Chapter 2

The Components of Matter

Dr. Shamindri M. Arachchige

arachsm@vt.edu
 MATTER

Mixtures Pure Substances

Homogenous Heterogenous Elements Compounds

2
 Pure Substances - Elements

o Element - the simplest type of substance with unique physical and chemical properties.
It cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by physical or chemical means.
o Elements are macroscopic
o Elements are found on the periodic table.
o An element consists of only one type of atom or molecule.

Atom – The smallest unit or particle of an Molecule - a structure that consists of two or
element that has the properties of that more atoms that are chemically bound
element. Atoms are microscopic. together and thus behaves as an independent
unit. Molecules are microscopic.

Atom of an element Molecule of an element

Elements that Occur as Molecules

4
 Pure Substances - Compounds

o Compound – a substance composed of two or

more elements that are chemically combined.
o Compounds are composed of molecules.
o Composition is fixed
o Properties of components are lost. So components
cannot be separated by physical means.

One NH3 molecule has 1 N

atom and 3 H atoms
 Mixtures

o Mixture is a group of two or more elements

and/or compounds that are physically
intermingled.

o Composition is variable.

o Properties of components are maintained.

o Components can be separated by physical

means.

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 Mixtures

o A homogeneous mixture has no visible boundaries

because the components are mixed as individual
atoms, ions, and/or molecules.
o A homogeneous mixture is also called a solution.
Solutions in which water is the solvent are called
aqueous solutions.

o A heterogeneous mixture has one or more visible

boundaries between the components.
 Example Problem

Scenes 1-4 represent various types of matter in the microscopic scale. Choose the mixture
that fills its container.

A B C D

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 Law of Definite (or Constant) Composition

Law of definite (or constant) composition: no

matter what its source, a particular compound is
composed of the same elements in the same
parts (fractions) by mass.

Mass of element
Mass Fraction =
Total mass of compound

Mass of element
Percent by Mass = x 100
Total mass of compound

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 Example Problem-Law of Definite Composition

Consider the three samples containing only oxygen and hydrogen. Are these the same
compounds or different compounds?

Sample # Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Mass (g) of 2.80 g 16.24 g
hydrogen
Mass (g) of 75.48 g 128.76 g
oxygen
Total mass of 25.00 g 85.00 g
sample
Mass Fraction H: H: H:

O: O: O:

Mass Percent H: H: H:

O: O: O:
 Example Problem-Law of Definite Composition

A 16.0 g sample of CH4 contains 12.0 g of carbon. How much hydrogen is in a 75.0 g
sample of CH4?
 Law of Multiple Proportions

If elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that
combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers.
Example: CO and CO2. Assume that you have 100 g of each compound.

CO CO2
g oxygen/100 g 57.1 72.7
compound
g carbon/100 g 100-57.1 = 42.9 100-72.7 =27.3
compound
g oxygen/g carbon 57.1 g O 72.7 g O
= 1.33 g O/g C = 2.66 g O/g C
42.9 𝑔 𝐶 27.3 𝑔 𝐶

2.66 g O/g C in CO2 2

=
1.33 g O/g C in CO 1

CO2 contains twice as much oxygen for a given mass of carbon as CO.

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 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1807 Dalton postulated that:

1. All matter consists of atoms; tiny indivisible particles of an element.

2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another

element.

3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are
different from the atoms of any other element.

4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of

atoms of different elements.

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 Subatomic Particles

Atom has three subatomic particles:

Cathode rays. Thompson (1897)
Proves existence of __________________
using a cathode ray tube
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Determines = -5.686 x 10-12 kg / C
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

Click on the link to watch the video:

https://www.viddler.com/embed/c1f2f139/?f=1
&autoplay=0#

Observation Conclusion
Ray bends in magnetic field Consists of charged particles
Ray bends toward positive plate in Consists of negative particles
electric field
Ray is identical for any cathode Particles found in ALL matter
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Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment for Measuring an Electron’s Charge.

Measures the ______________ on

an electron (-1.602 x10-19 C)

Calculates the _____________ of

the electron (9.109 x 10-28 g)

Click on the link to

watch the experiment
https://www.viddler.co
m/embed/9e764772/?f
=1&autoplay=0#
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 Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles

Table 2.2

Charge Charge Mass of Mass of Location

Name
of Relative of Absolute (C) *
(Symbol) Relative (amu)† Absolute (g) in Atom

Proton ( p + ) +1.60218  10−19 1.00727 1.67262  10−24

Neutron ( n 0 ) 0 1.00866 1.67493  10−24

Electron ( e − ) −1.60218  10−19 0.00054858 9.10939  10−28

* The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge.

† The atomic mass unit (amu) equals 1.66054 × 10-24 g

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Rutherford’s -Scattering Experiment and Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus.

“Plum Pudding” Model Rutherford’s Model

Area of positive
charge
Positive nucleus
Negative electrons

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 The Atom

o The atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a

positively charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons.
o The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.

