.10 Pulse or heart rate measurement .............................................................

6.4.1.11 Oxygen saturation measurement and pulse oximetry .........................

6.4.2 Ultrasonic Detectors ..........................................................................................
6.4.3 Passive Infrared Detectors ...............................................................................
6.4.4 Magnetic, Inductive, and Capacitive Proximity Sensors ...........................
6.5 DETECTOR MODULES AND ACTUATOR MODULES ...................................
6.6 NOTES .......................................................................................................................
6.7 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................
7. CONDITIONING AND INTERFACING ................................................................
7.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

7.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONING .....................................................................................

7.2.1 Resistance-to-voltage Conversion ....................................................................

7.2.1.1 Voltage divider network .............................................................................

7.2.1.2 Bridge .............................................................................................................

7.2.1.3 Self-heating ...................................................................................................

7.2.2 Current-to-Voltage conversion.........................................................................

7.2.3 Capacitance-to-Voltage conversion .................................................................

7.2.4 Voltage-to-Voltage Conversion ........................................................................

7.2.4.1 Inverting amplifier .......................................................................................

7.2.4.2 Non-inverting amplifier ..............................................................................

7.2.4.3 Voltage-follower ...........................................................................................

7.2.4.4 Instrumentation amplifier...........................................................................

7.2.4.5 Microphone pre-amplifier ..........................................................................

7.2.4.6 Level-shifting (or DC offset) .......................................................................

7.3 INTERFACING .........................................................................................................

xii
 7.3.1 Current Enhancement ........................................................................................

7.3.1.1 Buffers ............................................................................................................

7.3.1.2 Output transistors ........................................................................................

7.3.2 Voltage and Current Enhancement .................................................................

7.3.2.1 Relays .............................................................................................................

7.3.2.2 IGBTs.............................................................................................................
7.3.2.3 Photocouplers: Opto-coupler, opto-isolator and photorelay ................

7.3.3 H-bridge ...............................................................................................................

7.3.4 Monolithic solenoid and stepper motor driver ..............................................

7.4 VOICE CHIPS AND DTMF DECODER ICs .........................................................

7.5 MONITORING, CONTROLLING AND REGULATING SYSTEMS ................

7.6 ISOLATION ...............................................................................................................

7.7 MULTIPLEXING ......................................................................................................

7.8 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOGUE CONVERTERS ........................................................

7.9 PRACTICAL WORK ................................................................................................

7.10 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................
8. OSCILLATORS, SIGNAL AND FUNCTION GENERATORS ...........................
8.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

8.2 TYPES OF OSCILLATORS ......................................................................................

8.2.1 RC Oscillators ...............................................................................................

8.2.1.1 Relaxation oscillator ....................................................................................

8.2.1.2 Wien Bridge Oscillator ................................................................................

8.2.1.3 Phase-shift Oscillator ...................................................................................

8.2.1.4 Astable Multivibrator ..................................................................................

8.2.1.5 Twin-T Oscillator .........................................................................................

8.2.2 LC (or Tuned) Oscillators ..................................................................................

xiii
 8.2.2.1 Colpitts Oscillator ........................................................................................

8.2.2.2 Hartley Oscillator .........................................................................................

8.2.2.3 Clapp Oscillator............................................................................................

8.2.2.4 Armstrong Oscillator ...................................................................................

8.2.3 Voltage Controlled Oscillators .........................................................................

8.2.4 Crystal Oscillator..........................................................................................

8.3 MANIPULATING THE GENERATED WAVEFORM(S) ...................................

8.3.1 Varying the Amplitude of the Output of an Oscillator ................................

8.3.2 Converting Waveforms to a Square Wave .....................................................

8.3.3 Varying a duty-cycle or symmetry of a Square Wave ..................................

8.3.4 TTL and CMOS Level Signals ..........................................................................

8.3.4.1 TTL level conversion ...................................................................................

8.3.4.2 CMOS level conversion ...............................................................................

8.3.5 Converting Waveforms to a Triangular Wave and Sawtooth .....................

8.3.6 Introducing DC Offset .......................................................................................

8.3.7 Limiting the amplitude of a square wave .......................................................

8.4 SIGNAL AND FUNCTION GENERATORS ........................................................

8.5 FUNCTION GENERATORS ICS ............................................................................

8.6 NOTES ........................................................................................................................

8.7 PRACTICAL WORK ................................................................................................

8.8 REFERENCES............................................................................................................
9. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS ..............................................................................................
9.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

9.2 COMPONENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM ..................................................

9.2.1 Real Time Operating System ............................................................................

9.2.2 Application Software .........................................................................................

xiv
 9.2.3 Microchip Processing Devices ..........................................................................

9.3 COMPONENTS OF MICROCHIP PROCESSING DEVICES.............................

9.3.1 Processor ..............................................................................................................

9.2.2 Memory................................................................................................................

9.3.3 Programmable Input/output Peripherals ......................................................

9.3.4 Timers and Interrupts ........................................................................................

9.3.4.1 Timers ............................................................................................................

9.3.4.2 Interrupts .......................................................................................................

9.3.5 Communication Ports ........................................................................................

9.4 CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS ...................................................

9.5 CHOOSING THE RIGHT MICROCHIP PROCESSING DEVICE .....................

9.6 EMBEDDED SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT BOARDS ............................................

9.7 CHALLENGES OF USING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS ...........................................

9.8 TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEMS .........................................................................

9.9 REFERENCES............................................................................................................
10. POWER AMPLIFIERS ...............................................................................................
10.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................

10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS ..................................................................

10.3 AMPLIFIER EFFICIENCY .....................................................................................

10.4 VOLTAGE AND POWER GAINS........................................................................

10.5 CLASS A AMPLIFIER ............................................................................................

10.5.1 Series-Fed Class A Amplifier ..........................................................................

10.5.1.1 Characteristic curve, Load line and Q-point ..........................................

10.5.1.2 Power and efficiency calculations ...........................................................

10.5.2 Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier .....................................................

10.6 CLASS B AMPLIFIER ............................................................................................

xv
 10.7 CLASS C AMPLIFIER ............................................................................................

10.8 IC AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIERS........................................................................

10.9 NOTES ......................................................................................................................

10.10 PRACTICAL WORK ............................................................................................

10.11 REFERENCES........................................................................................................
11. NOISE, INTERFERENCE AND DISTORTION ...................................................
11.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................

11.2 NOISE .......................................................................................................................

11.2.1 Thermal or Johnson Noise ..............................................................................

11.2.2 Shot Noise and Partition Noise ......................................................................

11.2.3 Flicker Noise and Transit-Time Noise...........................................................

11.2.4 Signal-to-Noise Ratio, Carrier Power-to-Noise Ratio and Noise Figure ..

11.2.5 Noise Temperature...........................................................................................

11.2.6 Noise Floor and Noise Margin .......................................................................

11.3 INTERFERENCE.....................................................................................................

11.4 NOISE, INTERFERENCE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS ..............................

11.4.1 Common Impedance Coupling ......................................................................

11.4.2 Ground, Return Lines and Ground Loops ...................................................

11.4.3 Crosstalk ............................................................................................................

11.4.4 Capacitive, Inductive and Electromagnetic Coupling ................................

11.4.5 Galvanic Action and Triboelectric Effect ......................................................

11.4.6 Digital Circuits ..................................................................................................

11.5 MITIGATION OF NOISE AND INTERFERENCE EFFECTS ..........................

11.5.1 Filtering ..............................................................................................................

11.5.2 Using Right Components ................................................................................

11.5.3 Keep the Temperature Low ............................................................................

xvi
 11.5.4 Placement of Components and Partitioning Shields...................................

11.5.5 Wiring Configuration and Grounding ..........................................................

11.6 DISTORTION ..........................................................................................................

11.6.1 Phase Distortion ...............................................................................................

11.6.2 Gain Distortion .................................................................................................

11.6.3 Harmonic Distortion ........................................................................................

11.6.4 Cross-over Distortion.......................................................................................

11.6.5 Aliasing ..............................................................................................................

11.7 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................
12. INTERNET OF THINGS ...........................................................................................
12.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................

12.2 COMPONENTS OF THE IOT ...............................................................................

12.2.1 Electronics..........................................................................................................

12.2.2 Electronic Communication and Networking ...............................................

12.2.3 Computing ........................................................................................................

12.3 IOT APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................

12.4 IOT VERSUS EMBEDDED SYSTEMS .................................................................

12.5 IoT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT BOARDS AND SOFTWARE..........................

12.6 IOT ARCHITECTURE............................................................................................

12.5 IOT COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING ...........................................

12.6.1 Personal Area Networks (PANs and WPANs) ............................................

12.6.2 Local Area Networks (LANs and WLANs) .................................................

12.6.3 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs and WMANs) .................................

12.6.4 Wide Area Networks (WANs) .......................................................................

12.7 IOT messaging PROTOCOLS ...............................................................................

12.8 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................

xvii
APPENDIX A – DECIBEL AND SIGNAL LEVELS ...................................................
A.1 DECIBEL ...................................................................................................................

A.2 SIGNAL LEVELS .....................................................................................................

APPENDIX B - RECTIFICATION AND SMOOTHENING ....................................
APPENDIX C - CONSTANTS & TABLES...................................................................
C.1 CONSTANTS............................................................................................................

C.2 TABLES .....................................................................................................................

Table C.2 VCVS............................................................................................................

Table C. 3 Average, RMS, Peak, and Peak-to-Peak Values ...................................

APPENDIX D - LIGHT AND LIGHT EMITING DIODES ......................................
D.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................

D.1.1 Ultraviolet Light ................................................................................................

D.1.2 Visible Light .......................................................................................................

D.1.3 Infrared Light .....................................................................................................

D.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES ..................................................................................

D.3 CONNECTION OF AN LIGHT EMITTING DIODE .........................................

D.4 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................

APPENDIX E – RESISTOR, INDUCTOR COLOUR CODES AND

CAPACITOR CODES ......................................................................................................
E.1 RESISTOR COLOUR CODES .................................................................................

E.2 INDUCTOR COLOUR CODES ..............................................................................

E.3 CAPACITOR CODES ..............................................................................................

E.4 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................

APPENDIX F – PHOTOCOUPLERS: OPTO-COUPLERS, OPTO-ISOLATORS

AND SOLID STATE RELAYS .......................................................................................
F.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................

F.2 TYPES OF OPTO-COUPLERS OR ISOLATORS..................................................

xviii
 F.2.1 Phototransistor and Photo Darlington Output ..............................................

F.2.2 MOSFET Output or Photorelay .......................................................................

F.2.3 IC-Output Photocoupler ...................................................................................

F.2.4 Photo-SCR Output and Phototriac Output ....................................................

F.2.5 Linear Opto-couplers .........................................................................................

F.2.6 Slotted and Reflective Photocouplers .............................................................

F.3 SOLID STATE RELAYS ...........................................................................................

F.4 REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................

INDEX ............................................................................................................................. 85

xix
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all the people who have used my previous work,
“Advanced Practical Electronics: from Power Supplies to Interfacing”, from
which this book is evolving. The comments and suggestions you have made in
that work have been taken into consideration during the writing of this book.

xx
 PREFACE

This book is written at the time when technology seems to be taking over the
running of our lives. There are electronic gadgets everywhere, fourth industrial
revolution (4IR) has arrived and so as the internet of things (IoT), which is “a
network of physical objects or ‘things’ that can interact with each other to share
information and take action,” is also here to change the way things are done.
Lately, there are also talks about system-in-package (SiP) or system on chip (SoC)
and sub-system-in-package (SSiP), which are electronic system in a package and
electronic subsystem in a package, respectively. SiP and SSiP have made the
miniaturization of electronic systems to be possible. Other changes that have
since emerged within the electronics industry is the shifting of electronic design
from component to system, and this is coupled with the incorporation of power
management and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) as part of the
performance metrics for the new systems. The challenges that are brought by
these technological evolutions demand that curricula of electronic engineering
must be revised in order to produce a new breed of electronic engineering
graduates who can be able to bring together electronic application theory,
artificial intelligence, programming and networking. That is, the inclusion of
artificial intelligence and embedded system in the undergraduate electronic
engineering programmes is no longer an option but a must.

This book has evolved from Advanced Practical Electronics: from Power
Supplies to Interfacing and all the material is still applicable and has been
retained; however, new material and hence new chapters have been added to
cover topics such as Power Devices, Power Amplifiers, Embedded Systems,
Noise, Interference and Distortion, and Internet of Things. This book is written to
help the reader to get into grips with how to put electronics in practice. Its
emphasis is on application of electronics in solving our daily problems. So for
each device or circuit introduced, the author will try to show how it is or can be
used in real life situation. This will help the reader to be able to design circuits
for different applications. At the end of each chapter the author has included
some practical work that can be done using electronic simulation packages such
as CircuitMaker, MultiSim, LTspice. In this book LTspice is used since it is a
freeware electronic simulator that can be downloaded for free from Internet;
however, readers are welcomed to use any other electronic simulation package
they have. Once simulation is done, the circuit can be built practically on a
breadboard to enable the reader to compare theoretical, simulated and practical
results.

Readers are expected to have a reasonable understanding of basic electronic

devices such as transformers, diodes, transistors, capacitors and resistors and
basic electronic circuits such as clippers, clampers, voltage dividers, rectifiers,
regulators and amplifiers using discrete components. Furthermore, the reader is
expected to have knowledge of logic gates operations and basic laws such as
Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Kirchoff’s current law (KCL).
The text is divided into 12 chapters and is organised in such a way that the
information is built up in a logical way. The first chapter is Introduction to
Electronic Systems; Chapter 2 is on Power Supplies; Chapter 3 is on Power
Devices; Chapter 4 is on the Theory of Operational Amplifier; Chapter 5 is
Filtering; Chapter 6 is on Transducers; Chapter 7 is Signal Conditioning and
Interfacing; Chapter 8 is on Wave Generation and Wave Shaping; Chapter 9 is on
Embedded Systems; Chapter 10 is Power Amplifiers, Chapter 11 covers Noise,
Interference and Distortion, and Chapter 12 introduces the reader to Internet of
Things.
P Malindi, July 2021

xxii
 1. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

An electronic system is a combination or a collection of different electronic

circuits and devices that are working together to achieve a common goal. For
example, a burglar alarm system is a combination of proximity sensors, passive
infrared sensors, keypads, control panel, siren, battery charger, etc. all working
together to make sure that your home or business is protected. Other examples of
electronic systems include a computer, control system, and communication
system, where again you are having a group of circuits working together
towards a common goal.

A functional block diagram of an electronic system will have an input stage, a

conditioning or pre-processing stage, a processing stage, a power supply, a wave
generation stage, an interfacing or coupling stage, and an output stage as shown
in Figure 1.1

Power Supply

Signal
Output
Input Conditioning Interfacing or
(Usually Sensors)
Signal Processing or Load
or coupling (Usually Actuators)
Preprocessing

Waveform Generation

Figure 1.1 An electronic system

1
1.2 INPUT STAGE

Almost all the electronic systems have input stage that are used as an interface
between the electronic system and the outside world. Inputs are used to control
or drive the output or load. Input stage can also be used to collect information
about its surroundings so that the information can be further processed and be
used as required. The input can be a keypad, a sensor, a card reader, just to
mention a few.

The input stage is responsible for converting phenomena or quantities that are
not electrical into electrical. This is very important because the processing stage
only understands or works with electrical signals. The output of this stage can be
any of the electrical quantities, such as voltage, resistance, current, frequency,
capacitance, or inductance.

1.3 SIGNAL CONDITIONING STAGE

The signal conditioning stage takes the raw output of the input stage and
prepares it to make it usable by the processing stage; hence it is also referred to
as pre-processing stage. This includes amplification, attenuation, scaling,
filtering, excitation, isolation, linearization, and analogue-to-digital conversion.

The raw output from the input stage can either be voltage, resistance,
capacitance, inductance, or current. However, most of the processors or
controllers work only with voltages, and these voltages need to be within a
certain range; for example, most microcontrollers and microprocessors are
working with voltages ranging from 0V to 5V. So the first task of signal

2
conditioning stage is to convert the input to voltage that is within the acceptable
range for the processing stage. This may involve amplification to make smaller
signals bigger, or attenuation if the input signal is outside the working range of
the processing stage, and in some instances also excitation since other sensors
need to be excited to produce output voltage; for example, the sensors that
output resistance, need excitation so that they can convert resistance to voltage.
Secondly, if the signal is an AC signal, its highest frequency components need to
be limited to a certain value using filters. The latter is called band-limiting. Band-
limiting is very important, especially if the signal is going to be processed
digitally so as to avoid frequency fold-over (or aliasing) during sampling. Band-
limiting is also critical in communication so as to conserve spectrum and to avoid
adjacent channel interference due to spectral-overlap between adjacent channels.
Additional to band-limiting, filtering may also be used to eliminate interference.
Thirdly, some sensors exhibit some non-linear characteristics which need to be
corrected or compensated for before processing stage. Fourthly, in some system
there needs to be some galvanic isolation between the input and the processing
stage; for example, in medical instruments where sensors are attached to a
human body, the isolation is mandatory to provide galvanic isolation between
the sensors that are attached to the human body and the rest of the circuit or
system, which in most cases is powered by the mains. Isolation is also used
where the stages of the same system or inter-connected systems are using
separate grounds.
Lastly, the conditioning stage is also responsible for digitizing the signal if the
signal is to be processed digitally and the processor does not have a built-in
analogue-to-digital convertor.

3
Based on the above tasks that need to be performed by the signal conditioning
stage, it can be concluded that its building blocks will be amplifiers, filters, and
analogue-to-digital convertors (ADCs).

1.4 PROCESSING STAGE

The processing stage takes the conditioned signal from the signal conditioning
stage interprets it, and/or manipulates it so that it can control or drive the load.
This can be done using either analogue or digital techniques, and in some cases a
combination of both.

Processing involves comparing, subtraction, addition, filtering, multiplication,

integration, differentiation, etc. and every processing stage is using specific
algorithms needed to achieve the desired outcome.

