76  ◆    Diodes and Applications

3. What causes the ripple voltage on the output of a capacitor-input filter?

4. If the load resistance connected to a filtered power supply is decreased, what happens
to the ripple voltage?
5. Define ripple factor.
6. What is the difference between input (line) regulation and load regulation?

2–7 D i o de L i m i t e r s a nd C l a m p e rs
Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are sometimes used to clip off portions of
signal voltages above or below certain levels. Another type of diode circuit, called a
clamper, is used to add or restore a dc level to an electrical signal. Both limiter and
clamper diode circuits will be examined in this section.
After completing this section, you should be able to
❑ Explain and analyze the operation of diode limiters and clampers
❑ Describe the operation of a diode limiter
◆ Discuss biased limiters   ◆ Discuss voltage-divider bias   ◆ Describe an

application
❑ Describe the operation of a diode clamper

Diode Limiters
Figure 2–52(a) shows a diode positive limiter (also called clipper) that limits or clips the posi-
tive part of the input voltage. As the input voltage goes positive, the diode becomes forward-
biased and conducts current. Point A is limited to +0.7 V when the input voltage exceeds this

▶ F IGURE 2– 5 2 R1
A
Examples of diode limiters (clippers).
I
Vp
+
+0.7 V
Vin 0 RL Vout 0
–
–Vp

(a) Limiting of the positive alternation. The diode is forward-biased during the positive alternation (above 0.7 V)
and reverse-biased during the negative alternation.

R1
A

I
Vp
–
Vin 0 RL Vout 0
+ –0.7 V
–Vp

(b) Limiting of the negative alternation. The diode is forward-biased during the negative alternation (below
– 0.7 V) and reverse-biased during the positive alternation.

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 Diode Limiters and Clampers   ◆   77

value. When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reverse-biased and appears
as an open. The output voltage looks like the negative part of the input voltage, but with a mag-
nitude determined by the voltage divider formed by R1 and the load resistor, RL, as follows:
RL
Vout = a b Vin
R1 + RL

If R1 is small compared to RL, then Vout > Vin.

If the diode is turned around, as in Figure 2–52(b), the negative part of the input volt-
age is clipped off. When the diode is forward-biased during the negative part of the input
voltage, point A is held at -0.7 V by the diode drop. When the input voltage goes above
-0.7 V, the diode is no longer forward-biased; and a voltage appears across RL propor-
tional to the input voltage.

EXAMPLE 2–10 What would you expect to see displayed on an oscilloscope connected across RL in the
limiter shown in Figure 2–53?
R1

10 kÆ
+10 V
RL
Vin 0V 1N914 Vout
100 kÆ

–10 V

▲ F I G U R E 2– 53

Solution The diode is forward-biased and conducts when the input voltage goes below -0.7 V.
So, for the negative limiter, determine the peak output voltage across RL by the follow-
ing equation:
RL 100 kV
Vp(out) = a b Vp(in) = a b 10 V = 9.09 V
R1 + RL 110 kV
The scope will display an output waveform as shown in Figure 2–54.

+9.09 V

Vout 0
–0.7 V

▲ F I G U R E 2– 54
Output voltage waveform for Figure 2–53.

Related Problem Describe the output waveform for Figure 2–53 if R1 is changed to 1 kV.

Open the Multisim file EXM02-10 or LT Spice file EXS02-10 in the Examples
folder on the website. For the specified input, measure the resulting output wave-
form. Compare with the waveform shown in the example.

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 78  ◆    Diodes and Applications

Biased Limiters The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a
bias voltage, VBIAS , in series with the diode, as shown in Figure 2–55. The voltage at point
A must equal VBIAS + 0.7 V before the diode will become forward-biased and conduct.
Once the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A is limited to VBIAS + 0.7 V so that
all input voltage above this level is clipped off.

▶ F IGURE 2– 5 5 R1
A
A positive limiter.
Vin
VBIAS + 0.7 V
0 RL 0
+
VBIAS
–

To limit a voltage to a specified negative level, the diode and bias voltage must be con-
nected as in Figure 2–56. In this case, the voltage at point A must go below -VBIAS - 0.7 V
to forward-bias the diode and initiate limiting action as shown.
▶ F IGURE 2– 5 6 R1
A
A negative limiter.
Vin

0 RL 0
– –VBIAS – 0.7 V
VBIAS
+

By turning the diode around, the positive limiter can be modified to limit the output
voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform above VBIAS - 0.7 V, as shown by the
output waveform in Figure 2–57(a). Similarly, the negative limiter can be modified to limit
the output voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform below -VBIAS + 0.7 V, as
shown by the output waveform in part (b).