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 Atomic Symbol, Number and Mass

Hyphen symbol: X-A

o X = Atomic symbol of the element

o A = mass number; A = Z + N
o Z = atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus)
o Z determines the identity of the element.
o # protons = # of electrons (in a neutral element)

o N = number of neutrons in the nucleus

 Example Problem
An atom has a mass number of 197 and has 118 neutrons. What is the element? Write
its atomic symbol.

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 Isotopes

o Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same number of protons, but a different
number of neutrons.
o Isotopes have the same atomic number, but a different mass number.

Figure 2.8
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 Example Problem

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of 16O, 17O, 18O?

16O 17O 18O

Mass Number

protons

Neutrons

Electrons

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 Example Problem

Bromine has two common isotopes, 79Br and 81Br. Which one of the following
statements is true?

A. 81Br has two more electrons than 79Br

B. 79Br has 79 neutrons

C. 81Br has two more protons than 79Br

D. 79Br has 35 electrons and 44 protons

E. 81Br has two more neutrons than 79Br

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 Atomic Mass of an Element

Mass spectrometry is a method for measuring the relative masses and abundances
of atomic-scale particles.

A scale was devised which is based on the isotope C-12: 126𝐶

This atom is assigned a mass of 12.000 atomic mass units (amu) or 12.000 daltons (Da); all
other elements are assigned masses relative to C-12. (1 amu is numerically equal to g/mol)

Why isn't the mass of carbon = 12.0000 on the Periodic Table?

Why isn’t the mass of hydrogen = 1.00 on the Periodic Table?

Periodic Table shows the Weighted Average Molar Masses (g) of each element.
Molar Masses take into account the prevalence (% abundance) of the isotope as
well as the isotope mass.
 Finding Atomic Mass from Isotopic Composition

From isotopic mass and relative abundance data, we can obtain the atomic mass of an
element, the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes, weighted
according to their abundances.

Atomic mass =  ( isotopic mass )( fractional abundance of isotope )

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 Example Problem – Average Molar Mass of an Element

The element strontium has 4 naturally occurring isotopes. What is the molar mass of
strontium?

Isotope Atomic mass, Natural Fractional

amu abundance,% Abundance
84Sr 83.9134 0.5
86Sr 85.9094 9.9
87Sr 86.9089 7.0
88Sr 87.9056 82.6

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*The atomic mass is closest to the most abundant isotope
Periodic Table
 Periodic Table
Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table which organizes the elements so
that those with similar properties are in the same column.
Each column of the periodic table is referred to as a ________________.

Each row of the periodic table is referred to as a _____ ____________.

Organized into 18 Groups and 7 Periods

Nonmetals: do not conduct an electric current

not malleable nor ductile
no luster
mostly gases, few liquids and solids
Metalloids: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te look like metals, behave like nonmetals

Metals: conduct electricity

malleable and ductile
have luster
mostly solids (Mercury, Hg, is a liquid)

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Figure 2.10 Some Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals.

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 Compounds

o Substances composed of 2 or more elements chemically combined in fixed

proportion

o Composition is fixed. Never varies.

o Components cannot be separated by physical means.

o Properties of components are lost.

o Let’s learn how to write formulas and name compounds.

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 Types of Compounds

There are two types of compounds: Ionic and Covalent (we will start with ionic and come
back to covalent later).

1. Ionic Compounds

Ions:

Cation: Anion:

Ions can be polyatomic or monoatomic.

Remember that a cation and anion cannot exist separately from each another. But we refer to
them separately at times for simplicity.

Symbol: A X ch arg e
Z
 Example Problem

How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in each species?

73Ga3+ 32S2-

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 Example Problem

An ion 21 electrons and a +3 charge, What is the symbol of the neutral atom?

A. Cr
B. Sc
C. Ar

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 Ionic Charges of Main Group Monoatomic Ions
(memorize these):

Cations (Metals) Anions (Nonmetals)

Group 1 Group 15
Group 2 Group 16
Al Group 17
Ag Group 18
Zn, Cd

o All other metals have more than one possible charge. (you do NOT need to memorize the
charge of the other metals)
o For all ionic compounds, the name and formula lists the cation first and the anion
second.
o The name of the cation is the same as the name of the metal.

o The anion is named by adding the suffix -ide to the root of the nonmetal name.

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 Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are composed of 2 or more atoms

Table 2.5: Common Polyatomic Ions (Memorize these)

Cations Anions that End in -ide
NH4+ ammonium CN– cyanide
Hg22+ mercury(I) O22– peroxide
OH– hydroxide

Oxoanions
1– charge 2– charge 3– charge
C2H3O2– acetate CO32– carbonate PO43– phosphate
NO2– nitrite C2O42– oxalate
NO3– nitrate CrO42– chromate
MnO4– permanganate Cr2O72– dichromate
*ClO– hypochlorite SO32– sulfite
*ClO2– chlorite SO42– sulfate
*ClO3– chlorate
*ClO4– perchlorate
* Put any halogen (Group 17) atom in place of Cl for more ions.
Example: BrO– = hypobromite 35
Looking at some oxoanions again…
 Example Problem

How many electrons are in the manganese ion in Mn 2(SO4)3?

