Submitted By: Katyayani Anand

Enrolment No: 23lsd001

ASSIGNMENT 1

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (CODE: ASL-710)

Ques.1. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in

modern times.

Meaning And Definition of Research

Research is an activity that leads us to finding new facts, information,
assisting us in verifying the available knowledge and in making us question
things that are difficult to understand as per existing data. Research in common
parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Research can also be defined as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning
of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research define research as "The
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art."

The purpose of research and the key reasons why research is of

significance in modern times is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the
truth, which is hidden, and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, some of the research significance
are: -
 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Ques.2: Distinguish between Research methods and Research

methodology.
The differences between research method and research methodology can be
drawn clearly on the following grounds:
 The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied
by the researcher to undertake research. On the other hand, research
methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically for solving
the research problem.
 The research method is nothing but the behavior or tool, employed in
selecting and building research technique. Conversely, research
methodology implies the science of analyzing, the manner in which
research is conducted appropriately.
 The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test,
surveys, interviews, etc. As against this, research methodology is
concerned with learning various techniques which can be employed in
the performance of experiment, test or survey.
 Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike,
research methodology, which consists of complete approach aligned
towards the attainment of purpose.
 Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at
hand. In contrast, research methodology aspires to apply appropriate
procedures, with a view to ascertaining solutions.
Ques.3: Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the
difference between an experiment and a survey.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and
fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action)
research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research
aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or
an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to
make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a
solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. The central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are
interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why
people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using
in depth interviews for the purpose. Qualitative research is especially
 important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation
alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get
enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought
that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered
to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are
variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on
either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis
of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can
think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research.
In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-
periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research
or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is
to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or
diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or
 indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies
usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The
research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of
exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research
is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons
and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified
as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker
and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of
decision-oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding
operations under their control.

Ques.4: Write short notes on: (A) Design of the research project; (B) Ex
post facto research; (C) Motivation in research; (D) Objectives of research;
(E) Criteria of good research; (F) Research and scientific method.
(A) Design of the Research Project:
 The design of a research project involves planning and structuring the
entire research process.
 It includes defining the research problem, determining the research
questions or hypotheses, and selecting the appropriate research design.
 Research design can be experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-
experimental, depending on the nature of the research.

(B) Ex Post Facto Research:

  Ex post facto research, also known as causal-comparative research,
examines the effects of independent variables that cannot be
manipulated.
 The researcher observes and analyzes the impact of existing conditions
or situations on the dependent variable.
 It is retrospective in nature and is often used when experimental research
is not feasible.

(C) Motivation in Research:

 Motivation in research refers to the drive or incentive that inspires
researchers to pursue their studies.
 Intrinsic motivation comes from personal interest and curiosity, while
extrinsic motivation may involve external factors like recognition or
financial rewards.
 A high level of motivation is crucial for sustained effort and dedication
in the research process.

(D) Objectives of Research:

• Research objectives are specific, measurable goals that a researcher aims
to achieve through the study.
• They guide the research process and help in defining the scope and focus
of the investigation.
• Clear objectives enhance the effectiveness of research by providing a
roadmap for the study.

(E) Criteria of Good Research:

 Relevance: The research should address a meaningful and significant
problem.
 Rigor: The study should be conducted with precision, accuracy, and
attention to detail.
 Validity: The research must measure what it intends to measure.
 Reliability: Results should be replicable and consistent.
 Ethical Considerations: Research should adhere to ethical standards,
ensuring the well-being of participants.
 (F) Research and Scientific Method:
 Research is a systematic process of inquiry aimed at generating new
knowledge or validating existing knowledge.
 The scientific method involves systematic observation, measurement,
and experimentation to formulate and test hypotheses.
 Research follows the principles of the scientific method, emphasizing
objectivity, empirical evidence, and replicability to ensure the
reliability of findings.

Ques.5: Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems

for the researchers”. State the problems that are usually faced by such
researchers.

