1.2.

1define atom, atomic number, atomic mass and atomic mass unit;

1. Atom: An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It
consists of a nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) and electrons that orbit the
nucleus. Atoms combine to form molecules and make up all matter in the universe.
2. Atomic Number: The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
It uniquely identifies an element and determines its position on the periodic table. For
example, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, meaning it has one proton.
3. Atomic Mass (or Atomic Weight): The atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an
atom of an element, taking into account the relative abundance of its isotopes. It's usually
expressed in atomic mass units (amu). For example, the atomic mass of carbon is
approximately 12.01 amu.
4. Atomic Mass Unit (AMU): The atomic mass unit (amu), also known as the unified
atomic mass unit (u), is a standard unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular
weights. It is defined as one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. One amu is
approximately 1.66 × 10⁻²⁷ kilograms.

1.2.2define relative atomic mass based on C-12 scales

The relative atomic mass (often called the atomic weight) is the weighted average mass of an
element's atoms compared to the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is assigned a value of exactly
12 atomic mass units (amu). It reflects the average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of
an element, taking into account both their masses and their relative abundances.

The C-12 scale is used because carbon-12 (¹²C) is chosen as the standard reference, and its
atomic mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units.

Formula:

Relative Atomic Mass=Average mass of atom1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom\

text{Relative Atomic Mass} = \frac{\text{Average mass of atom}}{\text{1/12th of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom}}Relative Atomic Mass=1/12th of the mass of a carbon-
12 atomAverage mass of atom

So, if an element has an atomic mass closer to 12 amu, like carbon itself, its relative atomic mass
is 12. For elements with isotopes of varying masses, the relative atomic mass is a weighted
average of the isotopic masses.

For example:

 The relative atomic mass of carbon (mostly carbon-12) is 12.

 The relative atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.5, because chlorine has two main
isotopes (Cl-35 and Cl-37), with Cl-35 being more abundant.
In essence, the relative atomic mass allows us to compare the masses of atoms in a way that is
based on a universal scale, where carbon-12 serves as the baseline.

1.2.3 differentiate among elements, compounds and mixtures;

1. Elements:

 Made of one type of atom.

 Cannot be broken down by chemical means.
 Example: Oxygen (O), Gold (Au).

2. Compounds:

 Made of two or more types of atoms chemically bonded.

 Has fixed proportions and distinct properties.
 Example: Water (H₂O), Salt (NaCl).

3. Mixtures:

 Made of two or more substances physically combined.

 Components retain their properties and can be separated by physical means.
 Example: Air, Salad.

Key Differences:

 Elements: Single type of atom.

 Compounds: Chemically bonded atoms.
 Mixtures: Physically combined substances.

1.2.4 distinguish between atoms and ions;

Here’s a brief distinction between atoms and ions:

1. Atoms:

 Definition: An atom is the basic unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
 Charge: Neutral (no overall charge) because the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.
 Example: A neutral hydrogen atom (H) has 1 proton and 1 electron.

2. Ions:

 Definition: An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons,
resulting in a charge.
  Charge:
o Cations: Positive charge (lost electrons).
o Anions: Negative charge (gained electrons).
 Example: Sodium ion (Na⁺) is a cation (lost one electron), and chloride ion (Cl⁻) is an
anion (gained one electron).

Key Difference:

 Atoms are neutral (equal protons and electrons).

 Ions are charged (due to unequal protons and electrons).

1.2.5 differentiate between molecules and molecular ions;

Here's a simple distinction between molecules and molecular ions:

1. Molecules:

 Definition: A molecule is a neutral group of two or more atoms bonded together, either
by covalent bonds or through other types of bonding.
 Charge: Neutral (no overall charge).
 Examples: Water (H₂O), Oxygen (O₂), Carbon dioxide (CO₂).

2. Molecular Ions:

 Definition: A molecular ion is a molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons,
giving it a net charge.
 Charge: Charged (either positive or negative).
 Examples: Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), Sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻).

Key Difference:

 Molecules are neutral (no charge).

 Molecular ions are charged due to the loss or gain of electrons.

1.2.6 distinguish between ions and free radicals;

Here's a brief distinction between ions and free radicals:

1. Ions:

 Definition: Ions are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons,
resulting in a net electric charge.
 Charge: Ions can be either positive (cations) or negative (anions).
 Cause: The charge results from an imbalance between the number of protons and
electrons.
  Examples: Sodium ion (Na⁺), Chloride ion (Cl⁻).

