MIDTERMS BIOPSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER discriminative touch

• Ruffini end organs – Located in the dermis –

Module 4. Integration of the Nervous System Involved in continuous touch or pressure
Sensation (Perception) - The conscious • Pacini corpuscles – Located in the dermis and
awareness of stimuli received by sensory subcutaneous tissue – Detect deep pressure
receptors and vibration – In joints, they serve a
proprioceptive function
Sensation
•Sense is the ability to perceive stimuli Sensory Tract - Ascending pathways carry
• Senses are the means by which the brain conscious and unconscious sensations
receives information about the environment Anterolateral system - Conveys cutaneous
and the body sensory information to the brain
Senses are divided into two basic groups: Spinothalamic tracts - Carries pain,
– General senses temperature, light touch, pressure, tickle, and
• Somatic senses (touch, pressure, itch sensations
proprioception, temperature, and pain) – Ascend to the thalamus
• Visceral senses (pain and pressure) Spinoreticular tracts – Ascend to the thalamus –
Unconcious pain
Spinomesencephalic tracts – Ascend to the
– Special senses midbrain – Unconscious pain and touch
• Smell
• Taste Dorsal column/medial lemniscal system -
• Sight Carries the sensations of two-point
• Hearing discrimination
• Balance - Proprioception
- Pressure
Types of Sensory Receptors - Vibration
• Mechanoreceptors – Respond to mechanical Trigeminothalamic tracts - Carries sensory
stimuli (compression, bending or stretching of information from the face, nose, and mouth
receptors) Spinocerebellar tracts – Proprioception
• Chemoreceptors – Respond to chemicals
(odor molecules) Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex - Sensory
• Photoreceptors – Respond to light areas are organized topographically in the
• Thermoreceptors – Respond to temperature somatic sensory cortex
changes Control of Skeletal Muscles
• Nociceptors (pain receptors) – Respond to • Lower motor neurons are found in the cranial
painful mechanical, chemical, and thermal nuclei or the anterior horn of the spinal cord
stimuli gray matter
Sensory Receptors • Upper motor neurons are located in the
• Are sensory nerve endings or specialized cells cerebral cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum
capable of responding to stimuli by developing • Upper motor neurons form tracts that directly
action potentials. or indirectly control the activities of lower
motor neurons
-Free nerve endings • Simplest and most
common type of receptor • Detect pain, Motor Area of the Cerebral Cortex
temperature, itch, and movement • The primary motor cortex is the precentral
(proprioception) gyrus and is organized topographically
– Touch Receptors - • Merkel disks • Hair follicle • The premotor and prefrontal areas are staging
receptors • Meissner corpuscles • Ruffini end areas for motor function
organs Area of the Cerebral Cortex
• Pacini corpuscles • The primary motor cortex is the precentral
– Proprioceptors - Awareness of body position gyrus and is organized topographically
and movements • The premotor and prefrontal areas are staging
areas for motor function

Sensory Receptors for Touch

• Merkel disks – Small superficial nerve endings Motor Tracts
– Respond to light touch and superficial • Direct pathways – Arise from the cerebral
pressure cortex – Upper motor neurons extend to lower
• Hair follicle receptors – Wrap around the hair motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord
follicle – Involved in the sensation of light touch – Corticospinal tract
when the hair is bent • Control muscle movements below the head –
• Meissner corpuscles – Located deep to the Especially the distal limbs – Make fine motor
epidermis – Responsible for two-point control of the fingers possible
• Lateral corticospinal tracts  Preganglionic axons pass through the
• Anterior corticospinal tracts – Corticobulbar ventral roots to the white rami
tracts communicates to the sympathetic chain
• Innervate the head muscles (except for ganglia. From there, four courses are
muscles moving the eyes) possible
• Indirect pathways – Arise from the cerebral Preganglionic axons synapse (at the same or