Empirical research in India, like in any other context, can indeed present a
variety of challenges for researchers. Some common problems faced by empirical
researchers in India include:

1. Data Collection Challenges:

 Limited Access to Data: Difficulty in accessing reliable and
comprehensive data due to restrictions, privacy concerns, or lack of
transparency in some sectors.
 Heterogeneity of Data: Variability and inconsistency in data formats,
quality, and availability across different regions and sources.

2. Resource Constraints:
 Financial Constraints: Limited funding for research projects, hindering
access to necessary resources, tools, or technologies.
 Human Resources: Shortage of skilled personnel and research assistants.

3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity:

 Diverse Populations: India's vast cultural and linguistic diversity can make it
challenging to design and implement research that adequately represents the
entire population.
  Translation Issues: Difficulties in translating research instruments and
materials accurately across various languages and dialects.

4. Infrastructure and Technology Issues:

 Technological Disparities: Unequal access to technology and the internet,
particularly in rural areas, can impact the reach and inclusivity of research.
 Infrastructure Challenges: Inadequate research infrastructure, especially in
certain remote or underdeveloped regions.

5. Ethical Considerations:
 Informed Consent: Challenges in obtaining informed consent due to literacy
issues or cultural nuances.
 Cultural Sensitivity: Ensuring research methods are culturally sensitive and
ethical in diverse cultural contexts.

6. Political and Administrative Challenges:

 Bureaucratic Red Tape: Lengthy administrative processes and bureaucratic
hurdles for obtaining necessary approvals.
 Political Sensitivities: Sensitivities around certain topics, especially those
related to politics, religion, or social issues.

7. Publication and Recognition:

 Publication Bias: Limited avenues for publishing research findings,
especially if the research doesn't align with popular narratives.
 Recognition Issues: Challenges in gaining recognition and visibility for
research, which may affect career progression.

8. Time Constraints:
 Time-Consuming Processes: Delays in obtaining approvals, navigating
administrative procedures, and lengthy data collection processes.

9. Changing Socioeconomic Dynamics:

  Rapid Socioeconomic Changes: The dynamic nature of India's
socioeconomic landscape can make longitudinal studies challenging due to
rapid changes in demographics, technology, and lifestyle.

Addressing these challenges requires careful planning, collaboration, and a

nuanced understanding of the local context to ensure the validity and reliability of
empirical research in India.

Ques.6: “A research scholar has to work as a judge and derive the truth and
not as a Pleader who is only eager to prove his case in favour of his plaintiff.”
Discuss the statement pointing out the objectives of research.

Research Scholar as a Judge vs. Pleader

The analogy of a research scholar as a judge rather than a pleader highlights the
necessity of neutrality and objectivity in research. Just as a judge must impartially
evaluate evidence to reach a verdict, a research scholar must critically assess data and
findings to arrive at truthful conclusions. This approach ensures that research:
 Is driven by questions and hypotheses that are tested through empirical
evidence, rather than by attempts to prove a specific point.
 Remains open to unexpected findings or outcomes, which may lead to new
questions or lines of inquiry.
 Upholds the ethical standards of scientific inquiry, contributing to the
credibility and reliability of the research field.

In conclusion, the statement emphasizes the ethical and methodological imperative for
researchers to conduct their work with an unbiased, judicious mindset. The objectives
of research—to discover truth, test theories, solve problems, and contribute to the
collective knowledge—necessitate an approach that prioritizes evidence and
objectivity over personal conviction or bias.