2. Free Radicals:

 Definition: Free radicals are atoms, molecules, or ions that have unpaired electrons in
their outer shell.
 Charge: They are usually neutral, though they can sometimes carry a charge.
 Cause: Free radicals form when a bond breaks and one atom keeps the unpaired electron,
making the molecule highly reactive.
 Examples: Hydroxyl radical (OH•), Nitric oxide (NO•).

Key Differences:

 Ions have a net charge (gained or lost electrons).

 Free radicals have unpaired electrons but are usually neutral. They are highly reactive
and can cause chemical changes.

1.2.7 classify the chemical species into elements, mixtures, compounds, ions
molecular ions and free radicals;

1. Elements:

 Made of one type of atom.

 Examples: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C).

2. Mixtures:

 Physical combinations of substances, no chemical bonding.

 Examples: Air, Salad.

3. Compounds:

 Two or more elements chemically bonded.

 Examples: Water (H₂O), Sodium chloride (NaCl).

4. Ions:

 Charged species from gain or loss of electrons.

 Examples: Sodium ion (Na⁺), Chloride ion (Cl⁻).

5. Molecular Ions:

 Molecules with a charge due to electron loss/gain.

 Examples: Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), Sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻).
6. Free Radicals:

 Atoms or molecules with unpaired electrons, highly reactive.

 Examples: Hydroxyl radical (OH•), Nitric oxide (NO•).

1.2.8 define valency and identify valencies of some common elements and radicals;

Valency:

Valency is the measure of an atom's ability to bond with other atoms. It refers to the number of
electrons an atom can gain, lose, or share to form a stable bond (typically achieving a full outer
electron shell).

Valency of Common Elements:

 Hydrogen (H): Valency = 1 (can form one bond, e.g., H₂O).

 Oxygen (O): Valency = 2 (can form two bonds, e.g., H₂O).
 Nitrogen (N): Valency = 3 (can form three bonds, e.g., NH₃).
 Carbon (C): Valency = 4 (can form four bonds, e.g., CH₄).
 Chlorine (Cl): Valency = 1 (can form one bond, e.g., HCl).
 Sulfur (S): Valency = 2, 4, or 6 (can form bonds with 2, 4, or 6 atoms, e.g., SO₂, SO₃).

Valency of Common Radicals:

 Hydroxide (OH⁻): Valency = 1 (can form one bond).

 Nitrate (NO₃⁻): Valency = 1 (can form one bond).
 Sulfate (SO₄²⁻): Valency = 2 (can form two bonds).
 Ammonium (NH₄⁺): Valency = 1 (can form one bond).

Summary:

 Valency indicates the number of bonds an atom or ion can form.

 It helps in determining how elements combine in compounds.

1.3.1 define empirical and molecular formula;

Empirical Formula:

The empirical formula represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound. It gives the relative proportions of the elements but not the actual number of atoms in
the molecule.
  Example: The empirical formula for glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is CH₂O, since the ratio of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen is 1:2:1.

Molecular Formula:

The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a
compound. It may be the same as or a multiple of the empirical formula.

 Example: The molecular formula for glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆, which is the actual number
of atoms in one molecule of glucose.

Key Difference:

 Empirical Formula: Simplified ratio of elements (e.g., CH₂O for glucose).

 Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms in a molecule (e.g., C₆H₁₂O₆ for
glucose).

1.3.2 calculate empirical formula from the given percentages of elements;

To calculate the empirical formula from the percentages of elements, follow these steps:

1. Assume 100 g of the compound: Convert the percentage of each element directly into
grams.
2. Convert grams to moles: Use the molar mass (atomic weight) of each element:

moles of element=grams of elementatomic mass of element\text{moles of element} = \

frac{\text{grams of element}}{\text{atomic mass of element}}

3. Find the simplest ratio: Divide the moles of each element by the smallest number of
moles.
4. Write the empirical formula: Use the whole number ratios to write the formula.

Example:

Given a compound with:

 40% Carbon
 6.7% Hydrogen
 53.3% Oxygen

1. Assume 100g:
o 40g Carbon, 6.7g Hydrogen, 53.3g Oxygen.
2. Convert to moles:
o Carbon: 4012=3.33\frac{40}{12} = 3.33 moles
o Hydrogen: 6.71=6.7\frac{6.7}{1} = 6.7 moles
o Oxygen: 53.316=3.33\frac{53.3}{16} = 3.33 moles
 3. Divide by smallest moles (3.33):
o Carbon: 3.333.33=1\frac{3.33}{3.33} = 1
o Hydrogen: 6.73.33=2\frac{6.7}{3.33} = 2
o Oxygen: 3.333.33=1\frac{3.33}{3.33} = 1
4. Empirical formula: CH₂O.

