Name: Niyati Goda

M.Sc. psychology
Faculty: Tarini ma’am

Practical 5
Introduction:
 Ebbinghaus`s nonsense syllables
A nonsense syllable or logatome is a short pseudoword comprising more often than
not of only one syllable which has no sense of its own. Instances of English logatomes
are senseless words like snarp or bluck. Like different pseudowords, logatomes
comply with all the phonotactic rules of a particular language.

Nonsense syllables were first presented by Hermann Ebbinghaus while investigating

the learning of records. His goal was that they would frame a standard improvement
so that investigations would be reproducible. In any case, with expanding use, it
became clear that distinctive nonsense syllables were found out at altogether different
rates, in any event, when they had a similar shallow structure. It was then presented
the idea of connection to portray these distinctions, which ended up being dependable
among individuals and circumstances. Since Glaze's time, tests utilizing nonsense
syllables ordinarily control connection value to diminish changeability in outcomes
between improvements. Nonsense syllables can fluctuate in structure. The most
utilized are the purported CVC syllables, made out of a consonant, a vowel, and a
consonant. These have the favorite standpoint that nearly all are easy to pronounce,
that is, they match any linguistic phonotactics that uses closed syllables, such as
English and German, for instance. They are regularly depicted as "CVC trigrams",
mirroring their three-letter structure. Numerous different structures are conceivable
and can be depicted on similar standards, for example, VC, VCV, and CVCV. Yet,
the CVC trigrams have been concentrated most seriously. The term nonsense syllable
is broadly used to depict non-lexical vocables utilized in music, most eminently in
scat singing yet besides in numerous different types of vocal music. While this
utilization doesn't raise the specialized issues about structure and connectivity that are
of worry in brain research, the fundamental importance of the term is the equivalent.

 Ebbinghaus`s experiment on forgetting

Hermann Ebbinghaus hypothesized that the speed of forgetting depends on a

number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g. how meaningful it is), its
representation and other physiological factors such as stress and sleep. He further
hypothesized that the basal forgetting rate differs little between individuals. He concluded
that the difference in performance can be explained by mnemonic representation skills.
He went on to hypothesize that basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome
those differences in part. He asserted that the best methods for increasing the strength of
memory are:

1. better memory representation (e.g. with mnemonic techniques)

2. repetition based on active recall (especially spaced repetition).

Forgetting Curve with Spaced Repetition

His premise was that each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the
next repetition is needed (for near-perfect retention, initial repetitions may need to be made
within days, but later they can be made after years). He discovered that information is easier
to recall when it's built upon things you already know, and the forgetting curve was flattened
by every repetition. It appeared that by applying frequent training in learning, the information
was solidified by repeated recalling.

Later research also suggested that, other than the two factors Ebbinghaus proposed, higher
original learning would also produce slower forgetting. The more information was originally
learned, the slower the forgetting rate would be.
Spending time each day to remember information will greatly decrease the effects of the
forgetting curve. Some learning consultants claim reviewing material in the first 24 hours
after learning information is the optimum time to actively recall the content and reset the
forgetting curve. Evidence suggests waiting 10–20% of the time towards when the
information will be needed is the optimum time for a single review.
However, some memories remain free from the detrimental effects of interference and do not
necessarily follow the typical forgetting curve as various noise and outside factors influence
what information would be remembered. There is debate among supporters of the hypothesis
about the shape of the curve for events and facts that are more significant to the
subject. Some supporters, for example, suggest that memories of shocking events such as
the Kennedy Assassination or 9/11 are vividly imprinted in memory (flashbulb
memory). Others have compared contemporaneous written recollections with recollections
recorded years later, and found considerable variations as the subject's memory incorporates
after-acquired information. There is considerable research in this area as it relates
to eyewitness identification testimony, and eyewitness accounts are found demonstrably
unreliable.

2 definitions of learning
Gales defined Learning as the behavioural modification which occurs as a result of
experience as well as training.
Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of knowledge, habits and
attitudes.

Types of memory

 Sensory Memory

Sensory memory allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation has
ended. Researchers who classify memory more as stages than types believe that all other
memories begin with the formation of sensory memories. Typically your sensory memory
only holds on to information for brief periods. Remembering the sensation of a person’s
touch or a sound you heard in passing is sensory memory.

When a sensory experience keeps recurring, and you start to attach other memories to it, the
sensory experience stops living in your sensory memory. It might move to your short-term
memory or more permanently to your long-term memory.

There are three types of sensory memory: iconic, which is obtained through sight; echoic,
which is auditory; and haptic, which is through touch.2

 Short-term Memory

As the name implies, short-term memory allows you to recall specific information about
anything for a brief period. Short-term memory is not as fleeting as sensory memory, but it’s
also not as permanent as long-term memory. Short-term memory is also known as primary or
active memory.

Research estimates that short-term memories only last for about 30 seconds.3 When you read
a line in a book or a string of numbers that you have to recall, that’s your short-term memory
at work.

