1

Key Learnings from free webinar about the Load Flow Analysis
1.)What is Load flow as per IEEE 399-1997?
As per IEEE 399-1997,
Input available:-
Definition:-
“Given the load power consumption at all buses of a known electric
power system configuration & the power production at each generator”
Explanation:-
 Before starting the load flow analysis, we need to know what is the
load real power consumption, power factor, Load rating & also the
electric system configuration.
 The power system configuration like what are the breakers to be
opened, like whether the bus coupler is normally opened or
normally closed.
 Like ways the system configuration must be known.
 The power production at the generator what is the load demand
that is going to define the generation as well so that will be equal
to the amount of power generate from the generator
As per IEEE 399-1997,
Output generate by the Load flow analysis:-
Definition:-
“You need to know the power flow from each line and transformer of
the interconnecting network and the voltage magnitude & phase angle at
each bus”
Explanation:-
 What will be the outcome of the Load flow analysis?
 2

 The power flow in each transmission line or transformer or cable

or interconnected network
 We also identify what is the voltage magnitude and phase angle at
each bus
 So, the power flow across each branch and the voltage magnitude
& phase angle identify from the load flow analysis.
2.)What is Load flow as per IEEE 3002.2-2018?
As per 3002.2-2018,
Definition:-
“The planning, design and operation of power system requires such
calculations to analyze the steady-state (Quiescent) performance of
power system under the various operating conditions and to study
the effects of the changes in equipment configuration”
Explanation:-
 It is mentioned as the power system seems to be the most dynamic
system in the world since the power generated in each & every
instant seems to be power consumed at the same instant because
there is no storage of power.
 so, the Load flow analysis will be utilized for planning for the new
power system network.
 For the existing network, you are going to extend the any kind of
expansion then we will be able to do the Load flow analysis.
 We will be doing the design of the complete new power system
network or expansion of the existing network
 The load flow analysis is the steady state analysis
 The load flow we are talking about only the balance load flow
which is based on the swing bus concept
 It is the steady state performance of the power system under the
various operating conditions
 3

We have the several operating conditions

3.)What is meant by various operating conditions?
 When we take the power system network the power system
network under the various operating conditions through out the
year & each every second the power generated & power demand is
correspondingly varying
So, what we will do these??
 We will take the important worst-case scenario under the normal
case condition & we will do the simulation for each & every
project that is mean as the various operating conditions
What is to study the effect of changes in the equipment
configuration?
 Say for example outage of any equipment or any breaker is in the
normally open condition or breaker is getting closed
 so, the network configuration changes the power system in the
network also changes correspondingly.
Advantage of Load flow analysis:-
We will do the load flow analysis for the several operating conditions,
for the several worst case we will do the simulations.

Continuation of Load Flow analysis

 So, it is possible to go for the simulation tool then just try out all
the condition then check what are all the worst case for which the
ETAP, Digsilent power factor is going to be much helpful.
 The Load flow analysis is the fundamental analysis so once we
frame the Etap SLD then we will be perform the LFA at first
because the LFA is fed the input to the consecutive analysis.
 4

From these we understand that LFA is the fundamental analysis we

will perform
4.)What are the outcomes of the Load flow or why we need to do the
load flow analysis?

a.)To identify the voltage profile:-

To find the voltage profile both the voltage magnitude and phase
angle of each & every bus
So, when the power is going to flow from the grid to the load what
are the losses in the network, what is the equipment rating, what is
going to be the voltage profile like voltage magnitude & phase
angle at each and every bus
b.)Equipment Loading:-
we have the several equipment’s like the transmission line,
transformer, cable, circuit breaker, PT’s, CT’s.
so, we need to identify what is the % of loading in that equipment
i.e., equipment loading
if the plant is to be already in-existing we will be able to identify
what is the % of loading in that existing equipment then what we
 5

will to do the future expansion that is going to be the rating of each

& every equipment.
In case, if you are doing the power system planning completely for
the new network.
Then the LFA we will be able to identify what is the rating of each
& every equipment required
c.)Losses:-
When the power is going to the equipment’s like transmission line,
cable, transformers then there is going to be some losses because
of the internal impedance of the equipment Depend on the
equipment rating the losses also differ.
So, what is going to be the system losses.
With these system losses what is going to be the voltage profile all
these we will identify
d.)Transformer Tap settings:-
whether the transformer is the network is the de-energized type or
whether it is going to be onload tap changing
Then from the LFA, we will be able to estimate the what is the
minimum tap settings & what will be the maximum tap settings
what is the step size should be provide for the transformer tap
change
Usually, the transformer tap step size are used to be regulate the
LV voltage.
For that Transformer HV side the transformer tap setting will be
provided
What is the maximum tap & minimum tap or what is the positive
tap & negative tap
e.)Generator terminal voltage set point
When you come to the generator, there are two types of control
 AVR control mode
 6

 Governor control mode.