This gives the simplest ratio of atoms in the compound.

1.3.3 calculate the molecular formula from the molecular mass and empirical
formula;

To calculate the molecular formula from the empirical formula and molecular mass, follow
these steps:

Steps:

1. Calculate the empirical formula mass:

o Find the molar mass (atomic mass) of each element in the empirical formula.
o Add up the atomic masses of all elements in the empirical formula to get the
empirical formula mass.
2. Divide the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass:
o This gives the n factor, which is the number of empirical formula units in the
molecular formula.
3. Multiply the empirical formula by n:
o Multiply each element in the empirical formula by n to get the molecular formula.

Example Calculation:

Given:

 Empirical formula: CH₂O

 Molecular mass: 180 g/mol

1. Calculate the empirical formula mass:

o Carbon (C) = 12 g/mol
o Hydrogen (H) = 1 g/mol × 2 = 2 g/mol
o Oxygen (O) = 16 g/mol
o Empirical formula mass = 12 + 2 + 16 = 30 g/mol
2. Divide the molecular mass by the empirical formula mass:
o n=180 g/mol30 g/mol=6n = \frac{180 \text{ g/mol}}{30 \text{ g/mol}} = 6
3. Multiply the empirical formula by n:
o Empirical formula = CH₂O
o Multiply by 6: C₆H₁₂O₆

Molecular formula: C₆H₁₂O₆

So, the molecular formula is C₆H₁₂O₆.

Summary:

 Find empirical formula mass.

 Divide molecular mass by empirical formula mass to get n.
 Multiply the empirical formula by n to get the molecular formula.

1.4.1: define the terms gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass, gram formula
mass, formula unit, mole and Avogadro’s number;

🔹 1. Gram Atomic Mass

 The mass of one mole of atoms of an element, expressed in grams.

 It is numerically equal to the atomic mass in atomic mass units (u), but written in
grams.
 🧪 Example: Oxygen has atomic mass = 16 u → Gram atomic mass = 16 g.

🔹 2. Gram Molecular Mass

 The mass of one mole of molecules of a compound, in grams.

 Numerically equal to the molecular mass in u.
 🧪 Example: H₂O has molecular mass = 18 u → Gram molecular mass = 18 g.

🔹 3. Gram Formula Mass

 The mass of one mole of formula units of an ionic compound, in grams.

 Equal to the formula mass in u.
 🧪 Example: NaCl has formula mass = 58.5 u → Gram formula mass = 58.5 g.

🔹 4. Formula Unit

 The simplest ratio of ions in an ionic compound.

 It represents one unit of the compound as found in nature.
 🧪 Example: In NaCl, one formula unit = 1 Na⁺ and 1 Cl⁻.

🔹 5. Mole
  A standard counting unit in chemistry.
 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or formula units).
 🧪 Example: 1 mole of H₂O = 6.022 × 10²³ water molecules.

🔹 6. Avogadro’s Number

 The number of particles in one mole of any substance.

 It is a constant:
Avogadro’s Number = 6.022 × 10²³

✅ Summary Table:

Term Meaning
Gram Atomic Mass Mass of 1 mole of atoms (in g)
Gram Molecular Mass Mass of 1 mole of molecules (in g)
Gram Formula Mass Mass of 1 mole of formula units (in g)
Formula Unit Simplest ratio of ions in an ionic compound
Mole Unit representing 6.022 × 10²³ particles
Avogadro’s Number 6.022 × 10²³ particles/mole

1.4.2 relate gram atomic mass, gram molecular mass and gram formula mass to
mole and Avogadro’s number;

🔹 1. Gram Atomic Mass (GAM)

 Mass of 1 mole of atoms of an element.

 Unit: grams (g)
 Example: Hydrogen = 1 g, Carbon = 12 g
 1 mole of atoms = GAM in grams = 6.022 × 10²³ atoms

🔹 2. Gram Molecular Mass (GMM)

 Mass of 1 mole of molecules of a compound (covalent).