▶ F IGURE 2– 5 7 R1
A

Vin
VBIAS – 0.7 V
0 RL 0
t0 t1 t2 + t0 t1
VBIAS
–

(a)

R1
A

Vin
t1 t2
0 RL 0
t0 t1 t2 –
VBIAS –VBIAS + 0.7 V
+

(b)

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 Diode Limiters and Clampers   ◆   79

EXAMPLE 2–11 Figure 2–58 shows a circuit combining a positive limiter with a negative limiter.
Determine the output voltage waveform.

▶ FIG UR E 2 – 5 8
R1
A

+10 V 1.0 kÆ
D1 D2
Vin 0 + – Vout
5V 5V
–10 V – +

Diodes are 1N914.

Solution When the voltage at point A reaches +5.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform
to +5.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches -5.7 V. Therefore,
positive voltages above +5.7 V and negative voltages below -5.7 V are clipped off.
The resulting output voltage waveform is shown in Figure 2–59.

▶ F I G U R E 2– 59
Output voltage waveform for Figure +5.7 V
2–58.
Vout 0

–5.7 V

Related Problem Determine the output voltage waveform in Figure 2–58 if both dc sources are 10 V and
the input voltage has a peak value of 20 V.

Open the Multisim file EXM02-11 or LT Spice file EXS02-11 in the Examples
folder on the website. For the specified input, measure the resulting output wave-
form. Compare with the waveform shown in the example.

Voltage-Divider Bias The bias voltage sources that have been used to illustrate the basic
operation of diode limiters can be replaced by a resistive voltage divider that derives the
desired bias voltage from the dc supply voltage, as shown in Figure 2–60. The bias voltage
is set by the resistor values according to the voltage-divider formula.
R3
VBIAS = a b VSUPPLY
R2 + R3

A positively biased limiter is shown in Figure 2–60(a), a negatively biased limiter is shown
in part (b), and a variable positive bias circuit using a potentiometer voltage divider is
shown in part (c). The bias resistors must be small compared to R1 so that the forward cur-
rent through the diode will not affect the bias voltage.
A Limiter Application Many circuits have certain restrictions on the input level to avoid
damaging the circuit. For example, almost all digital circuits should not have an input level
that exceeds the power supply voltage. An input of a few volts more than this could damage
the circuit. To prevent the input from exceeding a specific level, you may see a diode limiter
across the input signal path.

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 114  ◆    Diodes and Applications

34. Determine the output voltage for the circuit in Figure 2–100(a) for each input voltage in (b),
(c), and (d).

Vin Vin Vin

R1
+25 V +12 V +5 V
4.7 k V

Vin Vout 0 t 0 t 0 t
R2
4.7 k V
–25 V –12 V –5 V

(a) (b) (c) (d)

▲ FIG U R E 2– 100

35. Determine the output voltage waveform for each circuit in Figure 2–101.

+ –

+10 V +10 V +10 V 3V

Vin 0V 1.0 kV Vout Vin 0V 1.0 k V Vout Vin 0V 1.0 kV Vout
–10 V –10 V –10 V

(a) (b) (c)

+ – – + – +

+10 V 3V +10 V 3V +10 V 3V

Vin 0V 1.0 k V Vout Vin 0V 1.0 k V Vout Vin 0V 1.0 kV Vout
–10 V –10 V –10 V

(d) (e) (f)

▲ FIG U R E 2– 101

36. Determine the RL voltage waveform for each circuit in Figure 2–102.

R1 R1 R1

+5 V 1.0 k V +10 V 56 V +200 V 100 V

Vin 0 V RL Vin 0 V RL RL
Vin 0 V
1.0 k V + 1.0 MV – 680 V
–5 V –10 V 3V –200 V 50 V
– +

(a) (b) (c)

▲ FIG U R E 2– 102

37. Draw the output voltage waveform for each circuit in Figure 2–103.
38. Determine the peak forward current through each diode in Figure 2–103.

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 Problems   ◆   115

▶ F IGU R E 2 – 1 0 3 R R

2.2 k V 2.2 k V
+30 V +30 V
Vin 0 V D1 D2 Vout Vin 0 V D1 D2 Vout
–30 V –30 V

(a) (b)

39. Determine the peak forward current through each diode in Figure 2–104.
40. Determine the output voltage waveform for each circuit in Figure 2–104.