1.5 COUPLING OR INTERFACING STAGE

The main function of an electronic system is to take the input, process it, and use
it to control or drive the output or the load. However, in most cases the output of
the processing stage is not sufficient to drive the load directly. Most of the
processors have outputs that can only go as high as 5V, and most of our loads
need DC voltages in the range of 12V and higher or AC voltages in the range of
220V and higher, which makes it impossible to be driven directly by the
processor. Even in cases where the load can be operated by 5V, in most cases the
current required cannot be sourced from the processing stage. The coupling or
interfacing stage is used to interface the processing stage that works with low
power signals to the load that is operating at high power. This stage consists of
buffers, relays, switching transistors, opto-couplers (e.g. 4N2x or 4N3x, etc.),
opto-isolators (e.g. MOC30xx), thyristors, and/or Triacs.
4
1.6 OUTPUT STAGE

The output stage consists of all the loads that need to be controlled or driven;
that is, it consists of the actuators that will use the processed input to produce the
required output, action or response.

Actuators are output transducers that are used to take output of the processor,
which is voltage, and convert it to the required output. For example, if you are
designing an alarm system, you will need to drive a buzzer and/or a siren that
will convert the electrical signal into sound, and you will also need a visual
indicator (light emitting diode, LED) to indicate the actual zone (or place) where
there is intrusion; however, if the alarm is a fire alarm, in addition to siren and
LED, you may also need to drive the sprinklers in the affected zone to extinguish
the fire. Other examples of actuators include motors for converting voltage into
motion, fan to lower the temperature, heating element to increase the
temperature, light bulb for lighting up, just to mention a few.

1.7 WAVE GENERATION

In some electronic systems there is a need for generating some AC signals that
are used during processing. For example, in communication we need a signal,
called carrier signal, which is used to carry the information or message signal,
and we also need sampling frequencies which are used during sampling and
multiplexing in digital communication.

These AC signals are also used as clock, timing or synchronization (sync) signals
by digital circuits and systems. The electronic circuit that is designed specifically
for generating AC signals or waveforms is called an oscillator. Last, but not least,

5
wave generation is also used when converting DC to AC in DC-to-AC inverters,
and in DC-to-DC converters or switching regulators of switch-mode power
supply (SMPS).

1.8 POWER SUPPLY

Electronic circuits or systems use active components such as transistors, and

integrated circuits (ICs), which need to be powered to operate. We also need
power to excite some of the sensors and to power the load. This power can either
be derived from a battery or by converting the 220V AC voltage to low DC
voltage(s). Power can also be derived from alternative sources such as solar
panels, wind turbines, generators or other sources. Power supply unit (PSU) can
either be standalone or can be embedded into the circuit or system they power.
The advantage of the former is that it is easy to replace when faulty even without
technical expertise, whereas the embedded one will need the user to take the
whole circuit or system for repairs when the power supply is faulty.

For critical applications, the system is usually equipped with two power sources:
one that is supplying it under normal conditions and a standby one, which only
takes over in the event of the normal supply being interrupted. In most cases the
standby supply is usually a battery (plus invertor where AC is needed), and in
some other cases a generator. Under normal condition the normal supply is
responsible for providing the required voltage to the electronic circuits that
constitute the electronic system and also to charge up the standby batteries so
that in the event of main normal power supply being interrupted, the batteries
will have enough power or charge to take over and continue to provide the
required power.

6
1.9 REFERENCES

Heath, S. (2000). Embedded Systems Design. Newness, Oxford.

Horowitz, P. and Hill, W. (1994). The Art of Electronics, 2nd edition. Cambridge,
New York.

Mathivanan, N. (2007). PC-Based Instrumentation: Concepts and Practice. Prentice-

Hall, New Delhi.

Storey, N. (1998). Electronics: A Systems Approach, 2nd edition. Prentice Hall,

Harlow.

Wilmshurst, T. (2007). Designing Embedded Systems with PIC Microcontrollers:

Principles and Applications. Newness, Amsterdam.

7
 2. POWER SUPPLIES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Almost every electronic circuit needs a DC power source to operate. The main
function of the power supply is to take the 220V AC (mains) supply voltage and
converts it to DC voltage or voltages that are required to power electronic
circuits. For most electronic applications the power supply needs to provide DC
voltages in the range of 5V for digital electronic circuits to about 80V (or more)
for large signal (or power) amplifiers, with currents from few milli-amperes to
about 5 or more amperes.
In some other applications such as operational amplifier circuits and power
amplifier circuits, the power supply needs to provide both positive and negative
voltages to enable both the positive and negative swings of the output voltages.
The latter is referred to as dual, dual-rail or split supply since it is providing both
positive and negative DC voltages while the former is called a single-rail supply
because it is only providing a single voltage, which can be either positive or
negative. The circuit for converting an AC supply to a DC supply involves three
main stages: the stepping-down of AC voltage, AC-to-DC conversion, and
voltage regulation as depicted in Figure 2.2.

220VRMS Stepping-down of ac AC-to-dc regulated

Voltage regulation output
input voltage conversion

Figure 2.1 Basic power supply stages

The incoming 220Vrms mains voltage is stepped-down to a smaller AC voltage,

before it is converted into a DC voltage. The DC voltage is then regulated to
produce a stable DC voltage. The AC-to-DC conversion stage involves two
8
processes: changing of AC to pulsating DC and smoothening pulsating DC to
produce a steady DC. This has resulted in AC-to-DC stage being divided into
two separate stages, namely rectification and filtering as shown in the following
diagram.

bc
a

b
a
c

d d

220VRMS Stepping-down Voltage regulated

Rectifier Filter output
input of ac voltage regulation

Figure 2.2 Power supply

2.2 STEPPING DOWN OF AC VOLTAGE

The stepping down of the incoming 220Vrms mains voltage to a smaller AC

voltage involves the use of a transformer as shown in Figure 2.3.

T1 T2
10TO1 10TO1CT

Vp Vs Vp Vs

(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 Transformers: (a) Normal, and (b) Centre-tapped transformer

The normal transformer, which gives out a single stepped-down output, whereas
a centre-tapped transformer gives out two stepped-down voltages of the same
magnitude. For a single-rail power supply the normal transformer is the best
candidate, but for dual or split supply the best transformer to use is the centre-
tapped in order to generate the two voltages required.

The transformer has two sets of coils: the primary at the input and the secondary
at the output. The primary consists, most of the time, of one coil and the
9
secondary can have one or more coils depending on the number of outputs
required. For example, if you are designing a power supply to provide fixed
positive, fixed negative, variable positive, and variable negative voltages, you
will need a transformer that will provide four voltages at it secondary; that is,
two centre-tapped coils on the secondary side of the transformer. The output
voltage of the transformer is determined by the number of turns in both primary
and the secondary or turns ratio of the transformer. That is,

VS N S
 (2.1a)
VP N P

NS
 VS  VP (2.1b)
NP

Thus, for the transformers shown in Figure 2.3 the output voltages at the
secondary of Figure 2.3a will be 22Vrms, whereas it will be two 22Vrms for the
centre-tapped transformer in Figure 2.3b, since the turns ratio NP:NS = 10:1 and
the input voltage is about 220Vrms.

2.3 AC-TO-DC CONVERSION

The function of this stage is to convert the output of the transformer, which is a
stepped-down AC voltage into a DC voltage. This is accomplished in two stages:
rectification and filtering (or smoothening). The first stage called the rectifier
converts the AC into a pulsating DC, which is a DC with an AC component, and
then the second stage called the filter removes the AC component of the
pulsating DC to produce a steady DC that has a value given by

V   2VD  = 0.637 VS ( pk )  1.4V 

2
Vdc  S pk  (2.2)


10
2.3.1 Rectification

A rectifier circuit called a full wave bridge rectifier is shown in Figure 2.4. It
consists of four diodes.

ac
~
ac ~ + +V
-V +V
ac ~ _ -V
~
ac

Figure 2.4 Full wave bridge rectifier: Discrete components, and monolithic

The way the full-wave bridge rectifier works is that only two parallel diodes are
conducting while the other parallel pair is off for each cycle. That is, during the
positive half-cycle diodes D2 and D3 are conducting while D1 and D4 are off and
for negative half-cycle diodes D1 and D4 are conducting while D2 and D3 are in
the off state. This results in a series of positive pulses across the output terminals
that has a peak amplitude of

Vo( pk )  VS ( pk )  2VD (2.3)

where Vs(pk) is the peak value across the secondary of the transformer and VD is
the volt drop across each diode. Since there are two diodes conducting per cycle,
these diodes are in series with the input AC voltage hence the volt drop
introduced by the rectifier is 2VD, which is 2.4V for silicon diodes. Before I leave
this topic of rectification, let me mention that bridge rectifiers are also available
in monolithic form.

2.3.2 Filtering

The output of the rectifier is a series of positive pulses, which is called pulsating
DC, not genuine DC as required. In order to get a genuine DC voltage, the
11
output of the rectifier is filtered or smoothened by a low pass filter to remove the
AC component. The most popular filter circuit used for smoothening is a
capacitor that is connected across the output of the rectifier. The action of the
capacitor filter depends upon the fact that the capacitor stores energy during the
conduction period and delivers it to the load during the non-conduction period.
The most commonly used capacitor is a polarized capacitor called electrolytic
capacitor and its value is chosen so that

1
Rload C  (2.4)
fr

where fr is the ripple frequency, which is twice the mains frequency (i.e. twice
50Hz in South Africa and Europe while it is twice 60Hz in America). This makes
the time constant for discharging to be longer than the time between recharging
thus ensuring small ripple. In most instances the value of the load is unknown
and it is only the value of the voltage and the current that are available. Using
the available information and the Ohms law, the value of the capacitor can be
determined using

I load
C (2.5)
f rVload

At this stage let us put together all the different stages of the power supply
covered so far into one circuit. This power supply is called the unregulated
power supply and is shown in Figure 2.5 for both single and dual-rail supplies,
respectively.

12
 S1 F1 Vo S2 F2 + Vo
T1 T2
+
C1a
D1 D2 1000uF
220Vac C1 220Vac
1000uF
C1b
+ 1000uF

- Vo

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5 Unregulated power supplies: (a) Single-rail, and (b) dual-rail (or split)

2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION

Though the output of the filter is a steady DC voltage, it is still having some
variations or ripples in it. For general applications this DC voltage is acceptable;
however, for other applications the voltage needs further processing to remove
the variations. This is accomplished by using a voltage regulator. These voltage
regulators are used in most of the power supplies to provide DC voltages that
are almost ripple-free. Regulators can be categorised into linear and switching
voltage regulators. Linear regulators are the most commonly used and can be
found in almost nearly every regulated power, while switching regulators are
used in DC-to-DC converters to step up or to convert the polarity of the input
voltage. The first regulators used discrete components such as Zener diodes and
power transistors to accomplish voltage regulation. However, nowadays
complete voltage regulators are available as inexpensive integrated circuits. The
availability of these IC or monolithic regulators has made the task of designing a
power supply simple and the power supply circuit to be more compact.

2.4.1 Linear Voltage Regulators

Linear voltage regulator operates by using a voltage-controlled current source to

force a fixed voltage to appear at the output. It has a built-in sense and control
feedback circuitry that senses the output voltage and adjusts the current source
so as to hold the output voltage constant.
13
The linear IC regulators come as positive and negative, fixed and variable, three-
terminal, four-terminal and five-terminal regulators with different voltage and
current ratings. The three-terminal regulators are the most commonly used and
they can be classified into fixed and variable regulators. For the regulator to
work properly the input voltage must be greater than the expected regulated
output and for many regulators there is a minimum difference between the two
voltages. This minimum difference is called the dropout voltage and for the
regulator to operate satisfactory the minimum input to an IC regulator must be
greater than or equals to the expected regulated output plus the dropout voltage.

2.4.1.1 Fixed Three-Terminal Regulators

Three-terminal regulators have three connections: input, output, and ground and
is factory-trimmed to provide a fixed output, which can either be positive or
negative. A typical example of a positive three-terminal regulator is the 78xx,
where the output voltage is specified by the last two digits of the part number
and can be any of the following: 05, 06, 08, 09, 10, 15, 18, or 24. The typical
example of a negative version is 79xx, which is almost the same as the 78xx series
except that it works with negative input DC voltage to produce a negative
output. Both the 78xx and 79xx series can provide up to 1A load current. Low-
power versions: 78Lxx and 79Lxx that can provide currents up to 100 mA to the
load, and higher-current versions 78xxCT and 79xxCT series can provide up to
1.5A load current are also available. Other 1.5A fixed positive regulators are
LT1086-3.3 for 3.3V, LT1086-5 for 5V and LT1086-12 for 12V.

The circuit for a fixed regulator is shown in Figure 2.6 that will provide a 5V at
100mA to the load. For the regulator to operate satisfactory the minimum input
must be 7V.

14
 78L05 Vo
Vin
IN OUT

COM

+
C1
1uF

Figure 2.6 Fixed 5 V regulator circuit

There are other three-terminal regulator variants, which are not as popular as
7800/7900 series, which have better performance in regards to volt drop from
unregulated input to regulated output (or dropout voltage). For an example, the
LP2950 is a fixed 5V regulator just like a 7805, but it regulates with a dropout
voltage of 0.4V, compared with 2V dropout for 7805. Furthermore, there are also
adjustable three-terminal regulators that can provide more current than 1.5A that
is provided by the LM317, LT1086 and LM337, and these are listed in Table 2.1
below.

Table 2.1 High current three-terminal regulators

Current (A) +3.3V +5V +12V

3 LT1085-3.3 LT1085-5 LT1085-12
5 LT1084-3.3 LT1084-5 LT1084-12
7.5 LT1083-5 LT1083-12

2.4.1.2 Adjustable Three-Terminal Voltage Regulators

Adjustable regulators are regulators that are designed in such a way that the user
can set the regulated output voltage using two resistors. This feature makes them
to be useful when designing variable power supplies. Typical examples of
adjustable regulators are LM317 and LT1086 for positive voltage, and LM337 for
negative voltage. Unlike the fixed regulators, the adjustable regulator has
adjustment (ADJ) terminal instead of the ground terminal. These 317, LT1086
and 337 can provide currents up to 1.5A to the load. The magnitude of the output
15
voltage can be set to any value between 1.25V and 37V using two additional
resistors: R1 and R2, as shown in Figure 2.7 below.

317 Vo
Vin
IN OUT

ADJ R1
240

+
C1
1uF
R2

Figure 2.7 Adjustable voltage regulator circuit

Resistor R1 is fixed at 240  for 317 and 337 (for other regulators please consult
the manufacturer data sheets) and R2 is adjustable to set the required output
voltage using the following equation

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2   I ADJ R2 (2.6)
 R1 

With Vref equals 1.25V and adjustment terminal current in the range of 50A to
100A, which is very small, thus making the product IADJR2 in Equation (2.6)
negligible small, the output can be rewritten as

 R 
Vo  1.251  2 V (2.7)
 R1 

Adjustable regulators are also available for higher voltages than 1.25V to 37V
provided by LM317; for example, TL783 which is capable of providing an output
from 1.25V to 125V at about 700mA and LR8 which is capable of providing an
out from 1.20 to 438V at about 30mA. Furthermore, there are also adjustable
three-terminal regulators that can provide more current than 1.5A that is
provided by the LM317, LT1086 and LM337, and these are listed in Table 2.2
below.

16
Table 2.2 High current adjustable three-terminal regulators

Current (A) Positive Adj. Regulator Negative Adj. Regulator

3 LM350, LT1085 LM333, LT1033,
5 LM338, LT1084
7.5 LT1083
10 LM396, LT1038

2.4.1.3 Lifting Regulator above Ground

The fixed regulators provide fixed voltages at only certain values, which are
standard. So if you want a regulated output, which is not standard, for example
9V, to emulate a battery you can use an adjustable regulator with R1 fixed at
240Ω and R2 set to 1.5k. Alternatively, you can still use the standard fixed
regulator with its common terminal lifted above ground by means of a Zener
diode that has Zener voltage equals to the required output minus the rated value
of the standard regulator. This is depicted in Figure 2.8 and it extends the output
voltage by an amount equals Zener voltage. That is,

Vo  VREG  VZ (2.8a)

For example, to get 9V from a 5V regulator you need to use 4V Zener diode to lift
the common of the regulator above ground. This makes the output of the circuit
to be the sum of the regulator voltage and the Zener voltage, which in this case is
5V + 4V = 9V. Additional to Zener diodes, normal diode(s) or a combination of
Zener and normal diodes can also be used to lift up the regulator; however,
when ordinary diodes are used, Equation (2.8a) changes from being the sum of
the regulator voltage and the Zener voltage to sum of the regulator voltage and
the diode’s volt drop (Vd), which is either 0.3V or 0.7 depending on whether it is
germanium or silicone. That is, for Figure 2.8b the output voltage is

17
 Vo  VREG  VD (2.8b)

And for Figure 2.8c the output voltage is

Vo  VREG  VZ  VD (2.8c)

7805 7805 7805 Vo

Vin Vo Vin Vo Vin
IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT

COM COM COM

Co Do Co Do Co Do
D1 D1
D1
D2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.8 Non-standard fixed voltage regulator (with regulator lifted above
ground using (a) Zener diode, (b) diode, (c) diode and a Zener)

2.4.1.4 External Capacitors and Protection Diodes

A 0.01F to 25F capacitor must be connected across the output, as shown in the
above circuits, to eliminate the high frequency noise at the output and to ensure
stability of the output voltage.
For adjustable regulators the adjustment terminal can be bypassed to ground
with a 10 F capacitor to improve ripple rejection by 15dB to obtain a total ripple
rejection of 80dB at the output.
A 0.1F input bypass capacitor is also recommended for adjustable regulators in
order to compensate for the problems that may arise due to the devices
sensitivity when adjustment or output capacitors are used.