 Calculated by adding atomic masses of all atoms in the molecule.
 Example: H₂O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g
 1 mole of molecules = GMM in grams = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules

🔹 3. Gram Formula Mass (GFM)

 Mass of 1 mole of formula units (ionic compounds).

 Similar to GMM but for ionic substances.
  Example: NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 g
 1 mole of formula units = GFM in grams = 6.022 × 10²³ formula units

🔁 Relation to Mole and Avogadro’s Number:

Term Mass of 1 mole (g) No. of Particles (per mole)

Gram Atomic Mass 1 mole of atoms 6.022 × 10²³ atoms

Gram Molecular Mass 1 mole of molecules 6.022 × 10²³ molecules

Gram Formula Mass 1 mole of formula units 6.022 × 10²³ units

1.5.1 define a chemical equation;

🔹 Definition of a Chemical Equation:

A chemical equation is a written representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and

formulas to show:

 The reactants (substances that react),

 The products (new substances formed),
 And sometimes the states of the substances and energy changes.

🧪 Example:

Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water:

Unbalanced:
H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

Balanced:
2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g) → 2H₂O (l)

✅ Key Points:

 Reactants are written on the left.

 Products are written on the right.
 The arrow (→) shows the direction of the reaction.
 The equation must be balanced — same number of atoms of each element on both sides.

1.5.2 describe the formation and characteristics of chemical equations;

🔹 Formation of Chemical Equations

 A chemical equation is formed by:

1. Writing the reactants (starting substances).
2. Writing the products (new substances).
3. Using symbols and formulas.
4. Adding an arrow (→) between reactants and products.
5. Balancing the equation to follow the law of conservation of mass.

Example:
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

🔹 Characteristics of Chemical Equations

1. Shows what happens in a chemical reaction.

2. Uses chemical symbols and formulas.
3. Reactants on the left, products on the right.
4. Must be balanced (same number of atoms on both sides).
5. May show physical states (s, l, g, aq).

1.5.3 explain the types of chemical reactions with examples;

🔹 1. Combination (Synthesis) Reaction

 Two or more substances combine to form a single product.

General form:
A + B → AB

Example:
H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl

🔹 2. Decomposition Reaction

 One compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.

General form:
AB → A + B

Example:
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂

🔹 3. Displacement (Replacement) Reaction

 One element replaces another in a compound.

General form:
A + BC → AC + B

Example:
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu

🔹 4. Double Displacement Reaction

 Two compounds exchange ions to form new compounds.

General form:
AB + CD → AD + CB

Example:
NaCl + AgNO₃ → NaNO₃ + AgCl

🔹 5. Combustion Reaction

 A substance reacts with oxygen, producing heat and light (usually forms CO₂ and H₂O).

Example:
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

1.5.4 balance the chemical equations by inspection and trial and error methods;

🔹 How to Balance Chemical Equations (Trial and Error Method)

✅ Steps:

1. Write the unbalanced equation.

2. Count atoms of each element on both sides.
3. Add numbers in front of formulas to make atoms equal.
4. Don’t change small numbers (subscripts).
5. Keep trying until both sides match.

🧪 Examples:

1. H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

 H = 2 both sides ✅
 O = 2 (left), 1 (right) ❌
 Add 2 in front of H₂O: H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
 Now H = 4 (right), so add 2 in front of H₂:
✅ 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
2. Fe + O₂ → Fe₂O₃

 Fe = 1 (left), 2 (right) → Put 2Fe

 O = 2 (left), 3 (right) → Use 3O₂ and 2Fe₂O₃
 Final: ✅ 4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃

3. Na + H₂O → NaOH + H₂

 Try: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂

 Now Na, H, and O are all balanced ✅

1.5.5 calculate the mass, number of moles, number of molecules and mole ratio based
on balanced chemical equation by combustion analysis.
🔥 Combustion Reaction Example:

Balanced Equation:

CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

This is methane (CH₄) burning in oxygen.

✳️Let's say we start with 16 g of CH₄.

