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Chemistry section
Separation (Topic 1)
 They are many methods used to separate substances eg filtration, evaporation, magnetism,
decanting, hand picking, chromatography, winnowing and distillation
Distillation
 Is used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
 Only works when the liquids in a mixture have a different boiling points
 Boiling point of a substance is a temperature at which it boils and turns to a gas.
Distillation is used in producing pure water in the laboratory

Procedure
 Impure water (tap water) is heated to the boiling temperature of 100 degrees Celsius
 Water boils and evaporates and become steam
 Steam is cooled inside the condenser and condenses to form liquid water
 Pure water is collected in the conical flask as the distillate
 Impurities in the water are left behind in the boiling flask
 Distillation can be used to separate pure water from sea water
Fractional distillation
 Differs from distillation in that it separates a mixture into a number of parts called fractions
 Tall column is fitted above the mixture with several condensers coming off at different
heights
 Column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top
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 Substances with high boiling point condense at the bottom and substance with low boiling
point condenses at the top
Fractional distillation column applications
Application 1: Purication of ethanol
 Ethanol is separated from a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional distillation
 Method works because the liquid in the mixture have different boiling points.
 Ethanol boils at 78.4℃ , water at 100℃

Application 2: Purification of nitrogen and oxygen from liquid air

 Air contains 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen
 Air is filtered to remove dust and other solids, water vapour and carbon dioxide
 Water vapour and carbon dioxide are removed because they solidify at low temperature and
this would block the flow of liquid air through pumps and pipes
 They dry air is free of carbon dioxide is compressed and cooled to -200℃
 Oxygen liquefies at -183℃ and nitrogen liquefies at -196℃
 Cold compressed air is then allowed to expand rapidly thus cooling even further to point
where most of the air is liquefied.
 Liquid air is pumped into a fractional distillation column
 Column is warmer at the bottom than at the top
 Oxygen is captured as liquid as it sinks

Matter(Topic 2)
Atom
 Is the smallest indivisible particle of matter that take part in a chemical change.
Element
 Is a substance made up of only one type of an atom
 Atoms of different elements are different
Structure of an atom
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Summary of the structure of an atom

Particle Position Charge Mass Symbol

Proton Nucleus +1 1 amu p
Neutron Nucleus 0 1amu n
Electron Atomic shells -1 1/1840amu e

Amu= atomic mass unit

Atomic Number /proton Number (Z)
 Is the number of protons in the nucleus
 The number is unique to every atom of an element
 Number of electrons and nuetrons of an element can change but the number of protons is
always the same
Nucleon number / mass number (A)
 Is the number of protons (Z) plus the number of nuetrons (N)
A=Z+N
Isotope
 These are atoms of the same element that have different number of nuetrons but the same
number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different nucleon number
 Elements that have isotopes include, chlorine, carbon and hydrogen

The first 20 elements

Proton Element Chemical
number symbol

1. Hydrogen H
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2. Helium He
3. Lithium Li
4. Beryllium Be
5. Boron B
6. Carbon C
7. Nitrogen N
8. Oxygen O
9. Fluorine F
10. Neon Ne
11. Sodium Na
12. Magnesium Mg
13. Aluminium Al
14. Silicon Si
15. Phosphorus P
16. Sulphur S
17. Chlorine Cl
18. Argon Ar
19. Potassium K
20. Calcium Ca

Nuclide notation
 Is a way of summarizing the structure of an atom of a specified element.

 E.g. the element carbon may be represented like this

12
 6C Meaning carbon has 12 nucleons of which 6 are protons.
 C is the chemical symbol for the element
Calculations
Calculate the number of neutrons from the data given below
16 18
❑0 ¿ ❑ O ⟶ 8 nuetrons∧10 nuetrons
Cl∧ ❑ ¿ ❑Cl ¿⟶18 nuetrons and 20 nuetrons
35 37
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C∧ ❑C ⟶6 nuetrons and 8 nuetrons

12 14
❑
Electronic configuration
 Is the arrangement of electrons in shells
Energy shell 1
 This shell is closest to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
Energy shell 2
 This shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
Energy shell 3
 The shells maximum is 8
Energy shell 4
 The maximum is 18

How to work out electronic configuration.