cortex and cerebellum – Upper motor neurons a different level) with postganglionic
extend to brainstem nuclei neurons, which exit the ganglia through the
• Axons from the nuclei extend to lower motor gray rami communicates and enter spinal
neurons – Involved in conscious and nerve
unconscious trunk and proximal limb muscle
movements, posture, and balance  Preganglionic axons synapse (at the
– Rubrospinal same or a different level) with
– Reticulospinal postganglionic neurons, which exit the
– Vestibulospinal ganglia through sympathetic nerves

The Parasympathetic Division

 Preganglionic cell bodies are in nuclei in
Module 5. Autonomic Nervous System the brainstem or the lateral parts of the
spinal cord gray matter from S2 to S4
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
– Preganglionic axons from the brain
Cell bodies of somatic neurons are located in pass to ganglia through cranial nerves
the CNS – Preganglionic axons from the sacral
– Their axons extend to skeletal muscles where region pass through the pelvic
they have an splanchnic nerves to the ganglia
excitatory effect  Preganglionic axons pass to terminal
– Usually controlled consciously ganglia within the wall of, or near, the
organ that is innervated
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- Cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons are
located in the CNS
The Enteric Nervous System
– Their axons extend to ganglia where they
synapse with postganglionic neurons -Consist of nerve plexuses within the
– The postganglionic axons can have an wall of the digestive tract
excitatory or inhibitory effect on -Has contributions from three sources:
• Smooth muscle 1. sensory neurons that connect the
• Cardiac muscle digestive tract to CNS
• Glands 2. ANS motor neurons that connect the
– Usually controlled unconsciously CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons, which are confined
to the enteric plexuses
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
Neurotransmitters of the ANS
Subdivided into;
 Acetylcholine is released by cholinergic
Sympathetic division neurons
 Norepinephrine (or epinephrine) is
Parasympathetic division released by adrenergic neurons
Enteric nervous system Receptors of the ANS
 Acetylcholine binds to
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions - Nicotine receptors (found in postganglionic
differ structurally in; neuron), (excitatory)
1. Location of their preganglionic neuron cell - Muscarinic receptors (found in all
bodies within the CNS parasympathetic effector orans), (some
2. Location of their autonomic ganglia sympathetic effectors organs), (excitatory or
inhibitory)
 Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind
The Sympathetic division to
 Preganglionic cell bodies are in the - Alpha and beta receptors (found in most
lateral horns of the spinal cord gray sympathetic effector orans), (excitatory or
matter from T1 to L2 inhibitory)
 tests which judge the suitability of a worker
for hire based on the results of their
Regulation of the ANS physical examination. This is also called pre-
• Autonomic reflexes control most of the employment medical clearance.
activity of visceral organs, glands, and blood The Neurological Examination
vessels
• Autonomic reflex activity can be influenced by 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) – is a test
the hypothalamus and higher brain centers used to find problems related to
• The sympathetic and parasympathetic electrical activity of the brain. An EEG
divisions can influence the activities of the tracks and records brain wave patterns.
enteric nervous system through autonomic Small metal discs with thin wires
reflexes (electrodes) are places on the scalp, and
• The enteric nervous system can function then send signals to a computer to
independently of the CNS through local reflexes record the results.
2. CAT Scans – CT, or CAT scan, are special
Functional Generalized about the ANS X-ray tests that produce cross-sectional
• Both divisions of the ANS produce stimulatory images of the body using X-rays and a
and inhibitory effects computer. CT scans are also referred to
• Most organs are innervated by both divisions as computerized axial tomography.