▶ F IGU R E 2 – 1 0 4
2.2 k V 2.2 kV
+30 V +30 V
Vin 0V + Vout Vin 0V + Vout
–30 V 12 V –30 V 12 V
– –

(a) (b)

2.2 k V 2.2 kV
+30 V +30 V
Vin 0V – Vout Vin 0V – Vout
–30 V 12 V –30 V 12 V
+ +

(c) (d)

41. Describe the output waveform of each circuit in Figure 2–105. Assume the RC time constant is
much greater than the period of the input.
42. Repeat Problem 41 with the diodes turned around.

▶ F IGU R E 2 – 1 0 5 C C

+4 V +15 V
Vin 0 R Vout Vin 0 R Vout
–4 V – 15 V

(a) (b)

C C

+8 V
+1 V
Vin 0 R Vout Vin 0 R Vout
–1 V
–8 V

(c) (d)

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78 DIODE APPLICATIONS PIV The network of Fig. 2.63 will help us determine the net PIV for each diode for this
full-wave rectifier. Inserting the maximum voltage for the secondary voltage and Vm as
established by the adjoining loop results in
PIV = Vsecondary + VR
= Vm + Vm

and PIV G 2Vm CT transformer, full@wave rectifier (2.13)

EXAMPLE 2.17 Determine the output waveform for the network of Fig. 2.64 and calcu-
FIG. 2.63 late the output dc level and the required PIV of each diode.
Determining the PIV level for
the diodes of the CT transformer
full-wave rectifier. vi
+
10 V
2 kΩ
vi
0 T T t – vo +
2
2 kΩ 2 kΩ
–

FIG. 2.64
Bridge network for Example 2.17.

+ + vo
vi
+ +
2 kΩ vo
10 V – 5V
2 kΩ vi – 2 kΩ
vi
0 T t – vo + 2 kΩ
0 T t
2 2
2 kΩ 2 kΩ
– –

FIG. 2.65 FIG. 2.66

Network of Fig. 2.64 for the positive region of vi. Redrawn network of Fig. 2.65.

Solution: The network appears as shown in Fig. 2.65 for the positive region of the input
voltage. Redrawing the network results in the configuration of Fig. 2.66, where vo = 12vi or
Vomax = 12Vimax = 12(10 V) = 5 V, as shown in Fig. 2.66. For the negative part of the input,
vo
the roles of the diodes are interchanged and vo appears as shown in Fig. 2.67.
5V The effect of removing two diodes from the bridge configuration is therefore to reduce
the available dc level to the following:
0 T T t
Vdc = 0.636(5 V) = 3.18 V
2 or that available from a half-wave rectifier with the same input. However, the PIV as deter-
FIG. 2.67 mined from Fig. 2.59 is equal to the maximum voltage across R, which is 5 V, or half of
Resulting output for Example 2.17. that required for a half-wave rectifier with the same input.

2.8 CLIPPERS
●
The previous section on rectification gives clear evidence that diodes can be used to change
the appearance of an applied waveform. This section on clippers and the next on clampers
will expand on the wave-shaping abilities of diodes.
Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input signal
without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

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The half-wave rectifier of Section 2.6 is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper— CLIPPERS 79
one resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative
region of the applied signal is “clipped” off.
There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series configura-
tion is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, whereas the parallel variety
has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

Series
The response of the series configuration of Fig. 2.68a to a variety of alternating waveforms
is provided in Fig. 2.68b. Although first introduced as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal
waveforms), there are no boundaries on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.

vi vo vi vo
V V V V

+ +
0 t t t t
vi R vo
– – –V –V

(a) (b)

FIG. 2.68
Series clipper.

FIG. 2.69
Series clipper with a dc supply.

The addition of a dc supply to the network as shown in Fig. 2.69 can have a pronounced
effect on the analysis of the series clipper configuration. The response is not as obvious
because the dc supply can aid or work against the source voltage, and the dc supply can be
in the leg between the supply and output or in the branch parallel to the output.
There is no general procedure for analyzing networks such as the type in Fig. 2.69, but
there are some things one can do to give the analysis some direction.
First and most important:
1. Take careful note of where the output voltage is defined.
In Fig. 2.69 it is directly across the resistor R. In some cases it may be across a combi-
nation of series elements.
Next:
2. Try to develop an overall sense of the response by simply noting the “pressure”
established by each supply and the effect it will have on the conventional current
direction through the diode.
In Fig. 2.69, for instance, any positive voltage of the supply will try to turn the diode on
by establishing a conventional current through the diode that matches the arrow in the
diode symbol. However, the added dc supply V will oppose that applied voltage and try to
keep the diode in the “off” state. The result is that any supply voltage greater than V volts
will turn the diode on and conduction can be established through the load resistor. Keep in
mind that we are dealing with an ideal diode for the moment, so the turn-on voltage is
simply 0 V. In general, therefore, for the network of Fig. 2.69 we can conclude that the