Step1
 Look up the atomic number in the periodic table eg for sodium is 11
Step 2
 The atomic number gives the number of protons and thus the number of electrons eg for
sodium there are 11 protons as well as 11 electrons in a Na atom
Step 3
 Arrange the electrons in shells
 Fill up the inner (lower energy) shells before going to an outer one
Step 4
 E.g. sodium, the electrons are arranged as 2 in the 1 st shell, eight in the 2nd and one in the 3rd
shell
 This is written as 2, 8, 1
 Check that the electrons add up to the right number of electrons =11
Neon =2, 8
Lithium=2, 1
Sodium =2, 8, 1
Carbon= 2, 4

Chemical bonding
 A compound is a chemical combination of two or more element e.g. water, carbon dioxide
 To make a compound the atoms of different elements have to join or bond
 Elements that react have incomplete shells
 Bonding occurs through ionic bonding or covalent bonding
Ionic bonding
 Is formed between metals and non-metals
 Metals form positive ions (cations) because they lose electrons
 Nonmetals form negative ions (anions because they gain electrons
 Ions of opposite charges attract one another and so form ionic bond
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Dot and cross diagram for ionic bonding in

a Sodium chloride

b Magnesium oxide
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Sodium oxide.

Properties of Ionic bonds

 Hard solids at room temperature
 High boiling point because of strong attraction forces
 Conduct electricity in molten state because ions are free to move
 Water soluble

Covalent bonding
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 In a covalent bond the two atoms share a pair of electrons

 The force that holds the two atoms together is due to the attraction between the shared pair of
electrons and positive nucleus.

Examples
Bonding in Hydrogen molecule

Bonding in oxygen molecule

Bonding in water molecule

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

 Is the average mass of 1 atom of an element compared to the mass of 1/12 of carbon.
 Ralative atomic masses for atoms of elements are found on the periodic table
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mass of 1 atom of an element

Ar = 1 of carbon 12 atoms
12 ¿
¿
Ar of O2 = 16g
Ar of Na =23g
Ar of Cl = 53.5g

Relative molecular or Formula mass (Mr)

 Is the relative mass of 1 molecule of a substance compared to 1/12 of carbon 12

average mass of 1 molecule∈substance

Mr= 1
of carbon 12 atoms
12

e.g
Cu S O4 =64 +32+16(4) = 64 +32+64=160g
H 2 S O 4 =1(2) + 32+16(4) =2 + 32+64 =98g
HCl=1+35.5=36.5 g
NaOH =23+16+1=40 g
Ca ¿
C O2=12+16 ( 2 )=44 g

Mole
 Is the amount of substance that contains 6,023x 1023 particles (atoms/molecules?)
 6,023x 1023= Avogadros constant
 A mole of atoms has a mass equal to the Ar of the atom
 A mole of molecules has a mass equal to the molecular mass of the substance
 Mass of a mole= molar mass=formula mass/molecular mass
mass
number of moles=
molecular mass
M
n=
Mr
Example
Calculate the number of moles in 6g of carbon
M
n= ,
Mr
M=6, Mr/Ar of carbon =12 therefore
6
n= =0 . 5 moles
12

Empirical formula
 It is the simplest formula of a substance
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Calculation of empirical formula

Example
Chemical analysis shows that a certain compound contains 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen.
Determine this compounds empirical formula

C atom H atom
Mass 80g 20g
Ar 12 1
No of moles (n) 80 20
=6.67 =20
12 1
Simplest ratio 6.67 20
=1 =2.998=3
6.67 6.67
Emperical formula C H3