Ques7. “Creative management, whether in public administration or private

industry, depends on methods of inquiry that maintain objectivity, clarity, accuracy
and consistency”. Discuss this statement and examine the significance of research”.
 The statement highlights the critical role of research in facilitating creative
management within both public administration and private industry. Creative
management involves innovative thinking and problem-solving to improve organizational
processes, products, services, and policies. To achieve this, managers rely on methods of
inquiry that ensure decisions are based on solid evidence. Let's discuss the importance of
maintaining objectivity, clarity, accuracy, and consistency in research and how this
contributes to effective management.
Objectivity: Objectivity in research means conducting inquiries without allowing
personal biases, beliefs, or emotions to influence outcomes. In the context of
management, objectivity ensures that decisions are made based on impartial and unbiased
information, leading to fair and effective solutions. Objectivity is crucial for evaluating
different options, strategies, or innovations without prejudice, allowing the best ideas to
surface based on their merits rather than subjective preferences.
Clarity: Clarity in research involves clearly defining research questions, methodologies,
and outcomes. It ensures that the purpose and direction of the inquiry are well-understood
by all stakeholders. In management, clarity helps in setting clear goals, expectations, and
strategies. It also aids in communicating findings and decisions effectively, ensuring that
all team members are aligned and can contribute to the implementation of solutions.
Accuracy: Accuracy in research refers to the precision and correctness of the data
collected and the conclusions drawn. In management, accurate information is the
foundation of sound decision-making. Decisions based on accurate data are more likely
to lead to successful outcomes, as they reflect the true state of affairs. Accuracy also
helps in forecasting, risk assessment, and strategic planning, enabling managers to
anticipate challenges and opportunities.
Consistency: Consistency in research methods ensures that studies can be replicated and
that their findings are reliable over time. For managers, consistency in decision- making
processes and strategies is key to building trust and stability within the organization.
Consistent application of research methodologies also allows for the accumulation of
knowledge, facilitating continuous improvement and innovation.

Significance of Research in Management

Informing Decision-Making: Research provides the evidence base for making informed
decisions, helping managers choose between alternatives or develop new strategies.
Driving Innovation: Through research, managers can identify gaps in the market,
emerging trends, and opportunities for innovation, keeping the organization competitive.
Evaluating Outcomes: Research methods are used to evaluate the effectiveness of
policies, products, services, or processes, allowing for adjustments and optimizations.
Enhancing Efficiency: By understanding processes and systems better, managers can
streamline operations, reduce costs, and improve performance.
Building Knowledge: Continuous research contributes to the collective knowledge
within an organization, fostering a culture of learning and adaptation.

Q8. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and
evaluation.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your
answer.

Yes, I agree with the statement that research is much concerned with proper fact
finding, analysis, and evaluation. Here are the reasons to support this agreement:

1. **Foundation of Research: Research is fundamentally about seeking knowledge

and understanding by systematically investigating facts, phenomena, or theories. Fact-
finding is the initial step in this process, where researchers gather relevant data and
information through various methods such as observation, experimentation, or
literature review.

2. **Analysis for Interpretation: Once data is collected, analysis becomes crucial

for making sense of the information gathered. Through analysis, researchers examine
patterns, relationships, and trends within the data to draw meaningful conclusions.
Different analytical techniques and tools are employed depending on the nature of the
research and the type of data collected.

3. **Evaluation of Findings: Evaluation involves critically assessing the validity,

reliability, and significance of research findings. Researchers must evaluate whether
their findings support or refute the initial hypotheses or research questions.
Additionally, they assess the strengths and limitations of their study and consider
implications for theory, practice, or policy.

4. **Quality Assurance: Proper fact-finding, analysis, and evaluation are essential

for ensuring the quality and credibility of research. Rigorous fact-finding methods
help in collecting accurate and relevant data, while thorough analysis enables
researchers to derive meaningful insights. Evaluation processes, including peer review
and validation, help uphold the integrity and reliability of research findings.

5. **Decision Making and Problem Solving: Research findings often inform

decision-making processes in various fields, including academia, business, healthcare,
and public policy. Proper fact-finding, analysis, and evaluation provide evidence-
based insights that support informed decision making and problem-solving efforts.

6. **Advancement of Knowledge: Through systematic fact-finding, analysis, and

evaluation, research contributes to the advancement of knowledge within specific
domains and disciplines. By building upon existing knowledge and challenging
conventional wisdom, research drives intellectual progress and innovation.

In conclusion, research indeed revolves around proper fact finding, analysis, and
evaluation. These elements are essential for generating reliable findings, advancing
knowledge, and making informed decisions across various fields and disciplines.

Ques.9. It is often said that there is not a proper link between some of the
activities under way in the world of academics and in most business in our
country. Account for this state of affairs and give suggestions for improvement.