Generator also going to keep monitor the Generator terminal
voltage
When the generator terminal voltage is going to vary
corresponding then there will be AVR which will sense the
generator terminal voltage & it will initiate the signal to the
excitation system.
So, the excitation system will try to change the field voltage.
So, the reactive power is inject to the network or consume from
the network in order to maintain the terminal voltage at the
generator.
f.)Contingency Analysis:-
In the LFA, we will trying to figure out what compensation in the
network if there is going to be the outage of any of the equipment
say the outage in the generator or there is the grid outage or there is
the grid failure or outage in the cable or outage in the t/m line
In all this above different condition, what is happen to the system
network
Thus, the system is remain in stable operating conditions
What is happening to the voltage magnitude
What is happening to the system losses
What are the equipment’s to be overloaded
All these identify through the contingency analysis.
From the LF, we will do the several cases which is going to be all
the possible worst cases scenario that is most likely occur in the
network
g.)Steady state Stability:-
we know that the Load flow Analysis is the steady state study or
the static study
when we do the Load flow analysis that is the basic study
 7

we will be able to identify whether in the basic or steady state

condition
whether the system is going to be the stable condition or not
h.)Provide input to the Transient studies:-
Load Flow studies provide input to the Transient studies
So, the Load flow is the pre-liminary or the fundamental analysis
from which we will getting the data input to the consecutive
analysis.
5.)Why Load flow?
a.)Components or circuit loading
It is identify through the Load flow studies
b.)steady-state bus voltage
Because the LFA is the steady state static analysis
The Bus voltage magnitude & the phase angle at instant of time
that is what we call it as the static analysis.
If it is the static analysis, we are going to perform the analysis for
the instant of the time
So, all the worst-case scenarios there is the possibility occur in the
network or it may not occur in the network
To be the safer side, we are performing all the possible worst case
c.)Real & Reactive power flow
From the LFA, we will know what is the real power flow, what is
the reactive power flow into the network
d.) transformer tap settings and the load tap changer actions in
which tap position is the tap setting now
e.)System real & reactive power losses & voltage drops
when we have the transmission line or cable
 8

of-course there will be the voltage drop because of the impedance

f.)Real & Reactive power demand and voltage drop at utility source
connection
The real & reactive power demand we will be identify from the
load rating.
What is going to be the voltage rating because of these power
factor of the load
When we do the simulation then it will be the understand much
better
h.)Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
i.)From the Load flow, we can identify which are the buses
experiencing the under-voltage and which are the buses
experiencing over-voltage. What is the reason for it
In-case if the voltage is going to beyond the permissible limit
above the tolerance, then how it is going to bring it back within the
limits
Whether we need to go for any voltage regulators is used to bring
back the voltage withing the permissible limit
j.)Performance under maximum, normal, minimum and start up
load conditions:-
since we are doing the several cases
we will be doing for the several loading conditions like the
minimum loading conditions, maximum load conditions.
The same event with the incoming voltage level.
When we have the minimum voltage, maximum voltage from the
grid then what is going to be the system behavior
All of these we will going to identify from the LFA
k.)Performance under various operating configurations(such as Co-
Gen on (or) off, Tiebreakers closed etc.,)
 9

When there is going to be the generator in the network what is

going to be the rating
Whether it is the emergency Diesel Generator
Whether it is going to be the co-generative generator which will be
continuously in service along with the grid supply.
Whether Tiebreaker are going to be normally open condition or
normally closed condition
All the different configurations, even when there is going to be
change in any one of the breaker position then the configuration
network will be completely change
Then definitely the bus voltages all going to be change
l.)Performance under emergency conditions(Post-contingency) :-
When it is going to be the bus outage of any major equipment
Whether it is possible to ensure the continuous power supply or
whether it is going to be interruption
All of these identify through the Load flow
m.)Requirement for either fixed or variable power factor
improvement equipment:-
So, usually we try to find out the power factor at the point of
interconnection which is called as the grid bus.
It is the point that we need to maintain the power factor within the
limits
So, in the normal condition whether the power factor is within the
limits or any power factor improvement equipment or is required
like the capacitor bank, FACTS controller or even the synchronous
condenser
In case if there is the requirements, how do we model it how we
design the equipment
 10