Example 2
Give the formula of the compound that is formed when 3.3g of carbon is combined with 9.0g of
oxygen
C atom O atom
Mass 3.3g 9g
Ar 12 16
No of moles (n) 3.3 9
=0.275 =0.5625
12 16
Simplest ratio 0.275 0.5625
=1 =2
0.275 0.275
Emperical formula C O2

Concentration/(Molarity)
 Concentration is the amount of solute in grams or moles that is dissolved in 1 d m3 of a
solution
n m
C = ∨ where c=concentration
v v
mol
dm
3 ( )
∨(gramm/d m )
3

n= number of moles
v=volume (d m3 ¿
m=mass in grams
 If the volume is in cm3 or ml divide by 100 to get d m3
Example
Calculate the concentration of a solution that contains
a) 0.01moles in 200ml
n
C = = 0.01/ (200÷1000) = 0.05mol/d m3
v

b) Calculate the concentration of a solution 2moles in 3litres

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n
C = = 2mol/3d m3= 0.66mol/d m3
v

Determining formula of compounds

Name cation Valency Name Anion Valency
+¿¿
ammonium NH 4 1 Carbonate CO 3
2−¿¿
2
+¿¿ −¿¿
Copper 1 Cu 1 Chloride Cl 1
2+¿ ¿
Copper 11 Cu 2 Oxide O
2−¿¿
2
2 +¿¿ −¿¿
Iron 11 Fe 2 Nitrate NO 3 1
3 +¿¿ −¿¿
Iron 111 Fe 3 Hydroxide OH 1
2−¿ ¿
Magnesium Mg
2+¿¿
2 Sulphate SO 4 2
+¿¿ −¿¿
Sodium Na 1 Flouride Fl 1

Acid, Bases and Salts (Topic3)

 Solutions can be acidic, alkaline or neutral
Properties of acids
 Acids have a sour taste
 Acids are corrosive /hazardous
 Acids change the colour of indicators
 An acidic solution is when an acid dissolved in water
 An acidic solution is called an acid
Properties of alkalis
 Alkalis feel slippery
 Alkalis are hazardous
 Change colour of indicators
 An alkaline solution is when a base is dissolved in water
 An alkaline solution is a base
Neutral solution
 A neutral solution is neither acidic nor alkaline
 Pure water is neutral

Indicators
Litmus
 Indicates that the solution is acidic or alkaline
 They are two types, blue litmus paper and red litmus paper
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 Blue litmus paper turns red in acid

 Red litmus turns blue in base or alkaline solution
Universal indicator
 Universal indicator shows how strongly or alkaline a solution is
 Acids change the colour of universal indicator to yellow orange or red
 Bases change the colour of the indicator to blue purple
 Neutral substances change the colour of universal indicator green

pH scale
 Runs from pH 0 to pH 14
 Measures how acidic
or alkaline a solution
is.

 The closer to pH 0 the more strongly acid a solution is

 The closer to pH 14 the more strongly alkaline solution is
 Neutral solutions have a pH of 7
Acid, Base reactions
A neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base
The products of a neutralization reaction are always salt and water
Acid +Base → Salt +Water
 At the end of a neutralization reaction the pH is 7
 A salt is a compound made up of metal and non-metal
 Salt produced depends on the metal and acid used
 The salt formed depend on the acid used e.g. sulphuric acid forms a sulphate
 Hydrochloric acid forms a chloride
 Nitric acid forms a nitrate

Acids used in the laboratory

 Sulphuric acid ( H 2 S O 4)
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Nitric Acid (HNO3 ¿

Bases used in the laboratory include

 Metal oxides e.g. copper oxide
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 Metal hydroxides e.g. sodium hydroxide

 Carbonates e.g. sodium carbonate
 Ammonia

Reaction of acids with metals

 Acids react with metal to produce salt and hydrogen gas
A cid+ Metal→ Salt + Hydrogen (general equation)
Example
sulphuric acid+magnesium → magnesium sulphate+ hydrogen
H 2 S O 4 + Mg → MgS O4 + H 2

Test for hydrogen gas

Expose a lit splint to the gas, the gas burns with a pop sound when hydrogen is present