For the adjustment terminal bypass capacitor and output capacitor it is

recommended that you include safety discharge diodes. These diodes provide
discharging paths for these capacitors in the event of the input or output being
shorted. This is very important especially for higher voltages in order to prevent
the capacitors from discharging through the regulator and damaging it in the
event of the input or output being short-circuited. This is shown if Figure 2.9,
18
where capacitor C1 is used to eliminate high frequency noise, diode D1 is used to
provide a discharging path for C1, and capacitor C2 is used to improve ripple-
rejection and diode D2 is used to provide the discharging path for C2.
D1

78L05 LM317
Vin Vo Vin Vo
IN OUT IN OUT
COM R1
+
C1
ADJ
240 D2
1uF D1 C3

+
C1
0.1uF R2 1uF

+
C2
10uF

Figure 2.9 External capacitors and safety discharge diodes for regulators

2.4.1.5 Electronic Shutdown

In other applications, such as electronic laboratories, which are used by first year
electronic learners who know very little about short circuits, the protection
diodes mentioned above are not enough to protect your power supply circuit.
These diodes only provide discharging paths when there is a short and do not
prevent the excessive current from damaging the regulator.

Electronic shutdown is a short circuit protection technique that is used to clamp

the adjustment terminal to ground when an excessive current (due to short
circuit) through the regulator is sensed. This is accomplished by sensing the load
current via the volt drop across resistor RS and switching on transistor Q1 when
the current exceeds the set limit. Once Q1 is turned on, it extends the input
voltage Vin to the base of Q2 thus making Q2 to be also on and as Q2 switches on,
adjustable terminal resistor R2 is shorted out and the output voltage drops to Vref,
which is 1.25V.

19
 D2

LM317
Vin Rs Vo
IN OUT

ADJ R1
240 D1
Q1
C1

+
R4
0.1uF C3
Q2 R2 10uF

+
C2
10uF

Figure 2.10 Regulator with electronic shutdown

2.4.1.6 Outboard-Pass Transistor for Current-Boosting

Most of the regulators covered can deliver a limited current to the load. This
current is sufficient for most applications. However, if you want a current that is
more than what the regulator can deliver, you will need to use an outboard pass
transistor, which is an external pass transistor that can be added to your normal
regulator circuit to provide the extra current. Figure 2.11 shows a circuit of a
regulator with an outboard pass transistor.

Q1

78L05
Vin IN OUT Vo
R1
COM
+

C1
1uF

Figure 2.11 Regulator with an outboard pass transistor

The circuit uses a 78L05, which is designed to deliver a current of 100 mA to the
load. The value of the series resistor R1 is chosen such that for current less than
the maximum rated current of the regulator, the volt drop across it is less than
0.7V in order to keep the outboard transistor Q1 in an off state. This will make the
regulator to work normal. For currents greater than the maximum rated current

20
(which is 100mA in this case), the volt drop across R1 becomes sufficient to turn
the outboard transistor on. When this happens, the current through the regulator
will be limited to the maximum rated current, while the additional current is
delivered to the load through the outboard pass transistor.

In some other applications, which need high load currents, one outboard
transistor is not sufficient to provide the required current, and in such cases,
multiple outboard pass transistors are used in parallel to deliver the required
high output load currents as shown in Figure 2.12.

Q3
R4
Q2
R3

Q1
R2
78L05
Vin IN OUT Vo
R1
COM
+

C1
1uF

Figure 2.12 Regulator with multiple outboard pass transistors

The operation of the circuit in Figure 2.12 is the same as that of Figure 2.11,
except that the additional current is shared amongst the three outboard
transistors instead of one. Resistors R2, R3, and R4 are included for stability and to
prevent current swamping.

The problem with the circuit in Figure 2.11 is that, instead of just providing an
additional path for current to pass through, it can amplify the maximum rated
current of the regulator to provide a load current that is equal to beta times the
maximum rated current of the regulator. This current can be high enough to
destroy both the transistor and the load. In order to avoid this from happening,
21
another transistor Q2 is connected across the base-emitter junction of the
outboard transistor as shown in the following Figure 2.13.

Rsc
Q1

Q2 78L05
Vin IN OUT Vo
R1
COM

+
C1
1uF

Figure 2.13 Regulator with an outboard pass transistor and current-limiting

circuit

This Q2 transistor limits the current through the outboard transistor so that it
does not exceed the stipulated value. This is accomplished by sensing the load
current via the volt drop across resistor Rsc and shorting out R1 when the current
causes the volt drop across base-emitter junction of Q2 to be 0.7V. When R1 is
shorted, the voltage that drives the outboard will be cut off thereby turning the
outboard pass transistor off. The values of the two resistors are given by

O.7V
R1  (2.9)
Max rated current of the regulator

O.7V
RSC  (2.10)
Re quired output current

Example 2.1: Design a power supply that will provide a fixed +9 V at 3 A and a
negative varying 18 V at 1.5 A using R1 = 240  for the negative regulator, and
LM78LS06, which is a 100 mA regulator, for the positive fixed voltage. Your
design must be such that the positive current that can be supplied to the load
does not exceed 3.1 A, the high frequency noise is eliminated on both outputs,
and the ripple rejection is 80 dB for the negative regulator.

Solution
The circuit of this power supply is shown above and its operation is as follows:

22
 Rsc
Q1

Q2 78LS06
IN OUT Vo
R
COM

+
C2
1uF

+
D1
T2 C1a D2
10TO1CT

ac
in D3

+
C1b

LM337 Vo
IN OUT

ADJ R1 D4
240
C3

+
0.1uF C5
R2 1uF

+
C4
10uF

Figure E2.1 Circuit for Example 2.1

The incoming 220 V AC is stepped-down by a centre-tapped transformer, T2

The stepped-down voltage is converted into a pulsating DC by a full-wave
bridge rectifier
The pulsating DC voltages are smoothened by capacitors C1a and C1b to give out
positive and negative steady DC voltages, respectively.

The positive voltage is fed into a LM78LS06, which is a 6V, 100mA regulator
In order to get 9V out, the common terminal is lifted above ground by means of a
Zener diode D2 that has Zener voltage equals to the required output minus the
rated value of the standard regulator. That is,

VO  VREG  VZ  VZ  VO  VREG  9V  6V  3V

This extends the voltage range by an amount equals Zener voltage.

In order to deliver more current to the load an outboard pass transistor Q1 is
added to the normal regulator circuit together with resistor R to provide the
extra current

23
The value of the series resistor R is chosen such that for current less than the
maximum rated current of the regulator, the volt drop across it is less than 0.7 V
in order to keep the outboard transistor Q1 in an off state. This will make the
regulator to work normal.
For currents greater than the maximum rated current (which is 100 mA in this
case), the volt drop across R becomes sufficient to turn the outboard transistor
on. When this happens, the current through the regulator will be limited to the
maximum rated current, while the additional current is delivered to the load
through the outboard pass transistor.
In order to avoid the current from exceeding 3.1 A, another transistor Q2 is
connected across the base-emitter junction of the outboard transistor Q1
This Q2 transistor limits the current through the outboard transistor so that it
does not exceed the stipulated value. This is accomplished by sensing the load
current via the volt drop across resistor Rsc and shorting out R when the current
causes the volt drop across base-emitter junction of Q2 to be 0.7 V.
When R is shorted, the voltage that drives the outboard will be cut off thereby
turning the outboard pass transistor off.
The values of the two resistors are given by

O.7V 0.7V
R    7
Max rated current of the ragulator 100 mA

O.7V 0.7V
RSC    0.233
Re quired output current 3A

Capacitor C2 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the negative output,

Diode D1 is used to provide a discharging path for C2,

The negative DC voltage is fed into an adjustable voltage regulator LM337

24
The magnitude of the output voltage is set using two resistors R1 and R2, where
resistor R1 is fixed at 240  and R2 is adjustable to set the required output voltage
using the following equation

 R   V   18V 
Vo  VREF 1  2 V  R2   O  1 R1    1  240   3.22k
 R1   VREF   1.25V 

Capacitor C5 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the negative output,

Diode D3 is used to provide a discharging path for C5,
Capacitor C4 is used to improve ripple-rejection to 80 dB
Diode D4 is used to provide the discharging path for C4.
A 0.1 F input bypass capacitor C3 is used to compensate for the problems that
may arise due to the devices sensitivity when adjustment or output capacitors
are used.

Example 2.2: Design a power supply that to meet the following specifications:
 Provide positive and negative varying 18V at 1.5 A (use R1 = 240),
 High frequency noise is eliminated on both outputs,
 The ripple rejection is 80 dB for both regulators, and
 An indication that the power supply is on

Solution
The circuit for the dual-rail power supply and its description is as follows:

25
 D5a

LM317 Out1
IN OUT

COM R3a
C2a 240 D4a
+
0.1uF C4a
+
R4a C3a 1uF
+
10uF
T1 C1a
D1 1000uF

220V
+ D5b
C1b
1000uF
LM337
Out2
IN OUT
R1 R3b
1k COM 240 D4b
C2b C4b
0.1uF 1uF
D2 +
LED1 R4b C3b
+ 10uF

Figure E2.2 Circuit for Example 2.2

The incoming 220 V AC is stepped-down by a centre-tapped transformer

The stepped-down voltage is converted into pulsating DC voltages by a full-
wave bridge rectifier.
The pulsating DC voltages are smoothened by capacitors C1a, and C1b to give
out a positive and a negative steady DC voltage, respectively.

The positive voltage is fed into an adjustable positive voltage regulator LM317,
while the negative voltage is fed into an adjustable negative voltage regulator
LM337.
The magnitude of each output voltage of both the adjustable regulators is set
using two resistors R3 and R4, where resistor R3 is fixed at 240  while R4 is
adjustable between 0 to give an output voltage that is variable from

 R2 min  
V  1.25V 1 
0 
Vomin   VREF 1     1.25V
 R1   240 
to

26
  R2 max 
Vo max  VREF 1  V  18V

 R1 
 V0max   18 
 R2max    1 R1    1  240 
 VREF   1.25 
 3.216k 

Capacitors C4a and C4b are used to eliminate high frequency noise at the
outputs.
Diodes D5a and D5b are used to provide discharging paths for capacitors C4a
and C4b, respectively.
Capacitor C3a and C3b are used to improve ripple-rejection of the adjustable
regulators from 65 dB to 80 dB.
Diodes D4a and D4b are used to provide discharging paths for capacitors C3a
and C3b, respectively.
The 0.1 F input bypass capacitors C2a and C2b are used to compensate for the
problems that may arise due to the devices sensitivity when adjustment or
output capacitors are used
LED1 is used to indicate when the power is switched on
Resistor R1 is used to limit the current through the LED

Example 2.3: Analyse the following circuit, and explain fully its operation and
what you perceive it to be or its function.

27
 Qo VoA

Ro

+
Co
9.3V Do

D2

Rs
0.47 VoB
LM317
R1
240 D1
Q1

+
C1a

+
T1 1000uF C2 R4
BRIDGE C4

+
0.1uF Q2 R2 2.7k C3 10uF
220V 10uF
ac
R5 D7 D8

VoC
79L06
R3
1k
C1b
1000uF D4 C5
D6
+

3.3V 10uF

+
D3
LED1 D5
7.1V

Figure E2.3 Example 2.3

Solution
Figure E2.3 is a split-supply and its operation is as follows:
The incoming 230 V AC is stepped-down by a centre-tapped transformer
The stepped-down voltages are converted into pulsating DC voltages by two
full-wave bridge rectifier.
The pulsating DC voltages are smoothened by capacitors C1a, and C1b to give
out a positive and a negative steady DC voltage, respectively.

The positive is fed into a voltage regulator that is formed by transistor Qo,
resistor Ro, Zener diode Do and capacitor Co.
The output VoA is given by

VoA  VZo  VBE  9.3  0.7 V  10V

28
Capacitor Co is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the positive output, and
it also helps to stabilize the output

The same positive voltage is also fed into an adjustable positive voltage regulator
LM317
The magnitude of the output voltage of the adjustable regulator is set using two
resistors R1 and R2, where resistor R1 is fixed at 240  while R2 is adjustable
between 0 and 2.7 k to give an output voltage that is variable from

 R2 min  
V  1.25V 1 
0 
Vomin   VREF 1     1.25V
 R1   240 
to
 R2 max 
V  1.25V 1 
2.7k 
Vomax  VREF 1     15.313V
 R1   240 

However, the reference voltage is dropped using the negative voltage, resistor R5
and two diodes D7 and D8. This results in a new reference voltage which is

VREF'  VD7  VD8  07  0.7V  1.4V

Therefore, output will vary from

Vomin  Vomin  VREF'  1.25V  1.4V  0.15V

to
Vomax  Vomax  VREF'  15.315V  1.4V  13.815V

Capacitor C4 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the adjustable positive

outputs.
Diode D2 is used to provide a discharging path for capacitor C4.
Capacitor C3 is used to improve ripple-rejection of the adjustable regulator from
65 dB to 80 dB.
29
Diodes D1 is used to provide the discharging path for capacitors C3

Transistors Q1 and Q2 together with sensing resistors Rs are used for electronic
shutdown, which is a short circuit protection technique that is used to clamp the
adjustment terminal to ground when an excessive current (due to short circuit)
through the regulator is sensed. This is accomplished by sensing the load current
via the volt drop across resistor RS and switching on transistor Q1 when the
current exceeds the set limit. Once Q1 is turned on it extends the input voltage Vin
to the base of Q2 thus making Q2 to also be on and as Q2 switches on, adjustable
terminal resistor R2 is shorted out and the output voltage drops to Vref, which is
1.25 V. The maximum current that will be allowed before shutdown will be

VBE 0.7V
I max    1.489 A
RS 0.47

A 0.1 F input bypass capacitor C2 is used to compensate for the problems that
may arise due to the devices sensitivity when adjustment or output capacitors
are used

The negative voltage is fed into a LM79L05, which is a negative 5V, 100mA
regulator.

The regulator is lifted above ground by two Zener diodes: D4 and D5

D4 is forward-biased and will act as a normal diode with a volt-drop of 0.7V
across it.
D5 is reverse-biased and will act as a Zener with a volt-drop of Vz = 7.1V across
it.
Thus the regulator will be lifted above ground by a value of

30
Therefore, the output will be

6V  7.8V  13.8V

Capacitor C5 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the positive output.

Diode D6 is used to provide a discharging path for C5.
LED1 is used to indicate when the power is switched on.
Resistor R3 is used to limit the current through the LED.

Example 2.4: Design a desktop power supply that can be used in a research and
development (R&D) electronic laboratory. The power supply must meet the
following specifications:
 Fixed positive and negative 5V at 1A
 Variable positive and negative 0 to 25V at 1.5A
 High frequency noise must be eliminated from all the outputs
 Electronic shutdown of the variable voltages when current in the excess of
1.55A has been detected.
 80dB ripple rejection for the variable outputs
 Visual indication for each output when the power supply is on

Solution
The circuit for the required power supply is shown in Figure E2.4, where
 The incoming 230 V AC is stepped-down by a transformer to four outputs:
2x8V and 2x30V.
 The stepped-down voltages are converted into pulsating DC voltages by two
full-wave bridge rectifiers: D1a and D1b.
 The pulsating DC voltages are smoothened by capacitors C1a, C1b, C1c and C1d
to give out two positive and two negative steady DC voltages, respectively.
 The LEDs (diode D2a through D2d) are for indicating when the power supply
is on
 Resistor Rd1 through Rd4 are for limiting the current through the LEDs

31
The smaller positive voltage is fed into a LM7805, which is a positive 5V, 1A
regulator to produce an output voltage of 5V at 1A.
 Capacitor Co1 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the positive 5V
output,
 Diode Do1 is used to provide a discharging path for C01,

The smaller negative voltage is fed into a LM7905, which is a negative 5V, 1A
regulator to produce an output voltage of -5V at 1A.
 Capacitor Co2 is used to eliminate high frequency noise at the positive 5V
output,
 Diode Do2 is used to provide a discharging path for C02,

The larger positive voltage is fed into an adjustable voltage regulator LM317,
while the larger negative DC voltage is fed into an adjustable voltage regulator
LM337.
 0.1 F input bypass capacitors C2a and C2b are used to compensate for the
problems that may arise due to the devices sensitivity when adjustment or
output capacitors are used
 The magnitude of the output voltage of each of the adjustable regulator is set
using two resistors R1 and R2, where resistor R1 is fixed at 240  while R2 is
adjustable to set the required output voltage using the following equation

 R   V   25V 
Vo  VREF 1  2 V  R2   O  1 R1    1  240   4.560 k
 R1   VREF   1.25V 

 Capacitors Co3 and Co4 are used to eliminate high frequency noise at the
adjustable positive and negative outputs, respectively,

32
 Diodes Do3 and D04 are used to provide a discharging path for capacitors Co3
and Co4, respectively
 Capacitors C3a and C3b are used to improve ripple-rejection of the adjustable
regulators from 65 dB to 80dB.
 Diodes D3a and D3b are used to provide the discharging path for capacitors C3a
and C3b, respectively.

Transistors Q1a (or Q1b) and Q2a (or Q2b) together with sensing resistors Rsc1 (or
Rsc2), are used for electronic shutdown, which is a short circuit protection
technique that is used to clamp the adjustment terminal to ground when an
excessive current (due to short circuit) through the regulator is sensed. This is
accomplished by sensing the load current via the volt drop across resistor Rsc1 (or
Rsc2) and switching on transistor Q1a (or Q1b) when the current exceeds the set
limit. Once Q1a (or Q1b) is turned on it extends the input voltage Vin to the base of
Q2a (or Q2b) thus making Q2a (or Q2b) to also be on and as Q2a (or Q2b) switches on,
the adjustable terminal resistor R2 is shorted out and the output voltage drops to
Vref, which is 1.25 V. In order to make sure that the shutdown occurs at 1.55A the
value of Rsc1 (or Rsc2) must be

VBE 0.7V
Rsc1  Rsc 2    0.452 
I s  Max  1.55 A

 To make the positive output to vary from 0V instead of Vref (1.25V) the
adjustable terminal is pulled down using a negative voltage together with
resistor R3a and diodes D4a and D5a.
 To make the negative output to vary from 0V instead of Vref (-1.25V) the
adjustable terminal is pulled down using a positive voltage together with
resistor R3b and diodes D4b and D5b.