✅ Step 1: Calculate Moles

Moles = Mass / Molar Mass

 Molar mass of CH₄ = 12 (C) + 4×1 (H) = 16 g/mol

 Moles of CH₄ = 16 g / 16 g/mol = 1 mole

✅ Step 2: Use Mole Ratio

From the equation:

1 CH₄ : 2 O₂ : 1 CO₂ : 2 H₂O

So if we have 1 mole of CH₄, it reacts with:

 2 moles of O₂
 Produces 1 mole of CO₂
 And 2 moles of H₂O

✅ Step 3: Calculate Number of Molecules

Use Avogadro’s Number:

1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules
  CH₄: 1 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules
 O₂: 2 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 1.204 × 10²⁴ molecules
 CO₂: 1 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules
 H₂O: 2 × 6.022 × 10²³ = 1.204 × 10²⁴ molecules

✅ Step 4: Calculate Mass of Products

 CO₂:
Molar mass = 12 + 2×16 = 44 g/mol
Mass = 1 mole × 44 g = 44 g
 H₂O:
Molar mass = 2×1 + 16 = 18 g/mol
Mass = 2 moles × 18 g = 36 g

🔁 Summary Table:
Substance Moles Molecules Mass (g)

CH₄ 1 6.022 × 10²³ 16

O₂ 2 1.204 × 10²⁴ 64

CO₂ 1 6.022 × 10²³ 44

H₂O 2 1.204 × 10²⁴ 36

2.1.1 describe the structure of an atom including the location of proton, electron and
neutron

🔹 Structure of an Atom

An atom has 3 main parts:

Proton (p⁺)

 Charge: Positive (+)

 Location: Nucleus

Neutron (n⁰)

 Charge: Neutral (0)

 Location: Nucleus

Electron (e⁻)

 Charge: Negative (−)

  Location: Outside nucleus, in shells

Nucleus

 Center of the atom

 Contains protons and neutrons
 Has most of the atom’s mass

Electron Shells

 Electrons move around the nucleus

 First shell holds 2 electrons, second holds 8, etc.

2.1.2 calculate the number of − e , p+ and n of the given atom and ions;

Sure! Here's a short and simple version:

🔹 How to Find:

✅ Protons (p⁺) = Atomic number

✅ Electrons (e⁻)

 Atom: same as protons

 Ion:
o Add electrons if negative (⁻)
o Subtract electrons if positive (⁺)

✅ Neutrons (n⁰) = Mass number − Atomic number

🧪 Examples:

1. Carbon (C)

 Atomic number = 6, Mass number = 12

→ p⁺ = 6, e⁻ = 6, n⁰ = 6

2. Na⁺

 Atomic number = 11, Mass = 23

→ p⁺ = 11, e⁻ = 10, n⁰ = 12

3. Cl⁻
  Atomic number = 17, Mass = 35
→ p⁺ = 17, e⁻ = 18, n⁰ = 18


2.1.3 draw the atomic structure of the first twenty elements and their ions;

2.2.1 describe Rutherford’s experiment and the discovery of atomic nucleus;

🔬 Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment (1909)

✅ What He Did:
  Fired alpha particles (positively charged) at thin gold foil.
 Expected all to pass through (based on Thomson’s model).

✅ What He Observed:

 Most alpha particles passed through the foil.

 Some were deflected at small angles.
 A few bounced back.

✅ What He Concluded:

 Atoms are mostly empty space.

 A tiny, dense, positively charged center exists → the nucleus.
 Electrons move around this nucleus.

🎯 Result:

 Disproved Thomson’s “plum pudding” model.

 Proposed the nuclear model of the atom.

2.2.2 discuss the defects of Rutherford’s atomic model;

❌ Defects of Rutherford’s Atomic Model

1. Couldn’t explain electron stability

o According to physics, moving electrons should lose energy and spiral into the
nucleus, but atoms are stable.
2. Didn’t explain atomic spectra
o Rutherford’s model couldn’t explain why atoms emit light at specific
wavelengths (line spectra).
3. No details about energy levels
o It didn’t say where electrons are or how they are arranged around the nucleus.

2.2.3 describe Bohr’s atomic model;

🔵 Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913)

✅ Main Points:

1. Electrons move in fixed orbits

o Called energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
 2. Orbits have fixed energy
o Electrons don’t lose energy while staying in these orbits.
3. Energy is absorbed or released
o When electrons jump to higher or fall to lower orbits.
4. Explains atomic spectra
o Light is emitted when electrons fall to lower levels, matching observed line
spectra.