Reaction of acids with metal oxides

 The reaction produce salt and water
Acid + Metal oxide→ Salt +Water
Example
hydrochloric acid+ copper 11 oxide→ copper 11 chloride+ water
2 HCl+CuO → CuCl 2+ H 2 O

Reaction of acid with metal hydroxides

 Dilute acids react with metal hydroxides to produce salt and water
Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt +Water
Example
hydrochloric acid+ calciumhydroxide →calcium chloride +water
HCl+Ca ( OH )2 →CaCl+ 2 H 2 O

Reaction of acids with metal carbonates

 Reaction produces salt, water and carbon dioxide
Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt+ Water+Carbon dioxide
Example
Sulphuric acid + zinc carbonate → zinc sulphate +water + carbon dioxide
H 2 S O 4 +ZnC O3 → ZnS O4 + H 2 O+C O2
 This reaction causes bubbling and you test for carbon dioxide using lime water
 Lime water turns milky white (cloudy) in the presence of carbon dioxide

Experiment
Aim: To investigate the reaction of acids with carbonates
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Method
 Put a small amount of each carbonate into two separate test tubes
 Pour dilute HCl into each of the test tubes until they are about half full.
 Observe the mixture for a few minutes
 Test for carbon dioxide using lime water

Experiment
Aim To investigate the reaction of acids with metal

Method
 Place a small piece of magnesium in 3 separate test tubes
 Repeat the process with zinc in 3 different test tubes
 Pour dilute HCl over each metal until it just covers the metal
 Repeat the process for nitric acid
 Pour sulphuric acid into the last 2 test tubes
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 Observe the mixtures for a few minutes

 Place your thumb over the mouth of one of the test tubes producing gas to allow for a
buildup of a gas
 When you feel the pressure remove the thumb and quickly put a lit splint into the mouth of
the test tube.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES (TOPIC 4)

 Production of nitrogen and oxygen by fractional distillation of liquid air
 There are 2 stages involved i.e. liquefying the air and fractional distillation
Liquefying the air
Step 1
 Air is pumped into the plant and filtered for dust or impurities
Step 2
 Air is cooled to -79 degrees celcius, carbon dioxide and water freezes and are removed using
absorbent filters
 Removal of water and carbon dioxide prevent blockage of pipes as the two freezes
Step 3
 The remaining gas in the air are now xenon, krypton, neon, helium, argon, nitrogen and
oxygen.
 Boiling point of gases that remain after removal of carbon dioxide and water.
Xenon -108 Nitrogen -196
Krypton -153 Neon -246
Oxygen -183 Helium -269
Argon -186
Step 4
 The remaining air is forced into a small space a process called compression
 This makes the air warm up, it is then cooled down again by recycling the cold air
Step 5
 Compressed air is allowed to expand and this further cause a drop in temperature
 This is repeated several times until the temperature drops to -200
 At this temperature all gases except helium and neon are liquefied
 The two gases are removed
Fractional distillation
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 The liquid air is pumped into a fractional distillation column and the liquid air is heated

 Nitrogen is collected at the top because it evaporates first – 196

 The remaining gases are collected in the order argon oxygen krypton and xenon
Uses of oxygen
 Welding
 Bleaching agents
 Basic oxygen furnace
 Making acids e.g. sulphuric acid
 Manufacture of steel
 In medicine e.g. patients with diseased lungs
 Deep sea divers and astronauts need to carry oxygen with them for breathing
Uses of nitrogen
 Liquid nitrogen is used to freeze food
 Gaseous nitrogen is used in synthesis of ammonia
 Food is packaged in gaseous nitrogen to increase its shelf life
 Oil tankers are flushed with gaseous nitrogen to reduce the chances of explosion
Electrolysis
 It is a process whereby ionic substances are decomposed or broken down into simpler
components when an electric current is passed through them
 An ionic substance contain charged particles (+ and – charges)
 Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons
 Solution through which the current passes is called the electrolyte
 For electrolysis to occur ions must be free to move
 Ions move when ionic substance is dissolved in water
 Covalent compounds cannot act as electrolyte because they contain neutral atoms
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Electrolytic cell
 It consist of
1. Electrolyte—contain ions and can be broken down by electrolysis
2. Electrodes --- which are conductors through which electricity enters or leave a substance,
electrodes are generally made up of carbon (graphite)
 Carbon electrodes have a high melting point and are inate
 The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery is the cathode
 The anode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
 A container for the liquid is needed