We will design the equipment then we have to put in the network

and then try to check whether there is the improvement in the
power factor
6.)Define power factor?
 Power factor should not be the cosine angle between the voltage
and current
 Because if it is the cosine angle between the voltage and current
then it is the displacement power factor & not it is the true factors

7.) Why do we perform the Load flow ? Why the load flow analysis
is the basic analysis? Why it is so important?
a.)To verify the operation of a network under various load and
generating conditions
 Then what happens if the generation is minimum & Loading is
maximum
 When both the generation and load is the normal condition
 When the generator is maximum & loading is minimum
 Of-course there will be the imbalance in the voltage when the
generator generates the power and the power consumes going to be
the mismatch then there will be the imbalance in the network
parameters also the system voltages and the system frequency will
corresponding vary
b.)to plan the future growth of both load and generation
For example:
 We have the huge industry, from where the power is source from
the grid from nearby substation probably in case next 10year we
are going to be for the expansion.
 Probably they also going to be think of the any renewable power
injection or we have the co-generation plant
 11

 So, as the load increases even the generation has to be

correspondingly increases
 So, how the generation is going to be compensating or they are
going to extract the more power from the grid itself or the power
taken from any of the renewable energy sources
 So, all these planning for the future load will be increases &
generation will be increases -to plan the future growth of load &
generation.
c.)To determine the best economical operational for existing system:-
 which one is the most economical one, of-course when we have the
Co-Generation plant consume the entire power from that generator
and then remaining power demand, they depend on the grid that
one be the one economical operation
 if possible they will be inject the renewable injection that is also
the economical one
d.)To establish initial conditions for stability studies:-
 We know that the Load flow studies is going to be input to the
Transient stability studies
 so, what is the normal existing configuration and what is the
condition of the system & that is going to be disturbance when the
condition changes and what happens to the network changes which
what study in the transient stability analysis
e.)To help identify the need for additional capacitive or inductive
VAR support, to maintain system voltages within acceptable limits
 So, usually either the reactive power injection or reactive power
consumption is done in order to maintain the bus voltage is within
the limit for that condition which equipment which is going to be
used for reactive power consumption
8.)What are the types of Power system Buses:-
 12

a.)Slack Bus /Swing Bus:-

It is usually the Bus No:1 is assumed as the Slack Bus/Swing Bus
then usually act as the magnitude of 1p.u.and angle of 0 degree.
So, for the slack bus/swing bus alone we will consider the
magnitude & angle to be 1<o degree.
It is the major assumption we will do.
For the Grid, in case incomer is fed from the grid & whatever the
grid we have model in the Etap.

 So, this grid represents the nearby substation of taking the power
 So, this grid is going to be representation of the Thevenin
equivalent of the grid or the substation nearby where we are
receive the power
 When we talk about the grid, the grid comprises of the voltage
source in series with the resistance and reactance.So, these is how
 13

usually the grid models.It is also called the Thevenin equivalent or

equivalent circuit of the grid

 It is usually comprises of the voltage source which is series with

the resistance & reactance.
 When we call it as the swing source or when we call it as the slack
source, what is the major assumption we consider is we are
consider only the voltage source and the internal impedance are not
taken into consideration that is called as the swing source
 Usually, the grid comprises of the voltage source in series with the
resistance & reactance that is going to be the internal impedance
Z=R+jX
 When we come to the swing source, the internal impedance are not
taken into consideration, it is only the voltage source will be
consider. It means that there is no internal impedance at all
 So, the swing source is consider as the infinite source
b.)Generator Bus/PV Bus/Voltage controlled Bus:-
The bus is to which the generator is connected.
 14