The lack of a proper link between academic activities and business practices in
many countries, including ours, can be attributed to several factors:

1. Gap in Communication and Collaboration: There is often a lack of effective

communication and collaboration between academia and industry. Academic research
may not always address practical business needs, and businesses may not effectively
communicate their challenges and requirements to academia.
2. Misalignment of Objectives: Academia and industry often operate with different
objectives and priorities. While academia focuses on theoretical understanding and
knowledge generation, businesses are primarily concerned with practical applications
and profitability. This misalignment can create a disconnect between the two sectors.

3. Cultural and Institutional Barriers: Cultural and institutional barriers can hinder
collaboration between academia and industry. Academics may prioritize publication
metrics and academic recognition, while businesses may prioritize confidentiality and
proprietary information.

4. Resource Constraints: Both academia and industry may face resource constraints
that limit their ability to collaborate effectively. Academics may lack access to real-
world data and resources, while businesses may lack the time and resources to engage
with academic research.

To improve the link between academia and business, several suggestions can be
considered:

1. Promote Collaboration and Partnerships: Encourage collaboration and

partnerships between academia and industry through joint research projects,
internships, and industry-academia forums. Establishing formal channels for
communication and collaboration can bridge the gap between the two sectors.

2. Create Incentives for Collaboration: Provide incentives for academics and

businesses to collaborate, such as research grants, funding opportunities, and
recognition for collaborative efforts. Incentivizing collaboration can encourage
academics to conduct research that addresses practical business needs and
incentivize businesses to engage with academia.

3. Facilitate Knowledge Transfer: Establish mechanisms for transferring

knowledge and expertise between academia and industry, such as technology
transfer offices, industry-academia liaison offices, and mentorship programs.
Facilitating knowledge transfer can help translate academic research into
practical applications for businesses.
 4. Promote Interdisciplinary Research: Encourage interdisciplinary research
that brings together academics from different disciplines and professionals
from various industries. Interdisciplinary research can foster innovation and
address complex real-world problems more effectively.

5. Provide Training and Education: Offer training and education programs

that equip academics and industry professionals with the skills and knowledge
needed to collaborate effectively. Training programs can help bridge the gap
between academic research and practical applications in business.

By addressing these challenges and implementing these suggestions, we can improve

the link between academia and business, fostering collaboration, innovation, and
economic growth.

Ques.10: How do you define a research problem? Give three examples to

illustrate your answer.

Defining Research Problem: A research problem is a specific, clear, and well-

defined statement that outlines the issue or gap in knowledge that a researcher seeks to
address through systematic investigation. It provides a focus for the research, guiding
the formulation of research questions or hypotheses, and serves as the foundation for
the entire research process.

Characteristics of a Research Problem:

1. Clarity: A research problem should be clearly and precisely articulated,
avoiding ambiguity or vagueness.
2. Relevance: It should address a significant and relevant issue that contributes to
knowledge in the field of study.
3. Feasibility: The problem should be feasible to investigate within the available
resources, time, and ethical considerations.

Examples of Research Problems:

1. Example in Psychology:
 Research Problem: "To what extent does childhood exposure to
traumatic events impact the development of post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) in adulthood among individuals?"
2. Example in Economics:
 Research Problem: "What are the economic implications of
implementing sustainable business practices in small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs)?"
3. Example in Education:
 Research Problem: "How does the integration of technology in the
classroom affect student engagement and learning outcomes in primary
education?"

In each of these examples:

 The research problem is clear and specific, focusing on a particular aspect of a
broader topic.
 The relevance of the problem is evident as it addresses issues with practical
implications in psychology, economics, and education.
 The feasibility of the research is implied, assuming that the necessary data and
resources are reasonably accessible for investigation.
These examples highlight the importance of well-defined research problems that guide
researchers in their quest to contribute new knowledge and understanding within their
respective fields.