Electrolysis of lead 11 Bromide (Pb Br 2)

Diagram

The equation for the chemical reaction

Lead 11 Bromide ⟶Lead + Bromine
Pb Br 2⟶ Pb+ Br 2

 Lead 11 bromide is melted through heat to free the ions

 Lead 11 bromide is a white powder containing positively charged lead ions¿ ¿ and negatively
charged bromide ions¿ ¿
 For electrolysis to occur , current is passed through molten lead bromide breaking it down
 The compound breaks down into the element that make up the compounds lead and bromine
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Observations
Observation Explanation
Anode Bubbles of brown gas Bromine vapour
Cathode Silvery liquid Lead produced

Electrolysis of water
 A compound is a group of two of two or different atoms that are bonded together e.g. water
H2 O
 Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen
 Hydrogen comes off at the cathode and oxygen is collected at the anode
 Pure water does not conduct electricity, so for electrolysis to occur sulphuric acid is added to
it
 Carbon electrodes are used to carry current into and out of the electrolyte
Method
 Add few drops of H 2 S O 4 to the beaker
 Allow current to pass through the water
 Remove one test tube at a time and quickly place your thumb over the mouth of the test tube
 Test the gas at the anode with a glowing splint and the gas at the cathode with a lit splint
Diagram

Observations
cathode Anode
Effect of gas on splint The splint burns with a The gas relights a glowing
popping sound splint
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Volume of the gas collected Is twice that is collected at Is half of that collected at the
the anode cathode

Conclusion
 Sulphuric acid is added to the water for electrolysis as water is not a good conductor of
electricity
 Electrolysis of water results in the production of oxygen gas at the anode and hydrogen gas at
the cathode
 This electrolysis is often called the electrolysis of acidified water
Uses of hydrogen
 Is used as a fuel
 A lifting agent in ballons
 Used in manufacturing of margarine
 Used in harber process (ammonia synthesis)
Electroplating
 Is a process of depositing a thin coating of one metal on top of a different metal through the
chemical process of electrolysis.
 Electroplating is meant is meant to prevent metals from rust
 Copper, chrome, nickel are used to electroplate more reactive metals for protection as the do
not corrode
 Reactive metals are those that are able to form a reaction with acids, water, oxygen eg of
reactive metals are zinc, iron
 Steel is hard alloy of iron and carbon and is susceptible to corrosion
 Electroplating is also done to decorate objects
Electroplating iron nail with copper
 The cathode is the object to be coated (plated) nail
 Anode electrode should be the metal that you want to coat the object with (copper)
 Electrolyte is copper 11 sulphate solution acidified with sulphuric acid
 Nail to be cleaned to ensure when the copper atoms from the electrolyte are deposited onto it
(nail) form a good bond
Diagram
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How the nail is coated with copper