So, the generator in the voltage control mode is called as the PV

bus or Generator Bus
Even if the transformer is OLTC is going to be control the voltage
at the particular bus that bus is also consider as the generator bus
c.)Load Bus or PQ bus:-
It is nothing but the where the loads are connected or even if the
generators are connected to these buses are operating in the MVAR
control mode or Power factor control mode.
Even those buses are consider as the load bus.
9.)What is swing source?
a.)It is the special type of bus which is required in the load flow
solution:
Why do we talk about the swing source only in the Load flow
analysis it’s because the load flow what we are performing is the
static study & the load flow is also called as the balanced load flow
or it is the conventional load flow
Each and every SLD mandatory to have the swing source in it
So, without the swing source we will not be able to perform the
simulation
b.) it is mandatory that all isolated load flow models have at least
one swing source
Whether it is the grid connected network or it is the generator
connected network.
One source should be the swing source otherwise you will not be
able to compile the simulation
c.)In systems with strong grid connection, the grid is considered as
the swing source:-
 15

For the grid connected system, If you take the grid from the Etap
library & place then the grid will be default only in the swing
mode
d.)In Generator connected system, the largest capacity generator is
considered as the swing source
If we take the generator, when we have one or more generators.
Then the largest capacity generator is considered to be the swing
source it means only the sources there is no internal impedance in
it which means there is no voltage drop across the source
e.)It brings a balance in the system between power generated &
power consumed :-
We have the several generators where we have the power has
injected and whichever the largest capacity of generator is consider
as the swing source or if it is the grid the grid will be responsible
for maintaining the balance between the generative power & power
consumed by the loads
When we have several generators operating together for
synchronism.
The largest capacity generator is consider as the swing generator or
if all the generators are going to be the swing mode they will be
share the load equally.
f.) Isochronous mode:-
If there are four generators in the power system network.
If you are going to feed the same load and the faulted generators
are put in the swing mode they will be share the load equally Then
they will termed as the “Isochronous Load sharing”.
The swing generator is in Isochronous mode & it adjust the
governor in such a way to supply the required real power and
varies the excitation system to supply the reactive power needed to
balance the real flow in the system network
 16

So, whenever there is the generator in the swing source the

excitation system will always maintain whatever the real power
requirement is maintained in the network & whatever the reactive
power requirement in the network there will be the proper balance
between the power injected and power consumed by the loads.
g.)Swing source is called as the infinite source
Why it is called the infinite source?
Whether there is the excess of reactive power or real power then
the swing source will consume it or if there is the requirement the
swing source will inject to the network
so, let it be the real power or reactive power the swing source will
have the infinite amount of real power & reactive power injection
capability that’s why it is called as the Infinite source
h.) In real time, the power supplied by swing source is finite, but can
be larger to the other generator in the system
When we talk about the swing source, the swing source is only the
assumption and pictorial concepts for the ease of analysis
So, in the real time there is no swing source which really exits
i.) During operation, the swing generator is specified to remain in
constant voltage magnitude lVl and phase angle (theta) while the
real and reactive power supply changes as per the network demand.
Explanation:-
So, the Generator are going to inject power based on the rated
capacity.
since the assumption we make it here the swing source alone will
have the voltage magnitude 1p.u and phase angle of 0 degrees.
When we do the simulation, the power will flow from the higher
angle to the lower angle that is why whenever we do the simulation
 17

on the Etap for all the analysis with whatever condition only for
the swing bus or grid bus the angle will be always 0 degree.
The voltage magnitude always be 100% or 1 p.u. there is no
change in it since the internal impedance also not taken into
consideration
j.) The incomer utility connection is modelled as the Thevenin
equivalent of the supply system in the upstream and the model
comprises of a driving voltage in series with an impedance
Explanation:-
As I mentioned it is the Thevenin equivalent of the supply system
from the upstream
when we represents the grid that is receive the supply from the
nearby substation that is completely we represents the Thevenin
equivalent of all the incomers inclusive of the upstream network
equipment
k.)The internal driving voltage is set as the swing source
m.) The internal impedance determines the bolted short circuit current
available from the supply network at the point of interconnection.
 18

10.)From the figure to find out the type of buses

Answer:-
a.)Bus-1 is no doubt it is the slack bus or swing bus
b.)Bus-2 is the PQ or Load Bus.
 We think that the generator is connected to the bus-2.
 So, it is named as Generator bus but it is wrong
If you see in the Bus-2,
 The real power is fixed
 The reactive power is also fixed
 It means it is operating in the MVAr control mode or
power factor control mode that reactive power is also
fixed
 19