– Usually, each division produces an opposite 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – is
effect on a given a test that uses powerful magnets,
organ radio waves, and a computer to make
• Either division alone or both working together detailed pictures in your body,
can coordinate the activities of different - The doctor can use this test to diagnose you
structures or to see how well you’ve responded to
• The sympathetic division produces more treatment, unlike X-rays and CT scans, an
generalized effects than the parasympathetic MRI don’t use radiation.
division An MRI of the brain and spinal cord
• Sympathetic activity generally prepares the looks for:
body for physical activity  Blood vessel damage
• Parasympathetic activity is more important for  Brain injury
resting conditions  Cancer
 Multiple sclerosis
 Spinal cord injuries
 Stroke (cerebrovascular accident/ CVA)

Module 6. Neurological Assessment 4. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

(Assessment in Abnormal Psy) Scan: A Metabolic Portrait - is a test
that uses a special type of camera and a
Assessment of the Physical Organism
tracer (radioactive chemical) to look at
The General Physical Examination organs in the body. The tracer usually is
a special form of a substance (such as
Physical Examination, Medical Examination, or glucose) that collects in cells that are
Clinical Examination (more popularly known as using a lot of energy, such as cancer
check-up) – is the process by which a medical cells.
professional investigates the body of a patient - During the test, the tracer liquid is put into
for signs of disease. a vein (intravenous, or IV) in the arm. The
Types of Physical Exams tracer moves through your body, where
much of it collects in the specific organ or
1. Routine Physical Exams - physical tissue. The tracer gives off tiny positively
examinations performed on charged particles (positrons). The camera
asymptomatic patients for medical records the positrons and turns the
screening purposes. recording into pictures on a computer.
2. Comprehensive Physical Examination - - A PET scan is often used to evaluate cancer,
also known as executive physicals, check blood flow, or see how organs are
typically include laboratory tests, chest working.
xrays, pulmonary function testing, - PET scan study the brain's blood flow and
audiograms, full body CAT scanning, metabolic activity. A PET scan can help a
EKGs, heart stress tests, vascular age doctor find nervous system problems, such
tests, urinalysis, and mammograms or as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis,
prostate exams depending on gender transient ischemic attack (TIA), amyotrophic
Pre-employment examinations - Pre- lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease,
employment examinations are screening stroke, and schizophrenia.)
 4. Speech Sounds Perception Test -
5. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Determines whether an individual can
(fMRI) – Is a technique for measure identify spoken words.
brain activity. Measures brain activity
by detecting changes associated with 5. Finger Oscillation Task - Measures the
blood flow. This technique relies on the speed at which an individual can
fact that cerebral blood flow and neural depress a lever with the index finger.
activation are coupled. When an area of Several trials are given for each hand.
the brain is use, blood flow to that
region also increases. 6.
Module 7. Special Senses
The Neuropsychological Examination
1. Neuropsychological Assessment - is
a comprehensive assessment of Special Senses – have highly localized receptors
cognitive processes. It can evaluate that provide specific information about the
neurological or environment
neurodevelopmental disorders, and Five special senses
understand the etiology and
evolution of a disorder. Smell - Interaction of chemicals with sensory
Neuropsychology is the unique receptors
integration of genetic, Taste - Interaction of chemicals with sensory
developmental, and environmental receptors
history with testing data to better
understand brain functioning. Sight - Interaction of light with sensory
receptors
Purpose of a Neuropsychology Assessment Hearing - Interaction of mechanical stimulation
with sensory receptors
1. Integrity of cognitive functions - The
evaluation is helpful to determine the Balance - Interaction of mechanical stimulation
presence, nature, and severity of with sensory receptors
cognitive dysfunction.
OLFACTION
2. Differential diagnosis – to confirm or
clarify a diagnosis. It can help evaluate Sense of smell
neurological and psychiatric disorders.
3. Treatment planning - It provide Response to airborne molecules, called
treatment recommendations for odorants entering the nasal cavity
cognitive disorders and psychological  At least 7 (perhaps 50) primary odors exist
adjustment, including a profile of - Musky, floral, peppermint, ethereal,
strengths and weaknesses to guide pungent, putrid,
rehabilitation, educational, vocational,  Olfactory neurons have very low thresholds
or other services. It can determine and accommodate rapidly
levels of cognitive functioning as they
relate to work, school, and independent Olfactory Epithelium and Bulb
living.