33
 Since the diodes D4 and D5 also drop the output by 1.25V, we need to
compensate for that by adding 1.25V to the output voltage when calculating
the value of R2, that is,

 V   25V  1.25  
R2   O  1 R1a    1  240   5.280 k
 REF
V   1.25V 

7805 Vo1
IN OUT
Rd1

+
C1a 1k COM Do1 Co1
1000uF D2a
LED1

7905 Vo2
IN OUT
F1
S1 D1a Rd2
C1b 1k COM
8V Do2 Co2
+

1000uF D2b
8V LED1

220Vac Do3

30V LM317 Vo3

Rsc1
30V D1b IN OUT
R1a D3a
Rd3 COM
Q1a 240
1k
Rb1
+

C1c C2a R2a Co3

+

0.1uF C3a
1000uF 10uF
Q2a
D2c
LED1 D4a D5a
R3a

Do4

LM337 Vo4
Rsc2
IN OUT
R1b
Rd4 Q1b COM 240 D3b
1k
C1d Rb2
1000uF C2b R2b Co4
+

0.1uF
+

C3b
D2d Q2b 10uF
LED1

R3b D4b D5b

Figure E2.4 Desktop laboratory power supply for Example 2.4

34
2.4.1.7 Paralleling Regulators for Higher Current

As an alternative to the use of multiple outboard pass transistors for higher

current, two similar regulators can be connected in parallel to double the load
current or three similar regulators can be connected in parallel to triple the load
current. Figure 2.14 shows a circuit with two LM338 (5A) regulators, which are
connected in parallel. The load current is the sum of the currents delivered by the
two regulators, and since LM338 used is a 5A regulator the total current that can
be delivered by the circuit to the load is 10A, which is twice the current of each
regulator. The OPAMP ensures that the current is divided correctly between the
two regulator ICs.
R3 LM338
0.1
IN OUT

ADJ

R5
+ 2.7k

R4 LM338 Vo
0.1
Vin IN OUT 1.2V to 30 V
ADJ R1
120
C1
+

0.1uF C3
R2 10uF
2.7k

Figure 2.14 A 10A Regulator

2.4.1.8 Adjustable Voltage and Current Regulators

Additional to the adjustable voltage regulators covered above, there are also
some adjustable regulators where both voltage and current can be varied. A
typical example of such a regulator is L200.

L200 is a monolithic adjustable integrated circuit that is designed for both voltage
and current regulation; that is, regulator which is designed to produce an output

35
that is adjustable from 2.85V to 36V and adjustable current up to 2A. It also has
input voltage protection, short circuit protection and thermal overload
protection, which make the L200 to be virtually blow-out proof. A typical circuit
of adjustable voltage and current regulator circuit using L200 regulator is shown
in Figure 2.15.

R3

5
1 L200 2

3 4 R2
Vi C1 Co Vo
100nF
R1

Figure 2.15 Adjustable regulator using L200

The input voltage needs to be at least 2V higher than the desired output voltage
for the circuit work properly. The output voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2,
where R1 is usually fixed to a typical value of 820Ω. R3 is the current limiting
resistor that sets the output current. The output voltage and current are given by

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2 V (2.11)
 R1 
And
V52
Io  (2.12)
R3

Where V5-2 is the current limit sense voltage between Pins 5 and 2, which has a
typical value of 0.45V, and Vref is a reference voltage at Pin 4, which has a typical
value of 2.77V.

36
2.5 SWITCHING REGULATORS, DC VOLTAGE CONVERTERS
AND ISOLATED POWER SUPPLIES

The regulators covered so far are called linear regulators. Though they are easy
to use, their efficiency is not that good, whereas switching regulators have
efficiencies up to 95%. This has resulted in a shift in industry towards using
switching regulator technology in power supplies more than the linear
regulators. This shift can be attributed to the switching regulator’s efficient
transfer of power to the load. Furthermore, efficient power conversion extends
battery life, reduces heat, and allows for smaller gadgets to be built. However,
the high efficiency comes at the expense of complexity and of a little bit of output
noise compared to linear voltage regulators, which can be a challenge to
applications requiring low output noise. Thirdly, their response to input and
output changes is not as fast as that of linear regulators.

This switch-mode power conversion or switching regulator technology is used in

switch-mode power supplies (which are used mostly by computers), DC-to-DC
(or DC-DC) converters, and in isolated power supplies. Unlike their linear
regulators counterparts, switching regulators converts the input DC voltage to
pulses, which may be stepped up, inverted, or stepped down, and averaged to
provide a smooth DC. A basic switching regulator consists of a switching
regulator element (transistor: MOSFET, BJT or IGBT), a reference voltage
regulator, a voltage divider circuit, an error amplifier, and a control circuit (an
oscillator with a pulse-width modulator) as shown in Figure 2.16, where the
input can be derived either from a rectified AC or from any DC supply such as
battery, solar panel, etc. These components of switching regulator are usually
contained within an integrated circuit.

37
 vin Power vout
switch

Osc

PWM

Reference from regulated

regulator

Voltage Divider
output

Error Amp

Figure 2.16 Block diagram of a switching regulator

Switch-mode regulators have two fundamental modes of operation: continuous

conduction and discontinuous conduction. In continuous-conduction mode, the
inductor current includes a DC component proportional to the load. Operating in
continuous-conduction mode lowers the ratio of peak inductor current to DC-
load current. This, in turn, lowers the peak-to-peak ripple current and reduces
the core loss. In discontinuous conduction mode, the inductor current is allowed
to decay to zero during each off period, which causes the stored energy to be
transferred to the output filter during each switching cycle. (Maxim Integrated,
2021).

2.5.1 DC-to-DC Converters

A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit which takes a DC voltage and

converts its magnitude from one value to another value that is either lower or
higher, and sometimes from one polarity to another. There are various types of
DC-DC converters, such as those that step up (or boost) voltage, those that step
down (or buck), those that do both (buck-boost), those that invert (or change the
polarity), and those that offer isolated output.

38
  Boost DC-DC converter – this device changes the input DC voltage to a
higher DC value; that is, it steps up the input voltage, hence called boost
DC-DC converter.
 Buck DC-DC converter - this device produces a DC output that is less
than its input voltage; that is, it steps down the input voltage, hence its
name because it ’bucks’ against the input voltage.
 Buck-Boost DC-DC converter – this device can operate as a DC-DC step-
down converter or a DC-DC step-up converter depending upon the duty
cycle of the pulses from the control circuitry.
 Cuk – This type of converter is similar to buck-boost converters. The
biggest difference is really the name. The Cuk was named after Slobodan
Cuk, the man who created it.
 Charge-Pump – This converter is used for stepping the voltage up or
down in applications that have low power.
 Isolated DC-DC converter – this device has an output that is isolated
from the input. It provides a safer power source by preventing the input
voltage from being transmitted to the output in cases of internal failure.
Secondly, its higher isolation voltage properties make it to be able to also
block noise and interference.

Most of the DC-to-DC converters use switching regulator principle with building
blocks such as the oscillator with a pulse-width modulator, the switching
transistor (power MOSFET), the energy-storing device (inductor), feedback, and
smoothening capacitor, hence they are referred to as switching regulators. The
oscillator generates pulses at a frequency (fo) in the range of kilohertz to
megahertz. The generated frequency is further converted into pulse-width
modulated (PWM) signal with a period of

39
 1
T (2.13)
fo

And a duty cycle of

Ton
D (2.14)
T

Since the voltage used for modulating the width of the pulses is derived from the
voltage that is fed back from the output voltage together with the reference
voltage, the width of PWM pulses will be somewhat proportional to the feedback
voltage. Since the PWM is used to switch the transistor on and off, the on and off
durations of the transistor will also be proportional to the feedback voltage.

As the transistor goes into saturation it applies the input DC voltage across the

LI 2
energy-storing device for a short interval. During this period the energy ( ) is
2
stored in the energy-storing device and then the stored energy is transferred to
the capacitor at the output. The output capacitor is used to smoothen the output
and to carry the load between charging pulses. The feedback controls the output
by changing the oscillator’s pulse width or switching frequency in order to
regulate the output. The use of an energy storing device allows for the energy
stored by an inductor to be transformed to output voltages that can be greater
than the input (boost), negative (inverter), or can even be transferred through a
transformer to provide electrical isolation with respect to the input. Figure 2.17
shows the configurations for both step-up and polarity inversion. However,
complete voltage converters are available as integrated circuits.

40
 L1 D1
Vin Vo

Q1 R1
Osc

+
R2

Vref

(a)

Vin  Vo

L1 R1
Osc
Co

Vref R2

(b)

Figure 2.17 Configurations for (a) Step-up and (b) Polarity inversion switching
regulator

2.5.1.1 Boost converter

The boost converter is used where the required voltage is higher than the
available supply voltage. It is used to boost or step-up the available supply
voltage to the required higher value. Figure 2.17a depicts the configuration of a
step-up or boost converter; however; in most literature it is simplified as follows:

L D1 L D2
Vin Vout Vin Vout

Q1 Cout Q1 Cout
PWM PWM

Figure 2.18 Basic DC-DC boost converter

The high frequency pulses are applied to the gate of the MOSFET transistor,
these pulses will turn the MOSFET on and off. When the MOSFET is turned on, it
places a short circuit between the inductor and the negative terminal of the

41
supply, thus causing the current to flow from the positive terminal through the
inductor to the negative terminal of the supply, and resulting in the storage of
energy in the magnetic field of the inductor, L.

When the MOSFET switches off, the sudden drop in current causes the inductor
to produce back electromotive force (e.m.f.) in the opposite polarity to the
voltage that was initially across the inductor during the time the MOSFET was
on, in order to keep current flowing. The result will be two voltages across the
inductor: the supply voltage (Vin) and the back e.m.f. (Vemf), which are in series
with each other; that is, the voltage across the inductor during the MOSFET off-
state will be

VL  Vin  Vemf (2.15)

Since the MOSFET is off, this voltage will forward bias the diode causing current
to flow through the diode to charge the output capacitor (Cout) to a value that is a
little bit less than VL; that is, the voltage across the Cout will be

VCout  VL  VD (2.16)

where VD is the volt drop of the diode. The voltage across the output capacitor
will be the same as output voltage (Vout).
When the MOSFET is switched on again, it will place a short circuit between the
inductor and the negative terminal of the supply like before, and the whole
process will start over again, resulting in the charge on Cout being replenished
during each and every MOSFET off-state, and a steady output voltage that is
equal to the voltage across the output capacitor. Whenever the MOSFET switches
on, the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the supply,
thus turning the diode off (or reverse biasing it) to make the output side of the
circuit to be isolated from the input. The resultant voltage is directly proportional

42
to the input voltage and inversely proportional to the duty cycle (D) of the
waveform that is used to switch on and off the MOSFET; that is,

Vin
Vout   VD (2.17a)
1 D

And if we ignore the volt drop across the diode, VD, then the output voltage can
be approximated by

Vin
Vo  (2.17b)
1 D

Re-arranging, we get duty cycle

Vin
D  1 (2.18)
Vout

Now let us look at one of the commercial DC-DC boost converter IC, the LT8364,
which is a DC-DC converter with a 60V, 4A switch operating from a 2.8V to 60V
input, and a unique single feedback pin architecture that is capable of boost,
SEPIC or inverting configurations. It also has an external compensation pin to
allow optimization of loop bandwidth over a wide range of input and output
voltages and programmable switching frequencies between 300kHz and 2MHz.
The circuit for the boost converter is as shown in Figure 2.19 below. The output
voltage is set by the resistive voltage divider network formed by resistors R1 and
R2 from the output to the feedback (FBX) pin, and internal reference voltage of
1.60V for positive output or -0.80V for negative input using

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2  (2.19a)
 R1 

 R 
Vo  1.601  2  , for positive output (2.19b)
 R1 

43
  R 
Or Vo  0.801  2  , for negative output (2.19c)
 R1 

Where resistors R1 and R2 are usually in the range from 25kΩ to 1MΩ.

Figure 2.19 Boost converter using LT8364

The desired switching frequency for the PWM is programmed using resistor RT
that is connected between Rt pin and ground; that is,

51.2
RT   5.6 (2.20)
fo

where RT is in kΩ, and fo is the desired switching frequency in MHz.

Example 2.5: Determine the switching frequency and the output voltage for the
boost convert of Figure 2.19 above if the input voltage is a 9V battery.

Solution
Using Equation (2.20)

51.2
RT   5.6
fo
44
Therefore, the frequency in MHz is

51.2
fo 
RT  5.6
51.2

20  5.6
 2MHz

Using Equation (2.19a), the output is

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2 
 R1 
 1M 
 1.61  
 150 k 
 12.267V

And if we simulate the circuit on LTspice we get the following results. Where the
9V input is shown by a blue trace, whereas the output is shown by a green trace,
and from the simulation it can be seen that the results are the same as the value
calculated above.

Figure 2.20 Simulated results of the circuit in Figure 2.19

45
2.5.1.2 Buck converter

Buck converter steps down the input voltage to a lower output voltage. This is
accomplished by interchanging the positions of the inductor, diode and MOSFET
of the boost converter in Figure 2.21. That is, put the MOSFET in series with the
input voltage, the diode between the MOSFET output and the negative terminal
of the supply, and the inductor in series between the diode and the output
capacitor as shown below. The part of the circuit that is formed by the diode,
inductor and output capacitor is called a flywheel circuit.

Q1 L Q1 L
Vin Vout Vin Vout

PWM PWM
D2 Cout
D1 Cout

Figure 2.21 Basic DC-DC buck converter

The MOSFET is continuously switched on and off by a high frequency switching

waveform, which is usually a pulse-width modulated (PWM) waveform. When
the MOSFET is on, diode will be reverse biased or in an off state, and the current
will flow through the inductor to charge the output capacitor. Since the inductor
limits the charging current and the voltage across the capacitor does not rise
instantly, the voltage across the output capacitor will not reach the value of the
input voltage during the on time of the MOSFET. The current through the
inductor will also result in the storage of energy in the magnetic field of the
inductor. The voltage that will appear across the inductor will be

VL  Vin  VCout  Vin  Vout (2.21)

When the MOSFET switches off, the sudden drop in current causes the inductor
to use the stored energy to produce back e.m.f. in the opposite polarity to the
voltage that was there during the on period. This voltage is used to keep the
46
same current flowing during the off period. This voltage is allowed to charge the
capacitor and power the load through the diode during the off state, thus
maintaining the output current throughout the switching cycle. The resultant
output voltage will be

Vout  VCout  VL (2.22)

The overall effect of this is a relatively smooth voltage output with low ripple
and a DC level of

Ton
Vout  Vin
T (2.23)
 DVin

Which means by varying the duty cycle of the switching waveform, you can be
able to get an output between 0V and input voltage.

Now let us look at LM2596, which is a 60V, 3A, 150Hz step-down (buck)
switching regulator, which is capable of driving a 3A load with excellent line and
load regulation. It is available in fixed voltages of 3.3V, 5V, 12V, and also as
adjustable output version with an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.

(a) Fixed 5V output

47
 (b) Adjustable output

Figure 2.22 LM2596 Buck converter: (a) Fixed and (b) Adjustable

For the adjustable LM2596, the output is given by resistors R1 and R2, using
Equation (2.19a), where Vref = 1.23V, and R1 is between 1kΩ and 5kΩ. Capacitor
Cff has values from 1nF to 10nF.

2.5.1.3 Boost/Buck/Inverting switching regulators

These devices are monolithic switching regulator subsystems which contain the
primary circuitry needed for building DC-DC convertors; for example, internal
reference regulator, a comparator, an oscillator, a PWM controller, a driver, and a
switch, hence they are dubbed as switching regulator control circuits. The
subsystem reduces the number of additional external components required to
build boost, buck, and inverting DC-DC converter topologies, thus enabling the
easy design of switch-mode power supplies. Typical examples of these switching
regulator control circuits include MC33063, MC34063, and µA78S40.

Below are some of the typical application of MC33063 or MC34063 devices,

which include boost, buck and polarity inversion, respectively. These two

48
devices are similar, except for the operating temperature, which is -40 to 850C
and 0 to 700C, respectively. Output current is up to 1.5A, oscillator frequency is
up to 100kHz, and the supply voltage is 3V to 40V. The output voltage for all of
the three topologies is given by Equation (2.19a), where Vref is 1.25V for non-
inverting topologies and -1.25V for inverting topology.

(a) Boost converter

(b) Buck converter

49
 (c) Polarity inversion

Figure 2.23 Application of MC33063 for DC-DC conversion

The detailed design parameters for boost, buck and polarity inversion
configurations when utilising MC33063, MC34063 monolithic switching
regulator subsystems are tabulated in the following table. However, there are
also online calculators that are available on Internet which can also be used when
designing.

Table 2.3 Design parameters

Calculation Boost Buck Polarity Inversion

ton/toff Vout  VF  Vin min  Vout  VF Vout  VF
Vin min   Vsat Vin min   Vsat  Vout Vin  Vsat
ton + toff 1 1 1
T T T
f f f
toff T T T
t on t on t on
1 1 1
t off t off t off
ton T  t off T  t off T  t off
CT 4  10 5 t on 4  10 5 t on 4  10 5 t on
Ipk(switch) t  2I outmax t 
2 I outmax  on 1 2 I outmax  on 1
t  t 
 off   off 
50
 RSC 0.3 0.3 0.3
I pk switch  I pk switch  I pk switch 
L(min)  Vin min   Vsat    Vin min   Vsat  Vout    Vin min   Vsat  
 t onmax  t onmax  t onmax
 I   I   I 
 pk  switch    pk  switch    pk  switch  
CO I t I pk  switch T I t
9 out on 9 out on
Vripple pp  8Vripple pp  Vripple pp 

Where
Vsat = saturation voltage of the output switch (1V for step-down and 0.45V
for boost and polarity inversion)
VF = forward voltage drop of the chosen output rectifier (i.e., VD of your
diode, D1)
Vin = nominal input voltage (i.e., Vin)
Iout = desired output current
fmin = minimum desired output switching frequency at the selected values
of Vin and Iout
Vripple = desired peak-t-peak output ripple voltage

Example 2.6: Determine the output voltages for the DC-DC converters of Figure
2.23 and verify your results with LTspice simulations.