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80 DIODE APPLICATIONS diode will be on for any voltage vi that is greater than V volts and off for any lesser voltage.
For the “off” condition, the output would be 0 V due to the lack of current, and for the “on”
condition it would simply be vo = vi - V as determined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
3. Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will result in a change of
state for the diode from the “off” to the “on” state.
This step will help to define a region of the applied voltage when the diode is on and
when it is off. On the characteristics of an ideal diode this will occur when VD  0 V and
ID  0 mA. For the approximate equivalent this is determined by finding the applied volt-
age when the diode has a drop of 0.7 V across it (for silicon) and ID  0 mA.
This exercise was applied to the network of Fig. 2.69 as shown in Fig. 2.70. Note the
substitution of the short-circuit equivalent for the diode and the fact that the voltage across
the resistor is 0 V because the diode current is 0 mA. The result is vi  V  0, and so

vi = V (2.14)

is the transition voltage.

V vd = 0 V
+ – id = 0 A
+ + – +
vi R vo = iRR = id R = (0)R = 0 V
vi
– –
Vm
on
V off FIG. 2.70
0 T T t Determining the transition level for the circuit of Fig. 2.69.
2

This permits drawing a line on the sinusoidal supply voltage as shown in Fig. 2.71 to
FIG. 2.71 define the regions where the diode is on and off.
Using the transition voltage to For the “on” region, as shown in Fig. 2.72, the diode is replaced by a short-circuit
define the “on” and “off” regions. equivalent, and the output voltage is defined by

vo = vi - V (2.15)
V
+ –
For the “off” region, the diode is an open circuit, ID  0 mA, and the output voltage is
+ +
vi R vo vo = 0 V
KVL
– – 4. It is often helpful to draw the output waveform directly below the applied voltage
using the same scales for the horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
Using this last piece of information, we can establish the 0-V level on the plot of Fig. 2.73
FIG. 2.72
for the region indicated. For the “on” condition, Eq. (2.15) can be used to find the output
Determining vo for the diode
in the “on” state. voltage when the applied voltage has its peak value:
vopeak = Vm - V
vo and this can be added to the plot of Fig. 2.73. It is then simple to fill in the missing section
of the output curve.
Vm – V

0 T T t EXAMPLE 2.18 Determine the output waveform for the sinusoidal input of Fig. 2.74.
2
vi = V (diodes change state)
Solution:
Step 1: The output is again directly across the resistor R.
FIG. 2.73 Step 2: The positive region of vi and the dc supply are both applying “pressure” to turn the
Sketching the waveform of vo using diode on. The result is that we can safely assume the diode is in the “on” state for the entire
the results obtained for vo above range of positive voltages for vi. Once the supply goes negative, it would have to exceed
and below the transition level. the dc supply voltage of 5 V before it could turn the diode off.

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CLIPPERS 81

FIG. 2.74
Series clipper for Example 2.18.

Step 3: The transition model is substituted in Fig. 2.75, and we find that the transition
from one state to the other will occur when
vi + 5 V = 0 V
or vi = -5 V

– + vd = 0 V

+ 5V
+
id = 0 A
vi R vo = vR = iR R = id R = (0) R = 0 V

– –

FIG. 2.75
Determining the transition level for the clipper of Fig. 2.74.

Step 4: In Fig. 2.76 a horizontal line is drawn through the applied voltage at the transition
level. For voltages less than 5 V the diode is in the open-circuit state and the output is 0
V, as shown in the sketch of vo. Using Fig. 2.76, we find that for conditions when the diode
is on and the diode current is established the output voltage will be the following, as deter-
mined using Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
vo = vi + 5 V

vo
vi

20 vi + 5 V = 20 V + 5 V = 25 V

5V vo = 0 V + 5 V = 5 V
–5V T T t 0 T T t
2 2
Transition vo = –5 V + 5 V = 0 V
voltage

FIG. 2.76
Sketching vo for Example 2.18.