 Olfactory neurons in the olfactory
epithelium are bipolar neurons
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological test battery
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
1. Halstead Category Test - Measures a
subject’s ability to learn and remember  axons from the olfactory neurons extend as
material and can provide clues as to his olfactory nerves to the olfactory bulb,
or her judgment and impulsivity. where they synapse with interneurons
2. Tactual Performance Test - Measures a  olfactory bulbs and cortex accommodate to
subject’s motor speed, response to the odors
unfamiliar, and ability to learn and use Taste
tactile and kinesthetic cues.
 Sensory structures that detect taste stimuli
3. Rhythm Test - Measures attention and are taste buds
sustained concentration through an  Most buds are located in the epithelium of
auditory perception task. papillae
 Taste buds are found in the; tongue, palate,
lips, throat
Histology of Taste Buds
Taste buds consist of - Consists of the lacrimal gland, lacrimal
canaliculi, and a nasolacrimal duct
 taste cells (50) - Lacrimal glands secrete tears
 Basillar cells - Tears contains mostly water, with some
 Supporting cells salts, mucus, and lysozyme
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Function of Taste - Six strap-like muscles
- Four rectus muscles originate from the
 Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved annular ring
substances - Two oblique muscles move the eye in the
 Five basic types of taste exist: salty(sodium), vertical plane
sour(acids), sweet (sugars, proteins),
bitter(alkaloids), umami (elicited by amino Anatomy of the Eye
acid glutamate and related compounds)  A slightly irregular hollow sphere with
 All taste buds can sense the five primary anterior and posterior poles
senses, but tend to be most sensitive to one  • The eyeball is composed of three layers
- Sensitivity to bitter substances is the - Fibrous Layer (sclera, cornea)
highest(poisons) - Vascular layer (choroid, ciliary body, Iris)
 Taste is strongly influenced by olfactory - Nervous layer (retina)
sensations  The internal cavity is filled with fluids called
 Tongue can detect other stimuli besides humors
taste (eg. Temperature, texture)
Fibrous Layer
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
 Sclera
 The facial nerve carries taste sensations - Posterior 4/5ths of the eye
from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue - White connective tissue that maintains the
 The glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste shape of the eyeball
sensations from the posterior one-third of - Provides a site for muscle attachment
the tongue  Cornea
 The vagus nerve carries taste sensations - Anterior 1/5th of the eye
from the epiglottis - Transparent and refracts light that enters
 The neural pathways for taste extend from the eye
the medulla oblongata to the thalamus and
to the cerebral cortex Vascular Layer
 Choroid
Visual System - A vascular network
- Many melanin-containing pigment cells
Consists of - Appears black in color
 Eye - Prevents the reflection of light inside the
- Eyeball eye
- Optic nerve  Ciliary body
 Accessory Structures - Ciliary ring
- Eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal - Ciliary process
apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscle  Iris
 Sensory Neurons - Smooth muscle regulated by the autonomic
nervous system
Accessory Structures (Sphincter pupillae – close vision
and bright light: pupils constrict)
 Eyebrows
(Dilator pupillae – Distant vision and
- Prevent perspiration from entering the eyes
dim light: pupils dilate)
and help shade the eyes
- Controls the amount of light entering the
 Eyelids
pupil
- Consist of five tissue layers
- Color is determined by the amount of
- Protect the eyes from foreign objects
melanin present
- Help lubricate the eyes by spreading tears
(Large amounts of melanin: brown
over their surface
or black)
 Eyelashes (Less melanin: light brown, green,
- Project from the free margin of each eyelid or grey)
- Initiate reflex blinking (Even less melanin: blue)
 Conjuctiva
- Covers the inner eyelid and the anterior Nervous Layer
part of the eye
 Retina
 Lacrimal Apparatus
- The inner layer of the eyeball
- Has over 126 million photoreceptor cells, - Aqueous humor
which respond to light - Lens – Adjust the convergence by changing
 Macula (fovea centralis) shape
- Area of greatest sensitivity to light - Vitreous humor
- Highest concentration of photoreceptor  Distant and Near Vision
cells - Distant Vision: looking at objects 20 feet or
 Optic disc more from the eye
- Location through which nerves exit and - Near Vision: looking at objects less than 20
blood vessels enter the eye feet from the eye