Ques.11: “The task of defining the research problem often follows a sequential
pattern”. Explain.
The process of defining a research problem indeed often follows a sequential pattern,
which helps in systematically narrowing down a broad area of interest into a specific,
researchable issue. This sequential approach ensures that the research problem is
clearly articulated, relevant, and feasible to investigate within the constraints of
resources, time, and scope. Here's a breakdown of the typical sequential steps
involved:

1. Identification of a Broad Subject Area: The first step is identifying a general

area of interest, which could be motivated by personal interests, academic
 requirements, gaps observed in professional practice, or emerging trends in the
literature.

2. Literature Review: Conducting a thorough review of existing literature in the

chosen area follows. This step is crucial for understanding the current state of
knowledge, identifying gaps in the research, and uncovering unresolved questions
or contradictions within the subject area. It helps researchers to ground their work
in the context of what has already been done and to identify precisely where their
research can contribute.

3. Narrowing Down the Focus: Based on insights gained from the literature
review, the broad subject area is narrowed down to more specific topics or issues
that have not been fully explored or need further investigation. This step often
involves critical thinking and synthesis of the literature to pinpoint where
significant gaps or opportunities for new insights exist.

4. Formulating the Research Problem: With a specific issue in mind, the next
step is to formulate the research problem. This involves stating the problem in a
clear, concise manner, highlighting the significance of the issue, and outlining the
scope of the research. A well-formulated research problem should define the
variables or concepts to be studied and suggest the nature of the relationship
between them, if applicable.

5. Justification for the Research: After defining the research problem, it is

essential to articulate why the problem is worth investigating. This includes
explaining the relevance of the problem to the field, its theoretical and practical
implications, and how solving the problem or addressing the research questions
could advance knowledge, inform policy, or impact practice.

6. Setting Research Objectives and Questions: The clearly defined research

problem then leads to the specification of concrete research objectives or
questions that the study aims to address. These objectives and questions should
be directly linked to the research problem and guide the methodological approach
of the study.
 7. Review and Refinement: The final step in the sequence is reviewing the defined
research problem and its accompanying objectives and questions for clarity,
focus, and feasibility. This may involve seeking feedback from peers, advisors, or
other stakeholders and refining the problem statement as needed to ensure it is
ready for investigation.

Ques.12: “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the
problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.” Explain the
underlying idea in this statement in the context of defining a research problem.

The statement "Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the
problem itself as well as the technique that might be used" emphasizes the crucial role
of data availability in the process of defining a research problem. This idea is
grounded in the practical considerations that researchers face when formulating their
research questions and designing the study.

The underlying idea explained in the context of defining a research problem:

1. Identification of Feasible Research Problems:

 Knowing what data are available helps researchers identify feasible research
problems. If relevant and accessible data are limited, researchers may need to
narrow down the scope of their problem to align with the available resources.

2. Practical Constraints and Considerations:

 Researchers are often constrained by practical factors such as time, budget, and
data accessibility. Understanding the available data sets allows researchers to
tailor their research problems to align with these constraints, ensuring that the
study is realistic and achievable.

3. Selection of Research Techniques:

 The availability of data influences the selection of research techniques.
Different research problems may require specific methods or approaches.
Knowing the data landscape helps researchers choose appropriate techniques
that can effectively address the research problem given the available data
sources.

4. Optimizing Research Design:

 Researchers need to optimize their research design based on data availability.
The type of data (qualitative or quantitative) and the method of data collection
 may be determined by what is realistically accessible, influencing the overall
research design.

5. Avoiding Unrealistic Expectations:

 Understanding the available data prevents researchers from formulating
research problems that are too broad or rely on data that is difficult to obtain.
This helps in setting realistic expectations and ensures that the research is
practical and feasible within the given constraints.

In essence, the idea behind the statement underscores the practicality of research.
Researchers need to be aware of the data landscape and constraints to formulate
research problems that are not only relevant and significant but also feasible and
achievable within the available resources. This approach enhances the likelihood of
successful research outcomes and contributes to the effective utilization of existing
data in the research process.

Ques.13: Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is

considered appropriate? How would you select such sample? Explain by means
of an example.