You can keep information in your short-term memory by rehearsing the information. For
example, if you need to recall a string of numbers, you might keep repeating them to yourself
until you input them. However, if you are asked to recall those numbers about 10 minutes
after inputting them, you’d most likely be unable to.

 Working Memory

Working memory is a type of memory that involves the immediate and small amount of
information that a person actively uses as they perform cognitive tasks.

While some experts view working memory as a fourth distinct type of memory, working
memory can fall under the classification of short-term memory and, in many cases, is even
used interchangeably. Improving Your Memory With ADD

 Long-term Memory

We store a vast majority of our memories in our long-term memory. Any memory we can
still recall after 30 seconds could classify as long-term memory. These memories range in
significance—from recalling the name of a friendly face at your favorite coffee shop to
important bits of information like a close friend’s birthday or your home address.

There is no limit to how much our long-term memory can hold and for how long. We can
further split long-term memory into two main categories: explicit and implicit long-term
memory.

Incidental learning

Incidental learning is learning that occurs unintentionally, from activities where learning is
not a conscious goal for the learner. For example, when someone plays a sport just for fun,
but ends up improving their skills over time, they’re engaging in incidental learning.
Incidental learning can be beneficial in various contexts, so it’s important to understand it. As
such, in the following article you will learn more about incidental learning, and see how you
can use it yourself, as well as how you can encourage it in others.
An example of incidental learning in the context of language acquisition is someone who
learns new vocabulary words by watching TV in a foreign language for fun. This
is contrasted, for example, with someone learning new vocabulary words by intentionally
using flashcards in a language-learning app.
In addition, the following are examples of incidental learning in various other domains:
 A toddler who touches something hot out of curiosity, and learns that it hurts to do so.
 A kid who plays with other kids for fun, and learns social skills.
 A person who watches a historical TV show for entertainment, and learns new facts.
 A teacher who interacts with students as part of the job, and learns how to
communicate more effectively.
Characteristics of incidental learning
The defining characteristic of incidental learning is the lack of intention to learn by the
learner.
Other than that, incidental learning can vary in many ways, such as the following:
 Learners’ motivation, in terms of whether learners are motivated or unmotivated to
learn.
 Learners’ awareness, in terms of whether learners are aware or unaware of the
learning.
 External awareness, in terms of whether other people (e.g., parents or teachers) are
aware or unaware of the learning.
 External guidance, in terms of whether other people (e.g., parents or teachers)
guided the learning (e.g., by providing encouragement or asking questions).

Intentional learning

Intentional learning is learning that occurs as a result of activities where learning is a

deliberate—and often primary—goal for the learner. For example, someone who reads
research articles in order to understand a scientific phenomenon is engaging in intentional
learning.
It can be beneficial to understand intentional learning, in order to better understand how
people learn, as well as how to optimize learning and teaching. As such, in the following
article you will learn more about intentional learning, and see how you can engage in it
yourself, as well as how you can promote it in others.
Examples of intentional learning
An example of intentional learning is when someone who wants to learn a new language
reads a book in that language and looks up new words that they encounter, in order to
improve their vocabulary. This is contrasted, for instance, with a situation where the same
learner picks up new words while talking with someone in the target language, without
attempting to actively learn new vocabulary.
In addition, other examples of intentional learning appear in various domains of life. For
instance, the following are all examples of people engaging in intentional learning:
A student who asks their teacher about a mathematical concept, because they want to
understand it better.
 A novice athlete who watches an expert perform a move, because they want to know
how to do it too.
 A programmer who reads a book about a new programming language, because they
want to understand it.

Common characteristics of intentional learning

The defining characteristic of intentional learning is that it involves learning as a deliberate—
and often primary—goal. However, intentional learning often also involves the following
common characteristics:
 Motivation to learn. This motivation can be intrinsic, such as when a learner wants
to understand a certain concept better for the sake of knowing more, or extrinsic,
such as when a student wants to understand a concept better so they can get a good
grade.
 Specific learning goals. For example, a learner may read a statistics book with the
goal of learning about a specific concept that they’re interested in.
 Attempts to improve the learning process. For example, this can involve using
various learning strategies, such as interleaving and reflection, in order to make the
learning process more effective.
 Analytical engagement with relevant material. For example, this can involve
actively trying to analyze new things that one encounters, as opposed to relying
only on one’s intuition.
Accordingly, intentional learning is associated with learning that’s active and autonomous,
and that involves planning, executing, and monitoring one’s learning process. Accordingly,
intentional learners often engage in the following actions as part of the learning process:
 Questioning things such as experiences and facts, including through deep questions
that go beyond superficial clarifications.
 Organizing new knowledge and ideas into useful systems of facts, concepts, and
principles that the learner can use, while enhancing the learner’s understanding of
what they’ve learned.
 Connecting new and old knowledge, and integrating what is learned into broad
patterns of understanding.
 Reflecting on what, how, and why the learner is learning, while seeking to understand
their needs, abilities, and preferences, and formulating plans regarding which
learning strategies to use.
 Adapting to new situations and needs.