- No photoreceptor cells - Far Point vision: point at which the lens
- The blind spot does not have to thicken for focusing to
occur; normally 20 feet or more from the
eye
Chambers of the Eye – composed of three - Near point vision: closest point an object
chambers can come to the eye and still be focused

- Anterior Chamber – between the Three events must occur to bring the image into
cornea and the iris focus
- Posterior chamber – between the iris 1. Accommodation by the lens
and the lens - Contraction of the ciliary muscles causes
- Viterous chamber – much larger than the lens to become more spherical
the other two chambers, posterior to 2. Constriction of the pupil
the lens - increases the depth of focus
3. Convergence of the eyes
 Aqueous Humor - medial rotation of the eyes
 Returned to the circulation through the
scleral venous sinus Structure and Function of the Retina
- Fills the anterior and posterior chambers  Pigmented Layer of the retina provides a
- Supports, nourishes, and removes wastes black backdrop for increasing visual acuity
for the cornea, which has no blood vessels  Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells
 Vitreous Humor  Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells,
- Fills the vitreous chamber which form the optic nerve
- Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball  Cones is responsible for color vision and
- Holds the lens and retina in place visual acuity
- Functions in the refraction of light in the - Three types, each with a different type of
eye iodopsin photopigment • Pigments are
most sensitive to blue, red, and green light
Lens  Perception of many colors results from
mixing the ratio of the different types of
 A biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular cones that are active at a given moment
structure that:  Depth perception is the ability to judge
 With age, the lens becomes more compact, relative distances of an object from the eyes
dense and loses its elasticity and is a property of binocular vision
- Binocular vision results because a slightly
different image is seen by each eye
Functions the Complete Eye
 Properties of Light
- Electromagnetic spectrum (all energy waves Hearing and Balance
from short gamma rays to long radio waves *Three parts of the ear are
 Visible spectrum
- Portion the electromagnetic spectrum that  External Ear
can be detected by the human eye - Extends from the outside of the head to the
 Refraction lymphatic membrane
- Bending the light  Middle ear
- Light striking a concave surface retracts - Air-filled chamber medial to the tympanic
outward retracts outward (divergence) membrane
- Light striking a convex surface refracts  Inner ear
inward (convergence) - Set of fluid-filled chambers medial to the
- Converging light rays meet at the focal middle ear
point and are said to be focused *The external and middle ear are involved with
 Focusing system of the Eye (light refracting) hearing
- Cornea – responsible for most of the
convergence
*The inner ear functions in both hearing and Static Balance
equilibrium  Evaluates the position of the head relative
to gravity and detects linear acceleration
Auditory Structures and Their Functions
and deceleration
 External Ear  Vestibule contains
- Auricle – fleshy part of the external ear - The utricle and saccule in the inner ear
- External acoustic meatus – passageway that • Contain maculae made of hair cells
leads to the tympanic membrane; • Hairs are embedded in an otolithic
ceruminous glands produce cerumen membrane
(earwax) – Consists of a gelatinous mass and crystals
- Tympanic membrane (eardrum) – Thin called otoliths
connective tissue membrane that vibrates – Moves in response to gravity
in response to sound; transfers sound
energy to the middle ear ossicles; boundary Dynamic Balance
between outer and middle ears  Evaluates movements of the head
 Middle Ear - Semicircular Canals
- A small. Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
- Contains three small bones: malleus, incus,
and stapes
- Auditory tube (pharyngotympanic or Neuroplasticity
eustachian tube)
 Inner Ear - Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to
- Bony labyrinth – interconnecting, fluid-filled change, or rewire, throughout a person’s
tunnels and chambers within the temporal life.
bone - It is the basis of learning and brain repair
- Contains - vestibule and semicircular canals: after injuries.
primarily involved in balance; cochlea: - The brain consists of billions of neurons and
involved in hearing they communicate with each other through
- Membranous labyrinth – filled with a a space between them, called synapse. This
potassium-rich fluid called endolymph communication is made possible by
chemical messages, or neurotransmitters.