Solution
Using Equation (2.19a), the output voltage for boost converter is

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2 
 R1 
 47 k 
 1.251  
 2 .2 k 
 27.955V

Which is the same as the simulation results of Figure E2.5a

51
Using Equation (2.19a), the output voltage for buck converter is

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2 
 R1 
 10 k 
 1.251  
 2 .2 k 
 6.932V

Which is the same as the simulation results of Figure E2.5b

Using Equation (2.19a), the output voltage for polarity inversion converter is

 R 
Vo  Vref 1  2 
 R1 
 12k 
 1.251  
 1.4k 
 11.694V
Which is the same as the simulation results of Figure E2.5c

(a) Boost conveter: input (red) and output (blue)

52
 (b) Buck converter: input (red) and output (blue)

(c) Polarity inversion: input (red) and output (blue)

Figure E2.5 Simulation results for Figure 2.23

2.5.2 Isolated Power Supply

Galvanic isolation is required for many circuits that are found in medical systems
since there are transducers that are attached to the patient. Some of these circuits
also need to be powered by isolated power supplies.

53
In order to get an isolated power supply, you need to use an isolated output
voltage converter. Isolation eliminates any connections between the input and
the output ground and allows the output to float. Unlike ordinary DC-to-DC
voltage converter, an isolated output usually has a transformer to provide
isolation for the switching currents and an optical isolator to isolate the feedback
sensing voltage.

D1
Vo
L1
Vin

Q1 R1
Osc

+
Figure 2.24 Simplified isolated DC-to-DC converter

Some of the commercially available isolated DC/DC converters include A050S-

2W (5V input, ±5V, 2W output); A0509S-2W (5V input, ±9V, 2W output);
CRE1S0505SC (5V input, 5V, 1W output); RFB-0505S (5V input, 5V, 1W output);
RBE-0505S (5V input, 5V, 1W output); RFM-0505S (5V input, 5V, 1W output);
RFMM-0505S (5V input, 5V, 1W output); TBA 1-0521E (5V input, ±5V, 1W
output); NMA 5V input series: NMA0505 (±5V, 1W output), NMA0509 (±9V, 1W
output), NMA0512 (±12V, 1W output), NMA0515 (±15V, 1W output); 12V input
series: NMA1205 (±5V, 1W output), NMA1209 (±9V, 1W output), NMA1212
(±12V, 1W output), NMA1215 (±15V, 1W output), and 15V input series:
NMA1505 (±5V, 1W output), NMA1509 (±9V, 1W output), NMA1512 (±12V, 1W
output), NMA1515 (±15V, 1W output), etc. Almost all these aforementioned
devices provide 1kV DC isolation. Please note that some of these DC/DC
converters are regulated, while others are unregulated, which means if you need
a regulated output, you either need to buy the regulated DC/DC converter or

54
alternatively use the unregulated DC/DC converter together with regulators at
its output as shown in Example 2.7 below.

Example 2.7: Design an isolated DC supply that can be used to provide a

regulated ±5V (2W) dual-rail output for an EKG (ECG) amplifier.

Solution
The circuit for the required power supply is as follows:

U1 U2
7805 7805
+5V
F1 IN OUT IN OUT
1A T1 A0509S COM

+
R1 COM
1k C3 Co1
220Vac S1 D1 Vi +Vo 2.2uF 2.2uF

+
0V
+

C2 GND 0V
C1 -Vo

+
+
1000uF 4.7uF
D2 C4 Co2
LED1 2.2uF COM 2.2uF
-5V
IN OUT
U3
7905

Figure E2.5 Isolated and regulated 5 V split power supply

Where the incoming 220VAC is stepped down into a smaller AC voltage by a

stepdown transformer. The stepped down voltage is converted into a pulsating
DC using a full-wave bridge rectifier, D1. The pulsating DC is smoothened by
capacitor C1 to give a steady DC. The light emitting diode, D2, is used to give a
visual indication when the circuit is on, and the series resistor, R1, is used to limit
the current flowing through the D2. The steady DC is regulated by a positive
fixed regulator, 7805 regulator (U1), to produce the 5V nominal input voltage
required by the A0509S, which is an 2W isolated DC/DC converter that produces
a dual unregulated ±9V.

The positive 9V is regulated by a positive fixed regulator, 7805 (U2), to produce

the required +5V. Conversely, the negative 9V is regulated by a negative fixed
regulator, 7905 (U3), to produce the required -5V.

55
Capacitor Co1, which is connected across the positive output, is used to eliminate
high frequency noise and to stabilize the +5V output. Conversely, capacitor Co2,
which is connected across the negative output, is used to eliminate high
frequency noise and to stabilize the -5V output.

2.6 MISCELLENOUS POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS

Having discussed some of the building blocks of power supply, now let us look at some
of the complete power supply circuits that can be used to power electronic circuits and
systems. As you will notice the circuits include single-rail, dual-rail, isolated and
laboratory power supplies.
D3

LM317
Rs Vo
IN OUT
R1
ADJ 240 D4
Q1
C6 +
R4
0.1uF C4
Q2 R2 + 10uF
+ C5
C2 10uF
T2
10TO1CT
D5
ac
in
+
C3 LM337
Rs1 Vo
IN OUT
R6
ADJ 240 D6
Q3
C9
R5 C10
0.1uF 10uF
Q4 R3 C7 +
+ 10uF

Figure 2.25 Variable dual-rail supply with electronic shut down for short circuit
protection

For laboratory power supplies, it is sometimes preferred to have the adjustable

output starting from zero instead of 1.25V. This can be accomplished by
dropping the adjustable terminal using two silicone diodes and an opposite
polarity voltage as shown in Figure 2.26a below.

56
 7806
Vo1
IN OUT
Rd Co1
COM D4
1k

+
C1a
1000uF
D3
LED1

D5

F1 LM317
S1 D1 Vo2
IN OUT
R1a
COM D6
240
Co2

220 Vac C2a

+
0.1uF Rv C3a

+
10uF
C1b
D2 1000uF R2
100k
D7 D8
D9
C1c

+
1000uF
LM337 Vo3
IN OUT
R1b D10
COM 240
Co3
C2b
0.1uF

+
Rv1 C3b
10uF
D11 D12
R4
100k

Figure 2.26a Laboratory power supply with a fixed 6V, and adjustable positive
and negative outputs that are varying from 0V

Where Vo1 is a fixed +6 V, whereas Vo2 and Vo3 are positive and negative variable
outputs, respectively, which are adjustable from 0V upwards. Resistors R2 and R4
are connected in series with the two diodes so as to prevent the input voltage
from being dropped to a magnitude of about 2VD (or 1.4V) by the two silicone
diodes.

Another modified version of the laboratory power supply is shown in Figure

2.26b below where electronic shutdown is included to protect the power supply
in the event of its outputs being short-circuited. This power supply provides
positive fixed 5V and positive and negative variable outputs.

57
 7805 Vo1
IN OUT
F1 Rd1

+
S1 D1 C1a 1k COM D6 Co1
1000uF D3
8V LED1

220Vac D7

18V LM317 Vo2

Rsc1
18V D2 IN OUT
R1a D8
Rd2 COM
240
1k Q1
Rb1

+
C1b C2a Rv1 Co3

+
0.1uF C3a
1000uF
Q2 10uF
D4
LED1

D9

LM337 Vo3
Rsc2
IN OUT
R1b
Rd3 COM D10
Q3 240
1k
Rb2
C1c
1000uF C2b Rv2 Co4

+
0.1uF
+

C3b
D5 Q4 10uF
LED1

Figure 2.26b Laboratory power supply with a fixed 5V, and adjustable positive
and negative outputs

2.7 DC-TO-AC INVERTERS

Though this topic is not going to be covered in much detail it is still believed that
the coverage of power supplies would not be complete without the mentioning
of inverters.

Assume that you are having a 12V car battery or a solar panel and you want to
play a TV that can only use 220V AC (or 120V). An inverter, which changes DC
to AC, can be a solution. The process of DC to AC voltage inversion is
accomplished by first changing DC to AC using a 50Hz oscillator and then
stepping up the generated AC signal to 220V AC voltage. In order to meet the

58
power requirements of the inverter, the stepping up is usually preceded by
current boosting using transistors (BJT and/or FET).

Inverters can be categorized into three basic types: square wave, modified sine
wave, and pure sine wave DC-to-AC inverters. Square wave inverters are the
simplest, cheapest, and low power quality of the three, followed by modified
sine wave inverters. Both the square wave and the modified square wave
inverters provide square wave outputs; however, the difference between them is
that the square wave inverter provides a normal square wave while the modified
sine wave inverter provides a square wave with some dead spots between the
half cycles. The sine wave inverter, on the other hand, provides a sine wave with
low total harmonic distortion and it is more expensive than the other two
inverter types. Figure 2.27 shows the three output waveforms that are used to
categorize inverters: square wave, modified sine wave, and pure sine wave.

Figure 2.27 Square, Modified sine, and Pure sine waves (Doucet et al., 2007)

The DC-to-AC inversion process is depicted in the following diagram, where the
low-frequency oscillator is responsible for generating the required line frequency
of 50Hz (or 60Hz) which is usually a square wave. The output of the oscillator is
amplified in order to get higher currents before it is applied to a step-up
transformer for stepping up the generated low AC voltage to 220V (or 120V).
59
 vi ( dc ) 50 Hz
Amplifier
Filter Step-up
vo ( ac )
Oscillator (optional) Transformer
220V

Figure 2.28 Block diagram of a DC to AC inverter

The 50Hz oscillator for generating the AC from a 12VDC source is usually an
astable multivibrator. The most commonly used astable multivibrator circuits
include the circuits shown in Figure 2.29, which use transistors, 555 timer, or
CD4047 CMOS IC.

12V 12V 12V

R1 8 4 C 4 5 6 14
Rc R Rc 1
R 7 10 Q
C C 2 555 3 Vo
Q Q R2
6 2
1 5 R 4047
3 11 Q
7 8 9 12
C 10nF

Figure 2.29 Astable multivibrator circuits

Where the frequency of oscillation is determined as follows:

For transistor-based astable multivibrator

1
fo  (2.24)
1.38 RC

For 555 timer-based astable multivibrator

1
fo  (2.25)
0.7R1  2 R2 C

For CD4047-based astable multivibrator

60
 1
fo  (2.26)
4.4 RC

The 4047-based oscillator is the most preferred out of the three due to the fact
that it generates two complementary pure square waves with a 50% duty cycles
and it also provides a stable output frequency. Figure 2.30 below shows some
typical circuits of 12V DC to 220V AC inverters.

12V
F1

C 4 5 6 14
RB
1 10 Q1
2 T1

4047 220Vac
R
RB
11 Q2
3
7 8 9 12

(a)
12V
F1

C 4 5 6 14
RB Q1
1 10
2 T1

4047 220Vac
R
RB
11
3 Q2
7 8 9 12

(b)

12V
F1

C 4 5 6 14
RB
1 10 Q1
2 T1

4047 220Vac
R
RB
11 Q2
3
7 8 9 12

(c)

Figure 2.30 Typical Inverter circuits based on CD4047 multivibrator

61
The CD4047 astable multivibrator generates the required 50Hz square wave. R
and C set the 50Hz oscillation frequency using Equation (2.15), transistors Q1
and Q2 amplify the current of the generated complimentary waveforms, hence
they need to be power transistors (2N3055, 2N4240, 2N6277, BD245, BD743,
BUD522, CJD3439, IRF540/1/2/3, IRF4905, IRF5210, IRF9520/30/31/32/33/40,
IRFZ44, MJ3001, MJ13333, TIP120/1/2, TIP140/1/2, TIP150/1/2) with adequate
heatsinking. Resistors RBs prevent the loading of the CD4047 by the respective
transistors and they are usually in the range of 220Ω to about 1kΩ. When Pin 10
is high, Pin 11 is low, Q1 is on and Q2 is off, thus current will flow through the
upper half of the transformer primary which accounts for the positive half-cycle
of the output voltage. Conversely, when Pin 11 is high Pin 10 is low, Q2 is on and
Q1 is off, thus current will flow through the lower half of the transformer
primary which accounts for the negative half-cycle of the output voltage.

The output of the inverters shown in Figure 2.29 is a square wave. For sinusoidal
outputs the output needs to be tuned or filtered to remove high frequency
components that constitute the resultant square wave output. This is usually
accomplished by including an LC network that will resonate at 50Hz either in
series with the primary or across the secondary of the stepping up output
transformer. To reduce the high frequency components in the resultant
waveform a capacitor is usually connected across the secondary of the stepping
up output transformer as shown in Figure 2.31. However, the inclusion of the
capacitor(s) drops the efficiency of the inverter.

62
 12V
F1

C 4 5 6 14
RB Q1
1 10
2 T1

4047 C1 C2 220Vac
R 2.2uF 0.1uF
RB
11
3 Q2
7 8 9 12

Figure 2.31 DC to AC inverter with output capacitors to remove high frequency

components of the square wave

2.8 CURRENT REGULATION

Before the topic on power supplies is closed, let me introduce current regulation,
which is used to provide constant current regardless of voltage. Current
regulation can be accomplished by using current regulator ICs such as LT3092,
LM134, LM234 and LM334, or adjustable voltage IC regulators as shown in
Figure 2.32 below.

LM334 Vin LM317 Vo

Vin Vo Rs
V+ V- IN OUT

R COM
Rset Co
Ci Co Ci
47uF 47uF
0.1uF 0.1uF

Figure 2.32 Current regulators

For current regulators LM134, LM234 and LM334, the total current through the
regulator (ISET) is the sum of the current going through the SET resistor (IR) and
the bias current (IBIAS). This current is usually approximated by

VR 67.7mV
Io   (2.27)
Rset Rset

For adjustable voltage regulator, the current is given by

Vref 1.25V
Io   (2.28)
Rs Rs

63
Typical applications of constant current source include transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS), which is the use of constant low direct current to stimulate
the brain. The constant DC current of up to about 2mA is used in tDCS to either
increase or decrease the neuronal excitability in a specific area of the brain being
stimulated, thus resulting in the brain functioning being altered. For example,
the following circuit shows a tDCS circuit with for current settings: 0.7mA, 1mA,
2mA and 2.66mA using adjustable voltage regulator LM317, four resistors and
Equation (2.28). Switch SW2 is used to select one out of the four currents.

R2 0.7mA
1.8k
R3 1mA
F1 1.2k
SW1 1A LM317 2mA ANODE
R4
IN OUT
600 SW2
R1 COM 2.66mA
1k R4
+
Vs 9V 470
C1
100nF
D1
LED1 C2
470uF
CAT HODE

Figure 2.33 tDCS circuit

2.9 SINGLE CHIP POWER SUPPLY

Single chip power supply is all-in-one monolithic off line DC power supply that
converts AC line voltage to a regulated DC voltage. Unlike conventional DC
power supply, which consists of different stages as depicted in Figures 2.1 and
2.2, single chip power supply uses a single chip to convert mains voltage directly
to regulated DC voltage.

A typical example of a single chip power supply is the HV-2405E (HV3-2405),

which directly converts an AC input voltage in the range of 15Vrms to 275Vrms
to a regulated DC output voltage of 5V to 24V, at an output current of up to
50mA. This can come handy in instances where an electronic circuit or system,
which operates from DC needs to be powered off the LV grid.

64
2.10 NOTES

 The transformer used must be able to deliver the required current(s) and
voltage(s)
 The rectifier diodes (or bridge rectifier) must be able to passing the high peak
current
 Adequate heatsinking must be provided for regulators and outboard pass
transistors, and if your high current power supply is built into a case, it is
recommended that an extractor fan must be used for adequate cooling.
 The polarity and the voltage rating of the capacitors must be correct since
wrong polarity or exceeded voltage rating can result in the capacitor blowing.
 For the linear regulator to operate satisfactory the minimum input voltage to
an IC regulator must be greater than or equals to the expected regulated
output plus the dropout voltage. If an outboard pass transistor is used, the
input voltage must exceed the output voltage by the dropout voltage of the
regulator plus a VBE drop.
 Use a positive regulator with a positive input and a negative regulator with a
negative input.
 Make sure that the protection diodes are connected correctly (that is, they are
reverse biased), to avoid shorting out the device to which they are connected
across or the output.
 For variable voltage regulators, always add about ±1.3V to the required
output if you are going to use diodes to drop the Vref from 1.25V to 0V,
otherwise your output will be about 1.3V less than the required output.
 Though CD4047 can work with 12V, it is advisable to connect a current
limiting resistor of about 330Ω in series before you connect 12V to the CD4047
IC as shown below.

65
 12V

R1
330

C
4 5 6 14
1 Q
10

2 4047
R
11 Q
3
7 8 9 12

Figure 2.34 CD4047 Astable multivibrator circuit showing the current limiting
resistor R1

2.11 PRACTICAL WORK

Now that we have covered the power supply theory let us do some practical
work. First using simulation packages and thereafter building the circuit on a
breadboard.

2.11.1 Stepping Down

First let us look at the transformer, which forms the first stage of a AC to DC
power supply.

Figure P2.1 Voltage transformation

66
V2 is the mains (220V, 50Hz sine wave), inductor L1 (1000µH) and L2 (100µH) are
two inductors that are mutually coupled (k = 1) to form a transformer, and
resistor R2 and ground are required by LTspice to perform the simulation, which
may not be required by other simulators. R2 and ground are also not required
when building the circuit on a breadboard. If you simulate the circuit you will
get the following results:

(a) 220Vac Input

(b) Stepped down AC voltage

(c) Input (green) and output (blue)

Figure P2.2 Transformer input and output

Results:
From the plots above it is clear (especially in Figure P2.2c) that the transformer
reduces the amplitude of the mains from 220V to a smaller value of about 22V;
that is, it steps down the 220VAC to about 22VAC.

67
2.11.2 AC-to-DC Conversion

Now that the 220V input has been stepped down, let us move to the next step,
which is the conversion of the stepped down AC voltage into a steady DC
voltage. It has been discussed in the preceding theory that AC-to-DC conversion
involves two steps: rectification and filtering. Let us look at these two steps,
starting with rectification and thereafter filtering.

Rectification

Let us connect a full wave bridge rectifier, which consists of four diodes, namely
D1 through D4, and observe from the waveforms how these four diodes interact
with the stepped down AC voltage.