The analysis of clipper networks with square-wave inputs is actually easier than with si-
nusoidal inputs because only two levels have to be considered. In other words, the network
can be analyzed as if it had two dc level inputs with the resulting vo plotted in the proper
time frame. The next example demonstrates the procedure.

EXAMPLE 2.19 Find the output voltage for the network examined in Example 2.18 if the
applied signal is the square wave of Fig. 2.77.
Solution: For vi = 20 V (0 S T>2) the network of Fig. 2.78 results. The diode is in the FIG. 2.77
short-circuit state, and vo = 20 V + 5 V = 25 V. For vi = -10 V the network of Fig. 2.79 Applied signal for Example 2.19.

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82 DIODE APPLICATIONS results, placing the diode in the “off” state, and vo = iR R = (0)R = 0 V. The resulting
output voltage appears in Fig. 2.80.

– + + – + + vo
+ 5V 5V
– 25 V
20 V R vo 10 V R vo = 0 V
– +
– 0V
–
0 T T t
2

FIG. 2.78 FIG. 2.79 FIG. 2.80

vo at vi  20 V. vo at vi  10 V. Sketching vo for Example 2.19.

Note in Example 2.19 that the clipper not only clipped off 5 V from the total swing, but
also raised the dc level of the signal by 5 V.

Parallel
The network of Fig. 2.81 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with the output for
the same inputs of Fig. 2.68. The analysis of parallel configurations is very similar to that
applied to series configurations, as demonstrated in the next example.

+ R +
vi vo

– –

vi vo vi vo

V V

0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t

–V –V –V –V

FIG. 2.81
Response to a parallel clipper.

EXAMPLE 2.20 Determine vo for the network of Fig. 2.82.

Solution:
Step 1: In this example the output is defined across the series combination of the 4-V sup-
ply and the diode, not across the resistor R.

FIG. 2.82
Example 2.20.

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Step 2: The polarity of the dc supply and the direction of the diode strongly suggest that CLIPPERS 83
the diode will be in the “on” state for a good portion of the negative region of the input
signal. In fact, it is interesting to note that since the output is directly across the series com-
bination, when the diode is in its short-circuit state the output voltage will be directly
across the 4-V dc supply, requiring that the output be fixed at 4 V. In other words, when
the diode is on the output will be 4 V. Other than that, when the diode is an open circuit,
the current through the series network will be 0 mA and the voltage drop across the resistor
will be 0 V. That will result in vo = vi whenever the diode is off.
Step 3: The transition level of the input voltage can be found from Fig. 2.83 by substitut-
ing the short-circuit equivalent and remembering the diode current is 0 mA at the instant of
transition. The result is a change in state when
vi = 4 V
FIG. 2.83
Step 4: In Fig. 2.84 the transition level is drawn along with vo = 4 V when the diode is Determining the transition level
on. For vi Ú 4 V, vo = 4 V, and the waveform is simply repeated on the output plot. for Example 2.20.

vR = iRR = idR = (0) R = 0 V

R
+ +
id = 0 A –
VK 0.7 V
vi + vo
+
FIG. 2.84 – V 4V –
–
Sketching vo for Example 2.20.
FIG. 2.85
Determining the transition level for
To examine the effects of the knee voltage VK of a silicon diode on the output response, the network of Fig. 2.82.
the next example will specify a silicon diode rather than the ideal diode equivalent.
id
+ +
EXAMPLE 2.21 Repeat Example 2.20 using a silicon diode with VK = 0.7 V. R –
0.7 V
Solution: The transition voltage can first be determined by applying the condition id  0 A vi + vo
at vd  VD  0.7 V and obtaining the network of Fig. 2.85. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage +
law around the output loop in the clockwise direction, we find that – 4V –
–
vi + VK - V = 0
and vi = V - VK = 4 V - 0.7 V = 3.3 V FIG. 2.86
Determining vo for the diode of
For input voltages greater than 3.3 V, the diode will be an open circuit and vo = vi. For
Fig. 2.82 in the “on” state.
input voltages less than 3.3 V, the diode will be in the “on” state and the network of Fig. 2.86
results, where
vo = 4 V - 0.7 V = 3.3 V
The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.87. Note that the only effect of VK was to
drop the transition level to 3.3 from 4 V.

There is no question that including the effects of VK will complicate the analysis some-
what, but once the analysis is understood with the ideal diode, the procedure, including the FIG. 2.87
effects of VK, will not be that difficult. Sketching vo for Example 2.21.

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FIG. 2.88
Clipping circuits.

84

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