Stratified random sampling design is considered appropriate under circumstances

where the population can be divided into distinct subgroups or strata, and the
researcher wants to ensure representation from each subgroup in the sample. This
method is particularly useful when there is variability within the population, and the
researcher wants to capture this variability in the sample.

Stratified Random Sampling Design is appropriate when :

1. Heterogeneous Population: When the population exhibits significant diversity or

heterogeneity across different characteristics or attributes.

2. Desire for Precision: When the researcher wants to ensure that certain subgroups
are adequately represented in the sample to allow for more precise estimations and
comparisons.

3. Efficiency in Sampling: When it is more efficient to sample within homogeneous

subgroups rather than sampling from the entire population directly.

Selection Process for Stratified Random Sampling:-

1. Identify Strata: Divide the population into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
subgroups based on relevant characteristics or variables.

2. Determine Sample Size: Determine the desired sample size for each stratum based
on factors such as proportionate representation or precision requirements.

3. Random Selection: Randomly select individuals from each stratum using a random
sampling method appropriate for that stratum (e.g., simple random sampling or
systematic sampling).

Example: Stratified Random Sampling in Educational Research:

Suppose a researcher wants to study the academic performance of students in a

university. The student population can be divided into different strata based on their
academic majors: Humanities, Sciences, and Business.

1. Identify Strata: Divide the student population into three strata: Humanities
students, Sciences students, and Business students.
2. Determine Sample Size: Assume the researcher wants to ensure proportional
representation from each stratum. If the population consists of 500 Humanities
students, 300 Sciences students, and 200 Business students, and the desired
sample size is 100 students, the researcher may aim to sample 20% from each
stratum: 100 from Humanities, 60 from Sciences, and 40 from Business.
3. Random Selection: Within each stratum, randomly select the specified number
of students. For example, the researcher may use a random number generator to
select 100 students from the Humanities stratum, 60 students from the Sciences
stratum, and 40 students from the Business stratum.

By employing stratified random sampling in this example, the researcher ensures that
students from each academic major are represented in the sample proportionally to
their presence in the population. This approach allows for more precise comparisons
and generalizations about academic performance across different majors.

Ques.14: Distinguish between: (a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling; (b)

Convenience and purposive sampling; (c) Systematic and stratified sampling; (d)
Cluster and area sampling.

(a) Restricted and Unrestricted Sampling:

  Restricted Sampling: Also known as constrained or limited sampling, it
involves imposing specific restrictions or criteria on the selection of elements
from the population. These restrictions could be based on certain
characteristics, geographical locations, or other predefined criteria.
 Unrestricted Sampling: Also known as random sampling, it involves the
selection of elements from the population without any specific restrictions or
criteria. Each element in the population has an equal chance of being included
in the sample.

(b) Convenience and Purposive Sampling:

 Convenience Sampling: This involves selecting individuals who are readily
available or easily accessible to the researcher. It is a non-probability sampling
method that is convenient but may lack representativeness.
 Purposive Sampling: Also known as judgmental or selective sampling, it
involves the intentional selection of specific individuals or elements based on
the researcher's judgment. This method is used when the researcher wants to
include particular characteristics or expertise in the sample.

(c) Systematic and Stratified Sampling:

 Systematic Sampling: Involves selecting every kth element from a list or
sampling frame after randomly choosing a starting point. It is a systematic,
regular interval sampling method that is relatively simple to implement and less
prone to bias compared to simple random sampling.
 Stratified Sampling: Involves dividing the population into homogeneous
subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics. Samples are then randomly
selected from each stratum. This method ensures representation from each
subgroup and is useful when there is variability within the population.

(d) Cluster and Area Sampling:

 Cluster Sampling: Involves dividing the population into clusters or groups, then
randomly selecting entire clusters, and using all members within the chosen
clusters as part of the sample. This method is efficient when natural groupings
exist in the population.
 Area Sampling: A form of cluster sampling where clusters are based on
geographical areas. The researcher selects specific areas (such as city blocks or
neighborhoods) and includes all individuals within those areas in the sample. It
is particularly useful when a comprehensive list of the population is not
available.
**************