 The voltage is not given, so which means only after

perform the load flow we will be understand what is
the voltage at the bus
 P is fixed & Q is fixed.
 So, it is the PQ bus.
 Though it as the generator,bus-2 is not the generator
bus or voltage-controlled bus it don’t have the
capability to regulate the voltage because the MVAr is
fixed
 Bus-2 is the PQ bus
c.)For the bus-3
 we connected the load as 50MW & 25MVAr so, we may think it
as the Load bus or PQ bus
 But voltage is given as 1.03p.u. at the bus 3
 It means there is a controllable reactive power source which is
connected to the bus 3.
 This is what internal meaning of it though it was explicitly given
 If you want to regulate the voltage at the bus, you need the voltage.
 if you want to control the voltage then you need the controllable
reactive power source
Note:-
If you are pushing the reactive power to the busThen bus voltage
will increase
If you are taking/consume the reactive power from the busThen
bus voltage will decrease
From these you understand that you want to control the voltage
either you need to inject the reactive power or you need to take out
the reactive power
 20

11.)Basic Quiz:-
a.)Power factor is defined as the
Answer:-
Ratio of real power to apparent power
b.)What are the four important parameters of load flow study?
Answer:-
V,Del,P,Q
c.)What is true power factor?
Answer:-
Displacement factor*(1+sqrt(1+THD2))
d.)if we have to decrease the 11kV Bus voltage, in 110/11kV
Transformer OLTC?
Answer:-
Move the tap from the 110kV to 111.375kV
e.)Real power will flow from
Answer:-
Bus A to Bus B if we angle of Bus B is less than Bus A
f.)Reactive power will flow from
Answer:-
Bus-A to Bus-B if we voltage of Bus B is less than Bus A
g.)If we have to increase the bus voltage
Answer:-
Inject the reactive power
 21

h.)Increase in bus voltage results in

Answer:-
Required higher insulation
i.)If we need to transmit more current in OHL
Answer:-
Increase the conductor size
k.)OLTC is provided on transformer
Answer:-
HV side to Regulate the Voltage on LV side
12.)How the Grid is consider for LF studies & Other studies what is
the difference?

 Only for the Load flow analysis it is consider as the infinite source
or swing source
 For all the consecutive other analysis like the short circuit
analysis, motor starting study, relay co-ordination, Arc flash
analysis, Transient stabilty.
For all these studies the source will be inclusive
of the internal impedances.
The source will be consider as the internal
impedances
 Only for the load flow analysis the source will be considered as the
swing source.
 22

 These Grid is connected to the Bus-1 which is called as the grid

bus
13.)What is meant by Flat Start?

 From the above picture you understand that Bus-1 is the Grid bus
or swing or slack bus which is always the 100% of voltage
magnitude and 0deg which is nothing 1<0 deg
 23

 It is nothing but the Flat start

 Having the swing source, with 1p.u. as the voltage magnitude and
0deg is the phase angle
 It is technically termed as the Flat start.
 If you go and refer the IEEE3002.2 all the data about the swing
source as well as the flat start is mention
14.)How the branch losses are catered by the Swing source in the
Load flow analysis ?

If you run the load flow analysis, the results are above
The transformer losses are 9.74kW is the real power loss &
58.5kVAr is the reactive power loss across the transformer
Then the remaining load requirement is totally fed by the grid.
 24

Since the grid is going to by the swing source then the swing
source will take care of the losses across the branch equipments.
If there is going to be the transformer it will be the loss then these
loss will be supply by the grid
And incase if there is going to be the transmission line or cable or
whatever the intermediate equipment or whatever the equipment is
placed in the upstream of the load all the losses will be taken care
by the grid.
The grid will supply to the losses that is how the swing source is
maintain the balance between the power generated and power
consumption
15.)Case study for different power factor in the load side &
corresponding losses in the LV bus
Now I am create the four cases
Case-1 Power factor is 85%
Case-2 Power factor is 90%
Case-3 Power factor is 95%
Case-4 Power factor is 100%
 25

 In all the cases the swing bus value will be 100% voltage
magnitude and 0 deg phase angle
 In all the LV buses, change in the LV side voltage magnitude
 Since the difference in the power factor of the load the real and
reactive power drawn as the different values in all the four cases
Observation:-
(i.)If you see the case-1 with power factor of 85% the real power is
1275kW and 790.2kVAr
(ii.)If you see the case-4 with power factor of 100% the real power is
1500kW and 0kVAr.
 since there is no reactive power drawn by the load even the loss
across the transformer will be there & its value is decreased when
compared to the case-1,2,3.
 It also greatly improves the LV bus voltage
 Since there is no reactive power drawn by the load so, the voltage
across the LV side bus also improved and the loss across the
transformer also reduced
16.)Where we want to check the power factor in the given network?
We need to check the power factor is always on the Point of
interconnection which is nothing but the grid bus
 26