A. 21 e–
B. 22 e–
C. 25 e–
D. 28 e–

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 Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds: composed of two types of ions: + and –. The total charge
[(+)charge + (–) charge] must equal 0 to give a neutral compound. The cation is
always written first.

Example Problem:

Write formulas for the compounds of the following elements:

(a) Na and Br

(b) Ammonium and carbonate

(c) Mg and P

(d) Na and PO43–

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 Example Problem

Which of the following is the correct formula for the compound between the 4 th
period alkaline earth metal and the bromate ion?

A. Sr(BrO3)2
B. CaBr2
C. Ca(BrO3)2
D. KBrO3
E. KBrO2

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 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds (metal forms only one ion e.g. Na)

o The cation is named first and the anion second.

o The name of the cation is the name of the metal.

o The anion name has the suffix –ide added to the root.

o No prefixes are used when naming ionic compounds.

o Metals that form only one ion: Group 1, 2, Al, Ag, Cd, Zn
 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds (metal forms more than one ion e.g. copper)

o The cation is named first and the anion second.

o The name of the cation is the name of the metal with a Roman numeral in ( )
following the metal name to indicate the ionic charge.

o The name of the anion has the suffix –ide added to the root of the name.

o No prefixes are used when naming ionic compounds.

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 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

Fe(ClO4)2

iron(II) perchlorate
o The cation is namedperchlorate
iron(II) first and the anion second

o The name of the cation is the name of the metal (if the cation is a polyatomic ion – then
• The cation is named first and the anion second
use the polyatomic name). Use a Roman numeral in ( ) following the metal name to
• indicate
The namethe of thecharge
ionic cationifisthe
themetal
nameforms
of themore
metal (unless
than the cation is a
one ion.
polyatomic ion – then use the polyatomic name). Use a Roman numeral in
( ) following
o The theanion
name of the metal name
is the to indicate
name the ionic charge
of the polyatomic ion. if the metal forms
more than one ion.
• The name of the anion is the name of the polyatomic ion.

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 Example Problems – Ionic Compounds

o MgO

o CaSO4
o FeCl3

o FeCl2

o Cu(NO3)2
o MgSO4·7H2O

o Sn(CO3)2
o lithium nitride

o chromium(III) sulfate
 Covalent (Molecular) Compounds

Compounds composed of molecules, nonmetal elements.

Molecule: The smallest particle of a covalent compound that has the properties of that
compound; an electrically neutral group of nonmetal atoms bonded together

Naming Binary (2 nonmetal elements) Covalent Compounds

o Use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element

o Mono is usually dropped from the first element
o Add an –ide suffix

number atoms prefix number atoms prefix

1 mono 6 hexa
2 di 7 hepta
3 tri 8 octa
4 tetra 9 nona
5 penta 10 deca
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 Naming Binary Covalent Compounds

o Mono- is not used when there is only one atom of the first element present; CO is
carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide.

o The a at the end of a Greek prefix is dropped when the prefix is added to -oxide;
P2O5 is diphosphorus pentoxide rather than diphosphorus pentaoxide.

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 Example Problems – Covalent Compounds

o CCl4:

o S2Cl2:

o Sulfur hexafluoride:

o Dinitrogen trioxide:

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 Acids

Acids are a special type of covalent compounds that exists as molecules in the gas phase
but dissociates (breaks up) into H+ and an anion when dissolved in water.

A. Binary Acid: H and a nonmetal element (example: HBr)

Binary acids are named as follows:

Hydro + nonmetal root + ic + –acid (as a separate word)

Examples:

HF

H2S

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 B. Oxoacid: H + Oxoanion

Oxoacids are named like oxoanions except for two suffix changes:

–ate in the oxoanion is changed to –ic

–ite in the oxoanion is changed to –ous

Add the word acid

Examples:

HClO: ClO– = hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid

HClO4: ClO4– = perchlorate Perchloric acid

 Example Problems: Naming Acids

HBr

HBrO2

HBrO3

sulfuric acid

sulfurous acid

hydrosulfuric acid
51
NAMING COMPOUNDS

Does the compound

contain a metal?
YES NO

Is the metal in Group 1, Is the compound an acid (H

Group 2, Al, Ag, Cd, Zn? listed first in the formula)?

YES NO YES NO

Does the Does the compound Does the acid Name each nonmetal
compound contain contain a polyatomic contain oxygen using prefixes to indicate
a polyatomic ion? ion? (oxoacid)? # of atoms of each in the
formula. Add –ide suffix.
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
YES NO
YES NO
YES NO
Name cation, then Name cation, name
name polyatomic anion with –ide
ion. CaSO4 suffix. CaCl2 Binary acid. Hydro +
calcium sulfate calcium chloride nonmetal root + ic acid.
HBr hydrobromic acid

Name polyatomic ion; change –ate to

Name cation with ionic charge in Name cation with ionic charge in
–ic acid; change –ite to –ous acid.
Roman numerals in ( ); name Roman numerals in ( ); name anion
HBrO hypobromous acid
polyatomic ion. Fe2(SO4)3 with –ide suffix. FeCl3
iron(III) chloride HBrO3 bromic acid
iron(III) sulfate

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