 The positively charged copper ions (cations) are attracted to the negatively charged cathode,
where they gain electrons and form copper atoms which are deposited on the nail
 Over time the copper is plated on to the nail
 The sulphate anions (negative ions) are attracted to the positively charged copper anode
releasing electrons that move through the battery towards the cathode (the nail)
 Concentration of the electrolyte and strength of the electric current affect the timing for
electroplating atoms to cover the surface of the nail.
Reasons for electroplating
 Useful for coating a cheaper metal with a more expensive one. (Decoration)
 Is a way of preventing rusting /corrosion
REDOX REACTIONS (TOPIC 5)
 is a reaction in which there is oxidation and reduction happening at the same time.
 Redox is short for reduction and oxidation
Oxidation
 Is a reaction in which a substance react with oxygen
 Is the gain of oxygen by a substance or the removal of hydrogen from a substance
 It is also the loss of electrons
 Oxidizing agent is a substance that gains electrons or that removes electrons from a
substance
Reduction
 It is the loss of oxygen or gain of electrons or the addition of hydrogen to a substance
 Reducing agent is a substance that loses electrons or removes oxygen from a substance
Examples of redox reactions
Copper 11 oxide +hydrogen ⟶copper +water
CuO+ H 2 ⟶ Cu+¿ O
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Copper is reduced (oxidizing agent) and hydrogen is oxidized (reducing agent)

Expt
Aim: To demonstrate the reduction of copper 11 oxide

Method
 Place about 100mg of block copper 11 oxide in the test tube. Set up the test tube as shown
above
 Insert a rubber bung with a short glass tube in the test tube
 Connect a rubber tube from a gas cylinder to the glass tube
 Allow a very slow stream of gas to flow through the app and burn it at small hole
 Adjust the gas so the flame is not more than 2cm high
 Heat the copper 11 oxide with a burner until there is change in colour and remove the heat
source
Extraction of Iron from iron ore
Raw materials used in the extraction of iron ore
Iron ore
 Rocks from which metallic iron can be extracted
 Largest iron ore are deposits found in sedimentary rocks
 The iron ore is known as haematite (iron 111 oxide)
 Oxygen must be removed from the iron 111 oxide to leave iron behind (reduction)
Coke
 Contains carbon which act as a reducing agent
 It burns in air to produce heat and reacts to form carbon dioxide.
Air
 Contains oxygen which allow coke to burn to produce heat and reacts to form carbon
monoxide
 Limestone (calcium carbonate) CaCO3
 Helps remove acidic impurities by reacting with them to form molten slag
 NB Mwanesi mine is a large iron mine located in central Zimbabwe
 Raw- materials are added to the blast furnace
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Reactions in the Blast furnace

Reactions of carbon with oxygen

 Carbon + oxygen ⟶carbon dioxide
C +O2 ⟶ C O2
 Carbon dioxide + carbon ⟶carbon monoxide
CO 2+C ⟶ 2C O

Reaction of carbon monoxide with Iron 111 oxide

 Iron 111 oxide + Carbon monoxide ⟶Iron + carbon dioxide
Fe2 O3+ 3CO ⟶2 Fe+3 C O2 (Redox reaction)
 Iron 111 Oxide + Carbon ⟶ Iron + carbon dioxide
Fe2 O3+ 3C ⟶2 Fe+3 C O2
Decomposition of lime stone
 Calcium carbonate Heat calcium oxide+carbon dioxide
→

CaCO3 Heat CaO+C O2

→

Formation of slag
 Silica (main impurity /silicon dioxide) reacts with the calcium oxide (CaO) formed from the
decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ¿ ¿ form/produce slag ( calcium silicate CaSi
O3 ¿
 Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide ⟶calcium silicate
CaO +SiO2 ⟶ CaSi O3 (slag)
 Molten slag floats on top of the molten iron as it is less dense and is tapped off separately
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Expt
Aim: To investigate the effect of heating Fe2 O3on a charcoal block
Apparatus
Wooden spatula (will provide the charcoal )
Burnsen burner
Iron 111 oxide
Method
 Hold a small wooden spatula on a blue gas flame for a few seconds
 Try to char it, the black material you have made is charcoal
 Dip the charcoal end of the stick into powdered iron 111 oxide until it has become coated
with powder
 Put the coated end of the stick into the hot blue flame and heat it until it glows orange
 Stub it out and grind the result ash
 Stroke the ash with a small bar magnet and look for tiny crystals of iron sticking to the
magnet
 Try to stroke the magnet over the iron 111 oxide powder.
Conclusion
 The charcoal acts as the reducing agent
 It burns in air and reacts to produce carbon dioxide which reduces the iron 111 oxide to iron
 A chemical reaction has taken place as can be seen when using the magnet.
 Iron sticks to the magnet, iron ore.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (TOPIC 6)
Hydrocarbons
 Are organic compounds that contain the element carbon and hydrogen
 Carbon is the building block of carbon compounds
 Organic compounds can contain other elements such as oxygen nitrogen and chlorine
 A wide variety of carbon compounds are possible as carbon can form up to four single
covalent bonds
Organic compounds are represented in different ways
Molecular formula e.g methane (C H 4 )
Structural formula eg ethane
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Carbon can bond to itself in different structures including chains, rings and branches