If you see the power factor of the grid bus at the point of
interconnection
Case-1 have 83.4% p.f.
Case-2 have 88.59% p.f.
Case-3 have 93.83% p.f.
Case-4 have 99.93% p.f.
So, we always check the power factor at the point of
interconnection
17.) what is the disadvantage of maintain poor power factor in load
side?
 When we maintain the poor power factor, all the upstream
equipment will be overloaded because it will draw the more
amount of current
 what happens it’s the current flow from all the upstream equipment
will increase because of which there will be the increase loss in the
equipment there will be rise in temperature
 27

 When we have the poor factor, the equipment should be

sufficiently rated so that it is capable of handle the excess power
the equipment will be overloaded when the loads have the poor
factor

We know that the below the grid bus we have the control like it is
the industry of getting the power from the utility
In above the grid bus we donot have the control because it is
control by the utility
If we maintain the poor power factor, all the equipment in the
upstream is going to be affected.
Because of which there is the penalty to be paid for maintain the
poor power factor
18.)How we do enhance the power factor?
 Either by using the capacitor bank or you can go for the
synchronous condenser or FACTS controller.
 Any of those technique which help to improve the system power
factor maintain in the point of interconnection
 28

19.)What are the different modes of operation in the Grid & default
mode of operation ?

 If you see the above image is the Grid tab in ETAP, by default it is
always the swing mode
 There also other options called voltage control mode and MVAr
control mode and power factor control mode.
 But the grid is default in the swing mode only.
20.)What is the different modes of operation in the generator &
default mode of operation ?
AVR control
Swing Mode
Voltage control mode
Power factor mode
MVAr control mode
 29

 If you see the generator, it is always in the voltage control mode,

but it is also have the other modes like swing mode, MVAr control
mode, Power factor control mode.
 So, when have the generator all these modes of operation is pertain
to the AVR of the excitation system
 So, each and every mode have the unique objective & that purpose
will be serve in the Generator excitation of the AVR is put in the
particular mode of operation
 Similarly, when we go to the Generator governor control
21.) what are the different Governor controls?
Governor control can be operated in two modes
Droop Mode
Isochronous Mode
 30

22.)what is Droop mode?

 When we go for the droop mode, only when the generator is
operated along with the grid you will go for the Droop mode
23.)what is Isochronous mode?
 When we go for the Isochronous mode, when the generator is only
the source of power supply in the network then we go for the
Isochronous mode.
 In order to maintain the system stability and system frequency we
will use the respective modes of operation depend upon the
Generator is to be islanded condition
Generator is going to be the standalone system
Generator going to be connected along with the grid
24.) what are the types of Load?

These are classified into three categories types,

Constat impedance loads
Constant current loads
Constant power loads
These are called as the ZIP loads
 31

25.)why the Loads are called as the ZIP loads?

Because of the constant impedance type, constant current type and
contant power type so, it is called as the ZIP loads
26.)On what basis these loads are classify:-
 The loads are classify depend on the power consumption, voltage
dependancy
 The constant impedance load will be depend on square of
the voltage
 The constant current load will be depend on the voltage
 The constant power load will be completely independent of
the voltage
 So, depend on the voltage of the bus what is going to be the power
consumed by each and every load will classify the types of load
27.)What is the Difference between the N-1 contingency and N+1
configuration?
N-1 is the contingency
When all the equipment’s like “n” no. of equipments in the picture
One equipment is getting out of service because of fault or taking
out for the maintenance that is the N-1 Contingency
N+1 is the configuration
Even if one equipment is failed, like the rest of the sytem is
worked without problem.
Then you design always that one more equipment has to be added
So, that even out of one equipment there will be remain equipment
will solve the purpose
 32

28.)What is the reactive power loss in the negative value??

It is nothing but the reactive power gain, the transmission line has
capacitance that capacitance will inject the reactive power.
so that negative sign in the reactive power loss means the reactive
power gain
29.)What is the suggestion to give to improve the lead power factor
due to the longer cable length?
Answer:-
Shunt reactor