Figure P2.3 Rectification

The following plots are results at points A, B and at the output of the bridge
rectifier:

(a) Output due to D2 and D4

68
 (b) Output due to D1 and D3

(c) Combined outputs: D1 and D3 green, and D2 and D4 blue

(d) Pulsating DC

Figure P2.4 Rectification process and resultant waveforms

Results:
Comparing the two waveforms at points A and B, it is noticeable that there is a
phase difference between the two waveforms, and in Figure P2.4c it is clear that
the peaks are 180 degrees out of phase. This is due to the fact that only two
diodes are conducting during each half-cycle. The final output at the rectifier is
the sum of the two waveforms, which is a pulsating DC and not a steady DC that
can be used to power electronic circuits and systems.

Filtering

Now to complete AC-to-DC conversion let us see how we can move from
pulsating DC to a steady DC that can be used to power electronic circuit and

69
systems. Figure P2.5a shows a circuit with a capacitor, C1, connected across the
output of the bridge rectifier, the capacitor is used for smoothening the pulsating
DC of Figure P2.4d that results from the rectification process. During this
filtering or smoothening process we will use different values of the smoothening
capacitors starting with a smaller value of 1µF, then move 10µF, to 100µF and
finally to 1000µF. This is done in order to see the effects of the size of the
smoothening capacitor on the filtering of the pulsating DC.

(a)

(b) C1 = 1µF

(c) C1 = 10µF

(d) C1 = 100µF

70
 (e) C1 = 1000µF

Figure P2.5 Filtering: (a) Circuit, and (b) – (e) Resultant waveforms for different
capacitor values.

Results:
From the plots in Figures P2.5b through P2.5e it is evident that larger values of
filtering capacitor yield better performance than the smaller values; that is,
1000µF capacitor will produce a steadier DC than 100µF, 100µF will produce
better results than 10µF, and 10µF will be better than 1µF capacitor. Hence for all
the power supply designs that are in this book a 1000µF capacitor will be used
for smoothening.

2.11.3 On/Off Indicator

A good power supply design usually includes an illumined indicator to show

whether the power supply is on or off. This includes using a neon lamp,
illuminated switch, or a light emitted diode (LED) as shown in Figure P2.5a.
However, it can also be noticed in Figure P2.5a that the LED is connected in
series with a resistor R1, the question is why? Well to answer this question we are
going to experiment with a resistor not connected present and with resistor
present, on both cases we are going to look at the current through the LED and
output voltage. First we are going to start with resistor present (as in Figure
P2.5a) and then go to the one without the series resistor (as in Figure P2.6a).

71
 (a) With series resistor

(b) Circuit without series resistor

(c) Without series resistor

Figure P2.6 Effects of series resistor on the current and voltage

Results:
From the current and voltage readings on both Figures P2.6a and Figure 2.6c it
can be seen than without the resistor the voltage drops to round about 1.05V
(depending on the LED used) and the current (in blue) is high compared to when
there is a resistor. This implies that the resistor performs two functions: (1) it
helps to keep the voltage from dropping to the Vd of the LED, and (2) it helps to
limit the current through the LED.

72
2.11.4 Regulation

Though the voltage in Figure P2.5e seems to be a steadier voltage, for other
applications it is still not enough, hence there is still a need for regulation to
make sure that voltage ripples are reduced to a minimal level. First we will start
experimenting with the fixed regulator and thereafter the adjustable.
Unfortunately, LTspice library does not have the usual LM78xx (fixed) and
LM317 (adjustable), so we are going to use LT1085-5 or LT1117-5 instead of
LM7805 fixed regulator, and LT1086 instead of LM317 adjustable regulator.

Fixed regulators

So we are going to take the output of the filter, which is depicted in Figure P2.5e
and feed it into a fixed 5V (LT1117-5) and see what are we going to get out.

(a) Circuit

(b) Regulated output

73
 (c) Input (blue) and output (green)

Figure P2.7 Fixed 5V regulator: Circuit, and output

Results:
From Figures P2.7b and P2.7c it can be seen that the regulator has dropped the
input voltage to 5V, and the resultant output is ripple-free.

Now that we have seen the functioning of the regulator let us see how we can
use the same 5V regulator to produce another voltage that is greater than 5V; for
example, let say we want 13V to charge a battery. In theory it has been suggested
that we can lift the regulators using diodes (normal silicone and/or Zener) so let
us experiment with the combination of a Zener and a normal silicon diode.

(a)

74
 (b)
Figure P2.8 Lifting the regulator: (a) Circuit, (b) Output voltage

In Figure P2.8 the regulator is lifted above ground using a Silone diode (1N914)
and a 7.5V Zener (UDZ7_5B) to give out an output voltage of

Vo  VRe g  Vd  VZ  5V  0.7V  7.5V  13.2V

as shown in Figure P2.8b.

Adjustable regulator
Now to complete our experiments let us look at the adjustable regulator.
Remember, it has been said that adjustable regulator uses two external resistors
to set the output voltage, where one is fixed while the other can be either fixed or
variable depending on whether you want a fixed or a variable output. Here we
are going to experiment with LT1086 instead of LM317, the resistor between
output and adjustable input is fixed at 120Ω and for the resistor that is used to
vary the output voltage we are going to look at three scenarios: (1) very small
resistance (close to zero Ohms, which is 0.001Ω), (2) 1.5kΩ, and (3) very high
resistance (1MΩ).

75
 (a)

(b) R4 = 0.001Ω

(c) R4 = 1kΩ

(d) R4 = 1MΩ

Figure P2.9 Adjustable regulator using various values of adjustable resistor

76
Results:
Results reveal that for low values of adjustable resistor (R4 in this case) the
output is also low and for very high values of adjustable resistor the output
voltage is also high. There are two special cases that exist in adjustable regulator:
(1) when the adjustable resistor is zero, and (2) when the output voltage is
getting closer or is greater than the input voltage. Remember, from theory it was
said that the output voltage for an adjustable regulator is set by the two resistors
such that

 R 
Vo  VRe f 1  4 
 R3 

For VRef = 1.25V, R3 = 120Ω and R4 = 0 we will get the output voltage of

 0 
Vo  1.25V 1    1.25V
 120 

as you see in Figure P2.9b. For R4 that is very high, like the 1MΩ we have used in
our experiment the output is supposed to be

 1  10 6 
Vo  1.25V 1    10.418 kV
 120 

which is far greater than the input voltage, now if we look at what we got from
our circuit as shown in Figure P2.9d, the output is almost the same as the input,
and it is not regulated; that is, it has ripples like before it was fed into the
regulator (see Figure P2.5e). This means that for a regulator to work properly, the
input must be greater than the required output, and the margin is determined by
the dropout voltage of the regulator that varies between 1V and 2V. Now with
this in mind let us see if this circuit will still be able to perform (i.e., give a

77
regulated output) up to the input (18V) minus dropout (1V), which is 17V. For
us to get 17V output, the value of R4 must be

 V   17 
R4   o  1 R3    1  120  1.512 k
V   1.25 
 Re f 

Nota bene: We have chosen a margin of 1V because the regulator (LT1086) that
we are using is a low dropout regulator with a dropout voltage of 1V. So let
simulate and see the results. First let us start with 1.512kΩ and thereafter use a
value that is a little bit above 1.512kΩ; for example, 1.612kΩ.

(a)

(b) R4 = 1.512kΩ

(c) R4 = 1.612kΩ

Figure P2.10 Regulator dropout voltage testing

78
Results:
From results shown in Figures P2.9b, P2.9c and P2.10 it can be seen that for
outputs that are less than or equal to input minus dropout voltage the regulator
is still able to regulate the voltage (see Figure P2.10b); however, once we go
above this threshold, the regulator loses its ability to regulate as seen in Figures
P2.9d and P2.10c where now the ripples start to resurface.

Lastly, let us experiment with a dual or split variable output power supply. First
we look at the output when the variable resistors, R2a and R2b, are at their
minimum (i.e., 0.001Ω ≈ 0Ω) and when the resistors are adjusted to 1.5kΩ.

(a) Circuit

(b) Positive output (green) and negative output (blue) with R2 = 0.001Ω ≈ 0Ω

79
 (c) Positive output (green) and negative output (blue) with R2 = 1.5kΩ
Figure P2.11 Dual or split variable output power supply

Results:
Results reveal that for low values of adjustable resistors the outputs are also low,
and as we increase the value of adjustable resistors the output voltage also
increases. For R2 = 0.001Ω ≈ 0Ω, the value of the positive output voltage is
+1.248V, while the negative output voltage is -1.248V, which are close the rated
values of ±1.25V. Similarly, with R2 = 1.5kΩ, the value of the positive output
voltage is +9.16V, while the negative output voltage is -8.97V, which are close the
calculated values, which is as follows for both positive and negative outputs

 1.5  10 3 
Vo  1.25V 1    9.063V
 240 

2.12 REFERENCES

Analog Devices (2017). LT8364 Low IQ Boost/SEPIC/Inverting Converter with

4A, 60V Switch [online]. Available from:
https://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-
sheets/8364f.pdf [December 2020].

Baddi, R. Improved Astable Multivibrator [online]. Available from:

http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1201/1201.1819.pdf [March 2014].

Boylestad, R. and Nashelsky, L. (2009). Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 10th
edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

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Circuit-Zone (2014). AC/DC inverters [online]. Available from: http://circuit-
zone.com/?cat=AC_DC_Inverters [February 2014].

Coates, E. (2013). Power supplies [online]. Available from: https://learnabout-

electronics.org/Downloads/Switched%20Mode%20Power%20Supplies%20Mod
ule%203.pdf [December 2020].

Doucet J., Eggleston, D. and Shaw, J. (2007). DC/AC Pure Sine Wave Invertor
[online]. Available from: http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-
project-042507-092653/unrestricted/MQP_D_1_2.pdf [January 2014].

Horowitz, P. and Hill, W. (1994). The Art of Electronics, 2nd edition. Cambridge,
New York.

Hubner, J. (2018). The DC-DC Boost Converter – Power Supply Design Tutorial
Section 5-1 [online]. Available from:
https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/the-DC-DC-boost-converter-power-
supply-design-tutorial-section-5-1/ [March 2020].

Ibrahim, K.F. (1994). Electronic Systems and Techniques, 2nd edition. Longman
Scientific and Technical, Essex.

Martín Antonio Rodríguez Licea, Francisco Javier Perez Pinal, Alejandro Israel
Barranco Gutiérrez, Carlos Alonso Herrera Ramírez, and Jose Cruz Nuñez Perez
(2018). Buck-Boost Converter: Unified Model and Robust Controller.
Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Vol. 2018, pp. 1-8.

Linear Technology Corporation (1988). LT1086 series [online]. Available from:

https://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-
sheets/1086ffs.pdf [May 2020].

81
Linear Technology Corporation (1991). LM134 series Constant Current Source
and Temperature Sensor [online]. Available from:
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/datasheet/134sfc.pdf [May 2014].

Linear Technology Corporation (1993). LT1117/LT1117-2.85

LT1117-3.3/LT1117-5 [online]. Available from:

https://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-
sheets/1117fd.pdf [May 2020].

Linear Technology Corporation (2009). LT3092 200mA 2-Terminal Programmable

Current Source [online]. Available from:
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/datasheet/3092fb.pdf [May 2014].

Mathews, T. Switching Regulators Demystified. National Semiconductors.

Maxim Integrated (2021). Regulator Topologies for Battery-Powered Systems.

Application Note (AN660) [online]. Available from:
https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-
documents/tutorials/6/660.html [March 2021].

Millman, J. and Grabel, A. (1986). Micro-electronics, 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill,

New York.

Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., and Robbins, W.P. (1995). Power Electronics. John
Wiley & Sons, INC., New York.

Newport Components. Product data disk.

On Semiconductors (2013). Theory and Applications of the MC34063 and

µA78S40 Switching Regulator Control Circuits. Application Note – AN920/D
[online]. Available from: https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/AN920-
D.PDF [December 2020].

82
On Semiconductors (2019). LM2596 3.0 A, Step-Down Switching Regulator
[online]. Available from: https://www.onsemi.com/pdf/datasheet/lm2596-
d.pdf [December 2020].

Palmer, M. The ABC of DC to AC inverters – AN 222 Application Note [online].

Available from:
http://www.wiringcircuit.com/uploads/soft/130710/1_1220453611.pdf [March
2014].

Shafi Sekander and Mahmoud Harmouch (2007). Application of the MC34063

Switching Regulator. Application Report: SLVA252B–September 2006–Revised
November 2007.

SGS-Thomson Microelectronics (1995). A Designer’s Guide to the L200 Voltage

Regulator, Application Note.

SGS-Thomson Microelectronics (1994). LM138/238/338 Three-Terminal 5-A

Adjustable Voltage Regulators Datasheet.

Simpson, S. Linear and Switching Voltage Regulator Fundamentals. National

Semiconductors.