 Cochlea
- Basically, the pre-synaptic neuron releases a
- Spiral-shaped canal within the temporal
neurotransmitter, which binds to, and
bone
activates a receptor on the post-synaptic
neuron. A typical neuron can have a
thousand of synapses, or connections, with
Auditory Function other neurons. Together, they form
 Pitch – is determined by the frequency of extremely complex networks that are
sound waves responsible for all brain’s functions.
 Volume – is determined by the amplitude of
sound waves
 Timbre – is the resonant quality (overtones) - Synaptic connections, as well as neurons
of sound themselves, can change over time, and this
phenomenon is called neural plasticity, or
neuroplasticity.
- Neuroplasticity is activity-driven and follows
Hearing involves
the “use it or lose it” rule: frequently used
- Sound waves - funneled by the auricle down synapses are strengthened, while rarely
the external acoustic meatus cause the used connections are weakened or
tympanic membrane to vibrate eliminated; new activities generate new
- Depolarization causes the release of connections.
glutamate, generating action potentials in - changes in synaptic strength can be
the sensory neurons associated with hair temporary or long-lasting depending on the
cells intensity and reoccurrence of the signal the
- The round window dissipates sound waves synapse receives.
and protects the inner ear from pressure - Neurons can temporarily enhance their
buildup connections by releasing more
neurotransmitter, activating a new
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing receptor, or modifying an existing receptor.
 Axons from the vestibulocochlear nerve This is the basis of short-term memory.
synapse in the medulla - Long-term memory retention requires
 Neurons from the medulla project axons to strong or sustained activities that produce
the inferior colliculi, where they synapse structural changes, such as growth of new
 dendritic spines and synaptic connections, - Keeping the brain busy is the way to keep
or even formation of new neurons. it healthy and effective.
- Structural neuroplasticity may also result in
enlargement of the cortical area associated
with the increased activity, and shrinkage of
areas that receive less or no activity. For
example, in right-handed people, the hand
motor region on the left side of the brain,
which controls the right hand, is larger than
the other side.
- Neuroplastic changes can also be functional,
meaning neurons may adopt a new function
when they are sufficiently stimulated. This is
how the brain survives injuries, such as
strokes.
- Healthy brain tissues can take over the
functions of the damaged area during post-
stroke rehabilitation. Some stimuli, such as
stress or physical exercise, can cause certain
neurons to switch from one
neurotransmitter to another, often
converting them from excitatory to
inhibitory or vice versa.
- his neurotransmitter switching is thought to
be the basis of behavioral changes induced
by such stimuli.
- An intriguing example of neural plasticity is
the phenomenon of phantom limb
sensation, in which patients who have lost a
limb through amputation can still feel the
limb. For example, patients may feel that
their lost arm is being touched when their
face is touched.
- Because incoming sensory signals from the
arms and face project to neighboring
regions in the somatosensory cortex, it is
plausible that sensory inputs from the face
spill over to the now inactive arm region
that no longer receives any inputs, tricking
the brain’s higher centers into interpreting
that the sensation comes from the absent
arm.
- The plasticity of the brain is not limited by
age, but is much more remarkable in
children as their young brain is still
developing.
- Neuroplasticity is essential for normal brain
development; it helps create functional
brain circuits and is the basis of learning.
This is why acquiring a new skill, such as
speaking a language or playing a musical
instrument, is much easier in childhood
than in adulthood.
- But changes brought about by neural
plasticity can also be negative/maladaptive
and have unfortunate consequences
especially if happen in childhood.
- Childhood traumas are more likely to have
long-lasting effects into a person’s life.
- Neuroplastic changes happen all the
time, but their magnitude depends on
the amount of activity the brain receives.
- More practice leads to more learning.