Homologous Series
 Is a series of organic compounds with the same general formula and with the same functional
group
 The compounds differ in the length of carbon chain
 Functional group of a compound is an atom or a group of atoms that form the centre of
chemical activity in the compound
NB number of carbon atoms determine the prefix of the name and functional group the suffix

Number of carbon Prefix

atoms
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-

Examples of homologous series are alkanes and alkenes

Alkanes (C n H 2 n +2 ¿
 Alkane molecules names will end with the suffix –ane
 Examples of alkanes include methane and ethane
 Alkane are characterized by single bonds between their carbon atoms
 They are said to be saturated hydrocarbons because of the single bonds between the carbon
atoms
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 They are said to be saturated hydrocarbons because of the single bonds between the carbon
atoms and because they are saturated they do not react that much
 The functional group of all alkanes is:

Alkenes
A homologous series that is characterized by at least one double bond between the carbon atoms
in the chain
Their general formula isC n H 2 n
The fact that they have at least one double bond means they are unsaturated
The functional group is

The name of alkene compounds always end with the suffix –ene
Eg of alkene include methane, propene
Uses of hydrocarbons
Are important source of energy
The form of energy is chemical energy
When burning the fuels energy is released in the form of heat and light.
Hydrocarbon Use
Methane It is mainly in heating as a fuel of stove water heaters
Main constituency of natural gas
Ethane Used in heating and also needed for the production of ethane and used
in many chemical processes
Propane Used as fuels for engine
Also used for portable camping stoves
Ethene Used as a building block of chemicals such as plastics, anti – freeze
solutions and solvents
Propene Mainly used in the production of polypropylene which is used in many
ways eg for textiles, furniture, packaging of food and toys

Bio Gas Digester

 Biogas is a mixture of methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide
 Can be used as fuel, a renewable option that can replace the non-renewable fossil fuels
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 Biogas is a good, clean, environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels

Biogas production
 Is produced in a sealed pit called a bio digester
 It is fed with organic material which is broken down (decomposed) by micro-organisms
(bacteria) in an oxygen free (anaerobic ) environment
 The breaking down is known as fermentation which is the chemical breakdown of a
substance by bacteria, yeast, or other microorganisms in absence of oxygen.
Biodigester

 Organic waste fermentationmethane

→
Methane+carbon dioxide

 After the Gas is collected sludge/slurry remains

 Slurry is high in nitrogen which makes it suitable for use as fertilizer for crops or vegetables
gardens
 Slurry is removed and the process is started again
Factors affecting biogas Production
Temperature
 The best temperature range is from 32 to 35 degrees Celsius.
 Lower temperatures will cause microorganisms to be inactive and higher temperatures will
kill the microorganisms
Oxygen
 Bacteria function in an anaerobic environment so that biogas is produced
Type of biological waste
Waste fed into the digester should easily decompose for faster generation of gas hence the need
to use waste such as animal manure, chicken droppings, and food left overs
PH
 Solution should not be acidic or alkaline
 Ph affects the microorganisms
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Time
The length of time that the organic waste needs to be in the digester depends on the type of
organic waste fed into the digester
Metals
 Metals must be introduced into digesters as some metals cause microorganisms which carry
out the fermentation process to die

Uses of biogas
 Can be used to cook, generated electricity or heat buildings.