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83
84
 INDEX
142, 143, 144, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
2
161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
2G/GSM ..........................................................537 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175,176, 177, 178,
4 180, 181, 183, 190, 193, 194, 198, 199, 205,
208, 209, 210, 217, 221, 224, 228, 229, 242,
4G ... ...............................................................537 243, 259, 294, 295, 316, 318, 319, 321, 323,
4IR .......................................................... 429, 519 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 331, 332, 339, 340,
5 356, 357, 359, 375, 378, 380, 381, 384, 385,
390, 391, 397, 398, 402, 403, 407, 409, 410,
555 Timer.......................... 59, 386, 387, 406, 407 411, 412, 414, 415, 416, 418, 428, 432, 445,
5G …………………………….... 529, 537, 543, 545, 547 446, 447, 448, 449, 451, 453, 454, 457, 458,
6 460, 463, 465, 467, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473,
474, 484, 485, 495, 496, 506, 512, 513, 514,
6LoWPAN ................................................ 536, 537 515, 551
A Amplifier efficiency .........................454, 460, 463
Amplifiers
Absorption ratio ..................................... 299, 300
ac amplifier ..... ..137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 194,
ac amplifier ..... 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 194, 199
199
Acoustic actuators ..........................................277
AC amplifier ...... 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 194,
Acoustic sensor ...............................................257
199, 329
Acoustic sensors .............................................257
Differential amplifier ....... 121, 122, 135, 136,
Active filter ............................................. 210, 221
166, 169, 190, 193, 194, 319, 324, 325,
Active filters ............................................ 210, 221
326, 327, 506, 571, 572
Active peak detector .............................. 161, 162
Differentiator ............ 165, 166, 205, 206, 207
Actuation ........................................................534
Instrumentation amplifier....... 323, 324, 325,
Actuator ..... 4, 256, 277, 278, 279, 283, 308, 309,
326, 327, 328, 572
315, 316, 332, 359, 430, 445, 522, 533, 563
Integrator .. 133, 134, 135, 184, 187, 189, 190,
Acoustic actuator .......................................277
401, 402, 407, 409, 412, 415, 416, 424,
Acoustic actuators .....................................277
425, 426
Light actuator.............................................278
Inverting amplifier ... 125, 126, 127, 128, 133,
Light actuators ...........................................278
136, 141, 142, 162, 165, 170, 171, 172,
Motion actuator................................. 278, 279
173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 194, 229, 243,
Motion actuators ............................... 278, 279
323, 324, 325, 326, 331, 339, 397
Temperature actuator ...............................277
Logarithmic amplifier .........................162, 163
Temperature actuators ..............................277
Noninverting amplifier …. 125, 126, 127, 128,
ADC ......... 262, 298, 331, 359, 361, 362, 432, 436
136, 141, 142, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176,
Adjustable regulator .... 14, 15, 16, 17, 25, 26, 28,
177, 194, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329, 339,
31, 32, 34, 35, 72, 74, 76
397
Air muscle .......................................................282
Operational amplifier .... 7, 107, 121, 122, 163,
Alcohol sensor ................................................271
164, 327, 428, 432
Aliasing ............................... 2, 217, 238, 244, 516
Summer.... 129, 130, 131, 132, 153, 180, 181,
ALU ......................................................... 432, 433
182, 183, 229, 243, 331, 359, 403, 407
Amplifier ... 7, 34, 36, 54, 83, 107, 121, 122, 123,
Summing amplifier .............................129, 130
124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
Transimpedance amplifier .............298, 300
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
85
 Unity follower ............................................398 384, 402, 409, 410, 412, 414, 418, 420, 421,
Unity gain ................... 124, 229, 243, 404, 412 473, 555, 571
Voltage-follower ....................... 128, 318, 324 Broker .............................................538, 539, 540
Amplify ...... 20, 61, 125, 136, 159, 293, 294, 295, BSF .................. 211, 212, 213, 214, 230, 231, 246
317, 318, 319, 324, 326, 447, 472, 473 Buck ..... 37, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 80, 82
Amplifying...... 121, 221, 316, 324, 375, 390, 418, Buffer . 3, 128, 131, 132, 160, 161, 173, 176, 287,
446, 447, 448, 449, 483 323, 332, 333, 334, 403, 404, 407, 410, 412
Analogue-to-digital convertor (ADC) ..... 2, 3, 262, Butterworth filter ................... 236, 238, 244, 252
331, 359, 432, 436
C
Analytics ......... 519, 521, 523, 531, 534, 544, 547
Architecture ..... 42, 432, 434, 441, 442, 443, 526, Capacitance pressure sensor ......................... 265
527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 538, 540, CCVS .....................................................298, 321
542, 543, 544, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550 Characteristics ... 2, 84, 89, 92, 99, 210, 221, 236,
Armstrong ....................................... 376, 391, 393 301, 308, 336, 355, 395, 451, 452, 454, 456,
Armstrong oscillator ............................... 376, 393 459, 462, 489, 547, 583, 589
Artificial ........................ 282, 519, 523, 526, 547 Chebyshev filter ......................................236, 250
Artificial muscle .............................................282 Circuit efficiency ............. 460, 463, 467, 468, 469
Astable ..... 59, 61, 65, 79, 82, 376, 386, 387, 388, Clapp ............................... 376, 391, 392, 393, 397
406 Clapp oscillator .......................................392, 393
Astable multivibrator .................. 59, 65, 387, 388 Class A amplifier ..................... 448, 449, 458, 463
Atmospheric noise .................................. 487, 498 Class B amplifier..............................463, 464, 515
Attenuation ... 1, 2, 121, 211, 214, 253, 316, 332, Class C amplifier..............................469, 470, 471
379, 380, 385, 551 Closed-loop gain ............................................ 123
Attenuation factor .......................... 379, 380, 385 Closed-loop operation ................................... 169
Attenuator .............................................. 173, 551 Cloud ....... 519, 522, 523, 526, 528, 529, 530, 538
CMOS ................ 59, 388, 400, 401, 409, 413, 415
B
CMOS level......................................400, 401, 415
Band pass filter ...............................................218 CMRR .............................. 166, 169, 324, 326, 327
Band reject .....................................................214 Coloured noise ............................................... 489
Band stop filter ...............................................245 Colpitts ............................................376, 391, 397
Bessel filter ............................................. 240, 251 Colpitts oscillator ........................................... 391
Biomedical sensors .........................................309 Common ground impedance ..................500, 510
BJT . 36, 58, 94, 95, 100, 121, 122, 336, 337, 344, Communication . 1, 2, 4, 149, 164, 210, 216, 219,
348, 375, 390, 391, 557, 580, 586 240, 242, 245, 268, 311, 351, 374, 390, 394,
Blockchain.......................................................529 408, 438, 471, 486, 489, 493, 498, 511, 512,
Bluetooth ........ 308, 313, 428, 441, 442, 533, 536 517, 519, 522, 528, 530, 532, 534, 535, 536,
Boost..... vii, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 49, 542, 546, 548, 549, 560
50, 51, 79, 80, 82, 138, 445, 446 Comparator ..... 47, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150,
BPF . 211, 212, 213, 214, 218, 225, 226, 227, 230, 152, 153, 154, 156, 169, 199, 200, 201, 202,
231, 235, 240, 246, 247 204, 205, 287, 307, 340, 341, 342, 349, 350,
Break-a-beam ...xii, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 291, 382, 399, 400, 401, 402, 409, 411, 412, 415,
342 416, 424, 425, 426
Breakdown ..................................... 116, 451, 474 Computing ..... 311, 433, 443, 517, 519, 521, 523,
Breakdown voltage ......................... 116, 451, 474 528, 529, 546, 547, 549
Bridge ...... 10, 22, 25, 27, 30, 54, 64, 67, 69, 156, Cloud computing ................................528, 529
309, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 340, 343, Mobile edge computing ............................ 529
344, 345, 348, 371, 373, 376, 378, 379, 383, Conditioning stage ...................... 1, 2, 3, 298, 359
Connectivity .... 521, 526, 529, 531, 534, 535, 537
86
Constant current source ...................................63 Data ...... 15, 79, 80, 81, 138, 257, 263, 307, 313,
Continuous level sensors ................................266 316, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 440, 519, 520,
Control ..... 1, 3, 12, 36, 38, 47, 81, 85, 88, 89, 90, 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 529, 531, 534, 536,
92, 93, 94, 96, 104, 107, 111, 117, 118, 123, 537, 538, 539, 541, 544, 547
125, 135, 143, 163, 256, 262, 270, 275, 279, Data analytics .............................519, 523, 544
280, 281, 284, 285, 297, 304, 308, 329, 333, Data collection ...................................520, 534
348, 351, 355, 366, 367, 368, 375, 390, 394, Data presentation ..................................... 534
395, 398, 432, 433, 436, 503, 508, 517, 519, Data storage ....................... 521, 523, 529, 534
520, 522, 523, 524, 525, 529, 532, 534, 543, dc offset ...... .. 129, 189, 190, 198, 331, 402, 403,
545, 549, 563, 579, 583 413, 500
Controlled sources . 221, 237, 321, 322, 323, 324, DC voltage converters ..................................... 53
331, 356, 558 DC-DC converter ....................... 37, 38, 42, 47, 50
Controlling ...... 93, 107, 108, 282, 285, 334, 428, Decibel .... 214, 448, 493, 494, 495, 498, 551, 553
522, 523, 524, 582 Deoxygenated ................................................ 295
Cooling ..... 64, 100, 101, 102, 116, 117, 154, 474, Deoxyhemoglobin .......................................... 296
587 Derating ..........................................102, 103, 104
Forced air cooling .............................. 100, 101 Detection ...... 149, 150, 262, 271, 273, 276, 288,
Liquid cooling ............................. 100, 101, 102 290, 304, 305, 307, 354, 524, 560, 563, 580,
Natural convection air cooling ........... 100, 101 584
Coupling . 1, 3, 138, 139, 283, 307, 337, 354, 395, Detector 151, 161, 162, 259, 284, 289, 290, 304,
445, 458, 499, 500, 502, 503, 505, 507, 508, 306, 307, 308, 424, 428, 491, 492, 584
510, 578, 579, 583, 584 Detectors ...... 144, 204, 217, 258, 259, 283, 284,
CPU ................................................. 432, 433, 436 288, 302, 303, 304, 305, 315, 372
Cross-over distortion .............. 465, 479, 480, 515 Device management ...............................532, 533
Crosstalk ................................................. 499, 503 DIAC .............................. 83, 92, 93, 105, 109, 119
Crystal oscillator ............................. 376, 395, 397 Differential amplifier ..... 121, 122, 135, 136, 166,
Current enhancement ....................................338 169, 190, 193, 194, 319, 324, 325, 326, 327,
Current regulation ...................................... 34, 62 506
Current regulator ........................................ 35, 62 Differentiator .................. 165, 166, 205, 206, 207
Current source .................... 12, 63, 158, 159, 334 Digital temperature sensor ............................ 263
Current-controlled voltage source .................321 Digital-to-analogue convertor (DAC) .....129, 132,
Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) 133, 357, 359, 360, 432, 436
................................... 298, 321, 356, 364, 365 Diodes .... 4, 26, 30, 54, 70, 71, 83, 84, 91, 92, 93,
Current-to-voltage .................................. 309, 364 97, 107, 108, 154, 156, 157, 165, 278, 284,
Current-to-voltage conversion ............... 309, 364 286, 287, 288, 289, 293, 295, 306, 337, 338,
Cut-off.... 124, 136, 138, 140, 167, 169, 198, 212, 342, 349, 350, 355, 356, 357, 583
213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 220, 222, 224, 225, Flyback diode .............................................. 97
227, 228, 230, 232, 233, 238, 240, 241, 242, Light emitting diode . 4, 54, 107, 165, 278, 563
243, 244, 245, 252, 286, 287, 289, 294, 296, Photodiode ...... 263, 264, 297, 298, 301, 337,
298, 328, 345, 451, 463, 470, 506 355, 491, 583
Cut-off frequency .. 124, 138, 167, 169, 198, 212, Schottky diode .......................................83, 84
213, 214, 216, 218, 222, 224, 225, 227, 228, Shockley diode .......................................92, 93
232, 233, 238, 240, 241, 243, 244, 294, 296, Zener diode ..... 12, 16, 17, 22, 27, 29, 99, 159,
298, 328 160, 404, 415
Distortion ...... .. 58, 123, 180, 451, 465, 470, 471,
D
484, 486, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 518
DAC ......... 129, 132, 133, 357, 359, 360, 432, 436 Cross-over distortion ......... 465, 479, 480, 515
Gain distortion .......................................... 512
87
 Harmonic distortion .... 58, 471, 512, 513, 514, Band stop filter . 214, 220, 228, 229, 242, 243,
515 245
Phase distortion .........................................511 Bessel filter ........................................240, 251
THD ............................................................513 BPF ... 211, 212, 213, 214, 218, 225, 226, 227,
Total harmonic distortion ............ 58, 513, 514 230, 231, 235, 240, 246, 247, 296, 298,
DTMF decoder ................................ 350, 351, 352 300
Dual-rail supply ................. 55, 140, 169, 195, 199 BSF ............. 211, 212, 213, 214, 230, 231, 246
Butterworth filter ............... 236, 238, 244, 252
E
Chebyshev filter .................................236, 250
Efficiency xvi, 36, 61, 84, 264, 321, 446, 447, 449, Elliptic filter ............................................... 236
453, 454, 457, 458, 460, 463, 464, 466, 467, Filter parameters ...................................... 215
468, 469, 470, 474, 524, 533, 537, 579 LC filter ...............................................216, 221
Electromagnetic interference .........................498 Low pass filter ..... 11, 107, 211, 216, 218, 220,
Electronic shutdown ........... 18, 19, 29, 30, 32, 56 221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 228, 229, 230,
Elliptic filter.....................................................236 238, 240, 243, 244, 294, 298, 328, 329,
Embedded processor .............................. 519, 522 357, 389, 473, 505, 516, 555
Embedded software ............................... 429, 525 LPF .... 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 224, 225, 227,
embedded system software ...........................431 228, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237, 238, 239,
Embedded systems 428, 429, 431, 432, 436, 438, 240, 243, 245, 246, 298, 558
439, 441, 522, 525, 526, 533 Notch ................................. 211, 229, 296, 505
EMI ........................................... 96, 498, 508, 517 Passive filter .......................................210, 221
Excess noise ....................................................492 RC filter ......................................216, 221, 222
External noise ................................. 487, 505, 506 Fixed regulator .......................... 13, 14, 16, 54, 72
Extra-terrestrial noise .....................................487 Flammable liquids .......................................... 271
Extrinsic noise .................................................487 Flicker noise ............................................487, 492
F Flyback diode ................................................... 97
Forced air cooling ...................................100, 101
Feedback Fuel cell ...................................................269, 272
Negative feedback ..... 123, 124, 143, 378, 389 Function generator . 375, 394, 408, 409, 410, 413
Positive feedback ...... 145, 148, 169, 199, 205,
375, 378, 389 G
Filter parameters ............................................215 Gain distortion ............................................... 512
Filtering ....... . 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 67, 68, 69, 70, 121, Galactic noise ................................................. 487
210, 211, 298, 316, 432, 505, 555 Galvanic .................. 2, 52, 91, 354, 357, 504, 579
Filters ...... 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 61, 67, 70, 72, 107, Gas sensors .....................................271, 272, 309
121, 124, 136, 138, 140, 167, 169, 198, 210, Gateway .......................... 527, 528, 529, 530, 535
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, Generator ........... 5, 375, 394, 408, 409, 410, 413
220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, GPRS ....................................... 428, 442, 526, 537
229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, Ground loop .................... 499, 501, 502, 508, 579
239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, Ground loop noise .......................................... 502
250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 285, 286, 287, 289, Ground loops .......... 499, 501, 502, 503, 508, 579
294, 302, 316, 328, 329, 345, 357, 389, 432, GTO .............................................................89, 95
445, 451, 463, 473, 505, 507, 511, 512, 516,
H
555, 556, 558
Active filter ........................................ 210, 221 Harmonic distortion .. 58, 471, 512, 513, 514, 515
Active filters ...............................................210 Harmonics ............... 219, 470, 471, 512, 513, 514
Band pass filter . 211, 213, 214, 218, 219, 223, Hartley ............................................376, 391, 392
224, 227, 240, 294, 298, 329, 506 Hartley oscillator............................................ 392

88
HbO2............................................... 295, 297, 298 Inverting amplifier . 125, 126, 127, 128, 133, 136,
H-bridge .................. 343, 344, 345, 348, 371, 373 141, 142, 162, 165, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176,
Heat sink ......... 100, 101, 102, 103, 116, 159, 474 177, 194, 229, 243, 323, 324, 325, 326, 331,
Heatsink .................................................. 103, 159 339, 397
Hemoglobin ....................................................295 IoT .. 256, 429, 431, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 525,
HHb ................................................. 296, 297, 298 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534,
High pass filter (HPF) ..... 211, 213, 217, 218, 220, 535, 536, 537, 538, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545,
222, 223, 224, 227, 228, 229, 230, 240, 242, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550
294, 298, 328, 329, 389, 445 IoT applications ..................................534, 549
HPF 211, 212, 213, 217, 224, 225, 227, 228, 230, IoT architecture .. ...... 526, 527, 528, 529, 530,
231, 232, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242 531, 533
Humidity ................. 263, 270, 271, 311, 312, 525 IoT applications.......................................534, 549
Humidity sensors .................................... 270, 271 IoT architecture ..... 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531,
533
I
IoT Protocols
IC temperature sensor .................... 258, 261, 269 AMQP .................................................538, 540
IEE802.16 ........................................................537 CoAP ........................... 538, 539, 543, 545, 547
IEEE802.11 ......................................................537 DDS ....................................................538, 540
IEEE802.15 ......................................................536 HTTP .......................................................... 538
IEEE802.15.4 ...................................................536 HTTPS ........................................................ 538
IGBT ….. 36, 95, 96, 116, 119, 332, 336, 337, 348, MQTT .........................................538, 539, 540
361, 368, 582 XMPP ..................................................538, 541
industrial noise ...............................................487 IR …… 61, 62, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290,
Infrared .. 1, 61, 62, 258, 262, 283, 284, 285, 286, 291, 292, 293, 300, 303, 312, 314, 315, 563,
287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 297, 299, 584
300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 312, 314, IR receiver … 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289,
315, 342, 343, 536, 560, 561, 563, 564, 566, 290, 291, 293
578, 584, 586 IR transmitter .... 284, 285, 287, 288, 290, 291,
Instrumentation amplifier ..... 324, 325, 326, 327, 292, 293, 584
328 IR receiver ...... 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290,
Insulated gate bipolar transistor ......................95 291, 293
Integrator ...... 133, 134, 135, 184, 187, 189, 190, IR transmitter....... ..284, 285, 287, 288, 290, 291,
401, 402, 407, 409, 412, 415, 416, 424, 425, 292, 293, 584
426 IrDA ................................................................ 536
Interfacing … 1, 3, 255, 307, 308, 309, 315, 316, ISO...........................................................530, 531
332, 343, 350, 352, 360, 366, 367, 368, 372, Isolated power supply ..................................... 53
428, 430, 441, 521, 589 Isolation ... 1, 2, 38, 39, 52, 53, 92, 108, 128, 221,
Interfacing stage .................................................3 275, 309, 316, 324, 332, 335, 337, 354, 355,
Interference ..... … 2, 38, 107, 221, 242, 245, 253, 356, 357, 445, 486, 497, 517, 579, 580, 582
285, 296, 298, 324, 354, 357, 474, 486, 497, ITU .................. 520, 530, 531, 535, 545, 546, 550
498, 499, 503, 504, 505, 506, 518, 534, 579, ITU-T ...............................................520, 530, 546
580
L
Internal noise .......................................... 487, 499
Internet of things .. 429, 519, 521, 541, 543, 545, LC …. 61, 87, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 375, 376,
546, 548, 549, 550 390, 391, 395, 471, 555
Interoperability ....... 527, 528, 530, 533, 546, 547 LC filter....................................................216, 221
Interrupt ................................. 430, 436, 437, 443 LC oscillator.....................................376, 390, 391
Intrinsic noise .................................................487 LDR ................................. 151, 152, 263, 264, 317
89
LED 4, 26, 30, 70, 71, 91, 107, 108, 154, 156, 157, Microchip ...... 208, 311, 369, 428, 430, 431, 432,
165, 278, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 293, 295, 433, 436, 438, 440, 441
297, 298, 301, 306, 337, 338, 342, 349, 350, Microcontroller ...... 107, 133, 295, 297, 310, 311,
355, 356, 357, 440, 561, 564, 565, 567, 578, 312, 322, 348, 351, 428, 431, 432, 440, 442,
580, 583, 584, 586 517, 526
Level sensors ..................................................266 Microphone ... 130, 138, 257, 317, 329, 330, 370,
Level-shifting .......................... 331, 360, 361, 362 371
LiFi ..................................................................536 Microprocessor ....... 107, 348, 428, 431, 432, 436
Light Moisture ................... xii, 270, 273, 274, 307, 525
Infrared ..... 284, 286, 289, 297, 299, 306, 343, Monitor .. 150, 164, 256, 274, 295, 310, 342, 343,
560, 563, 578 348, 358, 519, 534
IR ….. 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 293, Monitoring ..... 276, 284, 288, 291, 292, 296, 302,
300, 563, 584 307, 341, 348, 522, 523, 524, 525, 534, 536
Ultraviolet .................................. 560, 562, 566 Motor ..... 93, 94, 96, 98, 104, 107, 278, 279, 280,
UV ...................................................... 561, 562 310, 336, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348
Visible ................................ 284, 560, 561, 562 Gear ...........................................279, 280, 281
Light actuators ................................................278 Geared ...................................................... 280
Light emitting diode ..... 4, 54, 107, 165, 278, 563 Gearmotors ........................................279, 280
Light sensors ........................................... 257, 263 Servo .................. 279, 280, 281, 355, 356, 583
Linear opto-coupler ........................ 355, 357, 583 Servos.................................................280, 281
Linear potentiometer .....................................267 Stepper...................... 279, 280, 281, 348, 428
Linear regulator .................................... 12, 36, 64 Vibration ............................................279, 310
Liquid cooling.................................. 100, 101, 102 Multiplexing ........................................4, 129, 358
Load cell .................................................. 265, 317 Multiplexor .................................................... 358
Load line .. 96, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 456, 458,
N
459, 460, 461, 462, 464
LOC ................................................. 355, 370, 583 Natural convection air cooling ................100, 101
Logarithmic amplifier ............................. 162, 163 Negative feedback .......... 123, 124, 143, 378, 389
LoraWAN ........................................................537 NF …… 168, 493, 494, 495
Low pass filter .. 11, 107, 211, 216, 217, 218, 220, Noise .... 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, 31, 36, 38,
221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 228, 229, 230, 238, 55, 84, 101, 102, 136, 148, 149, 150, 168,
240, 243, 244, 294, 298, 328, 329, 357, 389, 190, 192, 193, 194, 199, 205, 209, 217, 254,
473, 505, 516, 555 264, 269, 274, 275, 298, 319, 325, 327, 329,
LPF ...... . 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 224, 225, 227, 354, 356, 371, 372, 427, 474, 486, 487, 488,
228, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 489, 490, 491,492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497,
243, 245, 246, 298, 558 498, 499, 500, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507,
LTE ..................................................................537 508, 510, 517, 518, 579, 580, 586
LVDT................................................................267 Atmospheric noise .............................487, 498
LVDTs ..............................................................267 Coloured noise .......................................... 489
Excess noise .............................................. 492
M
External noise ............................487, 505, 506
M2H ................................................................519 Extra-terrestrial noise ............................... 487
M2M ...............................................................519 Extrinsic noise ........................................... 487
Magnetic field .... 41, 45, 221, 273, 282, 284, 305, Flicker noise .......................................487, 492
503, 508 Galactic noise ............................................ 487
MAN................................................ 439, 535, 537 Ground loop noise ..................................... 502
Man-made noise.............................................486 Internal noise .....................................487, 499
Intrinsic noise ............................................ 487
90
 Man-made noise ........................................486 224, 228, 229, 242, 243, 294, 295, 321, 324,
NF …………………………………. 168, 493, 494, 495 327, 329, 340, 346, 356, 357, 375, 378, 381,
Noise current .............................................490 385, 389, 391, 397, 398, 402, 403, 407, 409,
Noise factor ...............................................494 410, 411, 412, 414, 415, 416, 449, 458, 460,
Noise figure ........................ 493, 494, 495, 496 463, 484, 485, 572
Noise floor ......................................... 274, 497 Open-loop gain ....................... 121, 123, 167, 169
Noise margin ..............................................498 Open-loop operation ..............................123, 143
Noise pickups ..................................... 504, 508 Operational amplifier .... 121, 122, 163, 327, 428,
Noise power ....... 168, 489, 490, 493, 494, 495 432
Noise ratio ................................. 493, 494, 497 Opto-coupler .... 3, 156, 157, 335, 337, 338, 354,
Noise sources ..................... 192, 487, 489, 507 355, 357, 361, 365, 366, 371, 578, 579, 580,
Noise voltage .... 148, 149, 150, 489, 490, 504, 582, 583, 587, 589
507, 508 Opto-coupling ................................................ 337
NR .............................................................494 Opto-isolator ...... 3, 91, 107, 108, 113, 115, 154,
Partition noise............................ 487, 492, 506 156, 157, 332, 335, 336, 337, 338, 340, 349,
Pink noise ...................................................492 350, 361, 366, 367, 578, 579, 580
Short noise ......................................... 491, 492 Opto-Thyristors................................................ 91
Signal-to-noise ratio ...................................493 Opto-Triac ........................................................ 91
SNR............................. 493, 494, 495, 497, 507 Oscillators ... 4, 36, 38, 39, 47, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60,
Space noise ................................................487 61, 65, 79, 82, 87, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221,
White noise ........................................ 489, 490 302, 305, 306, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379,
Noise current ..................................................490 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388,
Noise factor ....................................................494 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397,
Noise figure ............................ 493, 494, 495, 496 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 406, 408, 409, 410,
Noise floor .............................................. 274, 497 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418, 419, 420,
Noise margin...................................................498 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 433, 434,
Noise pickups .......................................... 504, 508 437, 440, 471, 498, 555
Noise power ........... 168, 489, 490, 493, 494, 495 Armstrong oscillator ..........................376, 393
Noise ratio ...................................... 493, 494, 497 Astable multivibrator ............. 59, 65, 387, 388
Noise sources.......................... 192, 487, 489, 507 Clapp oscillator ..................................392, 393
Noise voltage . 148, 149, 150, 489, 490, 504, 507, Colpitts oscillator ...................................... 391
508 Crystal oscillator.........................376, 395, 397
Non-inverting amplifier . 126, 173, 174, 175, 176, Hartley oscillator ....................................... 392
323, 324 LC oscillator ................................376, 390, 391
Notch .............................................. 211, 229, 505 Phase-shift oscillator ..........................376, 380
Notch filter ............................. 211, 229, 296, 505 RC oscillators ............................................. 376
NR ..................................................................494 Relaxation oscillator...... … 376, 377, 378, 381,
Nyquist ........................................... 217, 489, 516 382, 404, 418
Tuned oscillator .........................376, 390, 395
O
Twin-T oscillator ........................................ 389
Object counting ..............................................291 VCO ....................................................394, 395
OPAMPS.. 34, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, Voltage controlled oscillator, VCO ............ 394
133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, Wien bridge oscillator ....... 378, 379, 383, 384,
142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153, 409, 410, 412, 414, 418, 420, 421
156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, OWC ............................................................... 536
165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 173, 177, 178, Oxygenated .............................................295, 299
179, 180, 184, 189, 190, 193, 194, 198, 199, Oxyhemoglobin.......................................295, 296
203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 221,
91
P Power transistor .... 12, 61, 83, 94, 100, 102, 103,
104, 159, 446
PAN ......................................................... 535, 536
Pressure sensors .............................257, 264, 265
Partition noise ................................ 487, 492, 506
Privacy .................................... 526, 534, 542, 546
Pass band ........ 215, 217, 221, 232, 236, 237, 250
Processing ...... .1, 2, 3, 4, 12, 107, 121, 210, 254,
Passband ................................................. 232, 250
257, 279, 298, 302, 304, 307, 308, 315, 316,
Passive filter ........................................... 210, 221
358, 359, 370, 372, 428, 430, 431, 432, 433,
Peak detector ......................................... 161, 162
434, 436, 438, 440, 441, 443, 494, 511, 521,
Phase distortion ..............................................511
522, 527, 531, 534
Phase-shift ......................................................380
Processing stage 1, 2, 3, 107, 298, 302, 307, 308,
Phase-shift oscillator .............................. 376, 380
522
Photo-coupler .................................................337
Processor ...... 1, 2, 3, 4, 297, 299, 302, 358, 359,
Photodetector ........ 337, 578, 580, 581, 584, 586
428, 431, 432, 433, 434, 436, 437, 438, 441,
Photodiode ..................... 263, 264, 355, 491, 583
519, 521, 522, 586
Photorelay .............. 337, 338, 372, 580, 581, 589
Programming language.................................. 431
Photosensor............................................ 578, 580
Protocols ................. 520, 534, 538, 539, 540, 541
Phototransistor ..... 263, 264, 286, 287, 288, 289,
Proximity .... 1, 273, 284, 285, 291, 292, 305, 306,
293, 295, 301, 337, 343, 355, 356, 491, 580,
309, 311, 314, 503, 507, 534, 584
583, 586
PT100 ......................................................153, 154
Photovoltaic cell ..................................... 263, 264
Pulsatile .........................................297, 299, 300
Pink noise .......................................................492
Pulsating dc... 10, 22, 25, 27, 30, 54, 68, 156, 555
PIR................................... 303, 304, 307, 309, 312
Pulse oximeter ..............................296, 297, 301
Pneumatic ....................................... 282, 312, 315
Pulse oximetry ................ 284, 295, 296, 297, 310
Pneumatic artificial muscle .................... 282, 315
Push-pull ........................................................ 464
Point-contact level sensors ............................266
Pyroelectric .............................................303, 304
Positive feedback ... 145, 148, 169, 199, 205, 375,
378, 389 Q
Power amplifier ... 7, 83, 445, 446, 447, 454, 472,
QUADRAC ...................................................92, 93
473, 474, 476, 479, 480, 483, 484, 515
Class A amplifier ................................ 448, 449 R
Class B amplifier ................. 463, 464, 474, 515
RC filter ...........................................216, 221, 222
Class C amplifier ................. 469, 470, 471, 484
RC oscillators ................................................. 376
Transformer-coupled class A amplifier .....448,
Real Time Operating System.......................... 430
458, 463
Rectification .............. 8, 9, 10, 67, 68, 69, 83, 555
Power booster ................................................160
Rectifier . 9, 10, 22, 25, 27, 50, 54, 64, 67, 68, 69,
Power devices ................... 94, 100, 104, 116, 336
83, 85, 156, 217, 555
Power dissipation .... 96, 100, 103, 104, 166, 168,
Reflectance ................................................... 301
467, 474
Regulation .... 7, 12, 34, 46, 62, 72, 116, 280, 474,
Power Supplies .... 1, 5,7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 21,
524
22, 24, 25, 27, 30, 33,38, 53, 54, 55, 64, 67,
Regulator ... 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
68, 69, 83, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 156, 169,
22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37,
194, 195, 197, 199, 217, 267, 355, 391, 393,
38, 40, 46, 47, 49, 54, 62, 63, 64, 72, 73, 74,
445, 447, 448, 449, 458, 459, 461, 463,555
75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 440, 474, 524
Dual-rail supply .... 55, 140, 169, 195, 199, 474
Adjustable regulator .... 14, 16, 17, 25, 26, 28,
Isolated power supply..................................53
31, 32, 34, 72, 74, 76
Single-rail supply ... 7, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142,
Current regulation .................................34, 62
169, 194, 197, 199
Current regulator ...................................35, 62
Split-supply ..................................................27
Fixed regulator ............................................ 72

92
 Linear regulator ............................... 12, 36, 64 Capacitance pressure sensor .................... 265
Switching regulators . 5, 12, 36, 37, 38, 40, 46, Continuous level sensors .......................... 266
47, 49 Digital temperature sensor ....................... 263
Voltage regulation ................................... 7, 12 Fuel cell ..............................................269, 272
Voltage regulator .... 12, 15, 17, 23, 25, 27, 28, Gas sensor ..................................271, 272, 309
31, 34, 36, 62, 63, 64 Gas sensors ................................271, 272, 309
Relaxation oscillator ...... 376, 377, 378, 381, 382, Humidity sensors ...............................270, 271
404, 418 IC temperature sensors .............258, 261, 269
Relay .... 3, 98, 153, 156, 157, 278, 281, 282, 308, LDR ............................. 151, 152, 263, 264, 317
332, 335, 336, 344, 345, 347, 348, 372, 581, Level sensor .............................................. 266
585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590 Level sensors ............................................. 266
Return line .............................................. 500, 510 Light dependent resistor ........................... 264
RFID ................................................ 533, 536, 542 Light sensors ......................................257, 263
Roll-off ............ 215, 230, 236, 237, 242, 250, 252 Load cell .............................................265, 317
Rotary potentiometer.....................................267 Photodiode ...... 263, 264, 297, 298, 301, 337,
RTD ................................. 259, 260, 269, 317, 360 355, 491, 583
RTOS ............................................... 430, 438, 439 Phototransistor … 263, 264, 286, 287, 288,
289, 293, 295, 301, 337, 343, 355, 356,
S
491, 580, 583, 586
S/N ..................................................................493 Photovoltaic cell........................................ 263
SAP .................................................. 530, 531, 532 Point-contact level sensors ....................... 266
Satellite ................................................... 535, 537 Pressure sensors ........................257, 264, 265
Scalability ................................................ 533, 545 PT100 .........................................153, 154, 360
Schmitt trigger ...... 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, Strain gauge ...............................264, 265, 317
150, 169, 199, 203, 204, 346, 378 Temperature sensors ....... 257, 258, 259, 261,
Schottky diode ............................................ 83, 84 262, 269, 321, 360, 541
SCR .... 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 337, Thermistor . 260, 261, 263, 266, 348, 349, 350
580, 582, 586 Thermocouple ............................258, 315, 372
SCS ........................................................ 83, 88, 89 Thermopile ......................... 258, 262, 314, 315
Security .. 274, 280, 304, 350, 439, 524, 526, 528, Tilt sensors ................................................ 268
529, 530, 532, 534, 542, 544, 546, 550 Vibration sensors ...............................274, 275
Self-heating..................................... 259, 261, 321 Servomechanism ........................................... 280
Sensing...... 18, 21, 23, 29, 32, 53, 263, 270, 273, Shockley diode ............................................92, 93
276, 280, 284, 285, 291, 292, 302, 303, 305, Shot noise .......................................487, 491, 517
306, 307, 314, 492, 520, 530, 560, 563, 584 SigFox ............................................................. 537
Sensors 1, 2, 5, 89, 151, 152, 255, 256, 257, 258, Signal conditioning ..... 1, 2, 3, 216, 316, 352, 359
259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, Signal generator ..... 375, 408, 409, 422, 423, 424,
269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277, 283, 285, 426
291, 292, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 309, 310, Signal-to-noise ratio ...................................... 493
311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 321, 322, Silicon controlled rectifier ............................... 85
325, 327, 352, 354, 358, 369, 372, 430, 519, Silicon controlled switch .................................. 88
521, 522, 534, 544, 549, 580, 584 Single-rail supply ....... 7, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142,
Accelerometer ................................... 276, 307 169, 194, 197, 199
Acoustic sensor .......................... 257, 258, 329 Slew rate ........................................................ 168
Acoustic sensors ........................................257 Smart .............. 524, 525, 529, 534, 544, 549, 550
Alcohol sensor ...........................................271 Agriculture ................................................ 525
Biomedical sensors ....................................309 Building ..................................................... 524
Capacitance pressure .................................265 Cities ..................................................524, 544
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 Environment ..............................................524 Things.... 256, 284, 292, 314, 429, 519, 520, 521,
Grid ............................................................524 522, 523, 525, 534, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545,
Industry ......................................................524 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 563
Living ..........................................................524 Thread ............................................................ 536
Retail ..........................................................525 Tilt sensors ..................................................... 268
Supply chain ...............................................525 Timers ...................................................... xvi, 436
Transportation ...........................................524 Tissue ......................................................299, 301
Smoke detection ..................... 288, 524, 563, 584 Total harmonic distortion, THD ........58, 513, 514
Smoothen .........................................................39 Transcranial ..................................................... 63
Smoothening .................. 8, 9, 11, 38, 69, 70, 217 Transducers ..... 1, 2, 4, 5, 89, 136, 255, 256, 257,
SNR ................................. 493, 494, 495, 497, 507 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267,
Snubber ........................ 97, 98, 99, 106, 108, 116 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277, 278,
Snubber network ........................ 97, 98, 106, 108 283, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311,
Solenoid .......................... 278, 282, 340, 342, 348 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320,
Solenoid lock ..................................................282 321, 322, 324, 327, 332, 348, 352, 354,358,
Solenoid valve................................. 282, 340, 342 359, 369, 372, 445, 505, 519, 521, 534, 580
Space noise .....................................................487 Transformer ... 8, 9, 10, 22, 25, 27, 30, 39, 53, 54,
Split-supply .......................................................27 58, 61, 64, 65, 66, 267, 355, 391, 393, 445,
SpO2 ............................... 295, 296, 300, 301, 313 447, 448, 449, 458, 459, 461, 463, 555
Square wave .. 58, 60, 61, 62, 113, 116, 133, 180, Transformer-coupled class A amplifier ..448, 458,
182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 204, 205, 463
206, 207, 375, 377, 382, 386, 387, 398, 399, Transition band .............................................. 214
401, 402, 404, 406, 407, 409, 412, 415, 416, Transmittance .............................................. 301
423, 424, 426, 434, 487, 488, 489 Transmittance oximetry ................................ 301
SRD .................................................................536 Triac ... 83, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 105, 106, 107, 108,
Stepper motor ................ 279, 280, 281, 348, 428 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 119, 154, 156,
Stimulation ............................................... 63, 268 157, 337, 340, 349, 350, 367, 580, 582
Stop band ....................................... 215, 230, 237 Triboelectric effect .................................504, 507
Stopband ........................................................214 TTL .. 135, 381, 382, 400, 409, 410, 412, 413, 419
Strain gauge .................................... 264, 265, 317 TTL level ............................................ xv, 400, 410
Summer . 129, 130, 131, 132, 153, 180, 181, 183, Tuned oscillator ..............................376, 390, 395
229, 243, 331, 359, 403, 407 Twin-T ............................................... xv, 229, 389
Summing amplifier ................................. 129, 130 Twin-T oscillator ............................................ 389
Switching regulators ................. 12, 36, 37, 38, 40
U
T
Ultrasonic....... 257, 258, 277, 284, 302, 305, 306,
tDCS ..................................................................63 307, 315
Telecommunication ........................................551 Ultraviolet ............... 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 566
Temperature actuators ..................................277 Unity follower ................................................ 398
Temperature coefficient ...... 259, 260, 568, 569, Unity gain ........................ 124, 229, 243, 404, 412
570 UV ................................... 435, 561, 562, 563, 566
Temperature sensors..... 257, 258, 259, 261, 262, UWB ............................................................... 536
269, 321, 541
V
THD .................................................................513
Thermal resistance ................................. 102, 103 Varistor .....................................................99, 118
Thermistor ...... 260, 261, 263, 266, 348, 349, 350 Varistors ........................................................... 99
Thermocouple ................................ 258, 315, 372 VCO .........................................................394, 395
Thermopile ............................. 258, 262, 314, 315 VCVS........................ 221, 237, 322, 324, 331, 558

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Vibration ..... . 265, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 310, Wheatstone bridge ....... 309, 318, 319, 340, 362,
313 364, 571
Vibration sensors ............................................274 White noise .............................................489, 490
Voice chip .......................................................350 Wien bridge ... 378, 379, 383, 384, 409, 410, 412,
Voltage controlled ..........................................394 414, 418, 420, 421
Voltage controlled oscillator ..........................394 Wien bridge oscillator .... 378, 379, 383, 384, 409,
Voltage divider network ... 42, 317, 322, 403, 407 410, 412, 414, 418, 420, 421
Voltage enhancement ....................................338 WiFi ......................... 308, 428, 441, 442, 526, 535
Voltage indicator .................................... 164, 165 WiSUN ............................................................ 536
Voltage regulation ........................................ 7, 12 WLAN ......................................................535, 537
Voltage regulator ... 12, 15, 17, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, Word .............................................................. 218
34, 36, 62, 63, 64 WPAN......................................................535, 536
Voltage-controlled voltage source, VCVS ......322, WS2O ......................................................530, 532
323, 360
Z
Voltage-follower ............................. 128, 318, 324
Zener diode .. 12, 16, 17, 22, 27, 29, 99, 159, 160,
W
404, 415
WAN ....................................................... 535, 537 Zener voltage ..............................................16, 22
Wave-shaping ................................. 121, 408, 413 Zigbee .............................................308, 428, 536

95
 Advanced Practical
Electronics – Circuits &
Systems

MLD Technologies

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