2.3.1 – Definition of Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

2.3.2 – Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Isotopes

Element Isotope Protons Neutrons Electrons

H ¹H (Protium) 1 0 1

H ²H (Deuterium) 1 1 1

H ³H (Tritium) 1 2 1

C ¹²C 6 6 6

C ¹⁴C 6 8 6

O ¹⁶O 8 8 8

O ¹⁸O 8 10 8

Cl ³⁵Cl 17 18 17

Cl ³⁷Cl 17 20 17

U ²³⁵U 92 143 92

U ²³⁸U 92 146 92

2.3.3 – Atomic Structure of Isotopes (Bohr Model Style)

Would you like me to draw Bohr models for the isotopes of:

 H (¹H, ²H, ³H)

 C (¹²C, ¹⁴C)
 O (¹⁶O, ¹⁸O)
 Cl (³⁵Cl, ³⁷Cl)

2.3.4 – Importance of Isotopes in Life
Field Use of Isotopes

Medicine Cobalt-60 for cancer treatment, Iodine-131 for thyroid

Archaeology Carbon-14 dating to find age of fossils and artifacts

Agriculture Isotopes used to trace fertilizers and improve crops

Industry Checking for leaks using radioactive isotopes

Nuclear Energy Uranium-235 used as nuclear fuel

🔹 2.4.1 – Difference Between Shells and Sub-shells

✅ Shells:

 Main energy levels around the nucleus.

 Labeled as K, L, M, N... or n = 1, 2, 3, 4...
 Electrons move in these shells.

✅ Sub-shells:

 Divisions within a shell.

 Named s, p, d, f
 Each sub-shell has different shapes and energy.

📘 Example (n = 2, or L shell):

 Has 2 sub-shells → 2s and 2p

Shell (n) Sub-shells

1 (K) 1s

2 (L) 2s, 2p

3 (M) 3s, 3p, 3d

4 (N) 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

🔹 2.5.1 – Electronic Arrangement (K, L, M shells)

🔹 Electronic Configuration (s, p, d)

for the first 20 elements (H to Ca):

Atomic No. Element Shells (K, L, M) Electron Configuration (s, p, d)

1 H 1 1s¹
Atomic No. Element Shells (K, L, M) Electron Configuration (s, p, d)

2 He 2 1s²

3 Li 2, 1 1s² 2s¹

4 Be 2, 2 1s² 2s²

5 B 2, 3 1s² 2s² 2p¹

6 C 2, 4 1s² 2s² 2p²

7 N 2, 5 1s² 2s² 2p³

8 O 2, 6 1s² 2s² 2p⁴

9 F 2, 7 1s² 2s² 2p⁵

10 Ne 2, 8 1s² 2s² 2p⁶

11 Na 2, 8, 1 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹

12 Mg 2, 8, 2 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²

13 Al 2, 8, 3 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p¹

14 Si 2, 8, 4 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p²

15 P 2, 8, 5 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p³

16 S 2, 8, 6 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴

17 Cl 2, 8, 7 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁵

18 Ar 2, 8, 8 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶

19 K 2, 8, 8, 1 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s¹

20 Ca 2, 8, 8, 2 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²

3.1.1 State the modern periodic law: The modern periodic law states that the properties of
elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. In simpler terms, when elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, their physical and chemical properties show a
periodic (repeating) pattern.

3.1.2 Distinguish between a period and a group in the periodic table:

  A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Elements in the same period have the
same number of electron shells. For example, all elements in Period 2 have two electron
shells.
 A group (also called a family) is a vertical column in the periodic table. Elements in the
same group have the same number of valence electrons and therefore have similar
chemical properties. For example, Group 1 elements (like sodium and potassium) are
alkali metals and are highly reactive.

3.1.3 Deduce the groups and periods of elements on the basis of electronic configuration:

 The period of an element corresponds to the number of electron shells it has. For
example, if an element’s electron configuration ends in 3s²3p², it is in Period 3.
 The group of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons. For example,
an element with the configuration ending in s² is in Group 2, and an element with the
configuration ending in p⁵ is in Group 17 (the halogens).

3.1.4 Explain the shape of the periodic table (s, p, d, f blocks): The periodic table is divided
into four blocks based on the electron sublevel being filled:

 s-block: Groups 1 and 2 (excluding helium). These elements fill their s orbital.
 p-block: Groups 13 to 18. These elements fill their p orbital.
 d-block: Transition metals in Groups 3 to 12. These elements fill their d orbital.
 f-block: Lanthanides and actinides, found below the main table. These elements fill their
f orbital.

3.1.5 Determine the location of families on the periodic table: The main families (groups) in
the periodic table are:

 Group 1: Alkali metals (e.g., lithium, sodium)

 Group 2: Alkaline earth metals (e.g., magnesium, calcium)
 Group 17: Halogens (e.g., fluorine, chlorine)
 Group 18: Noble gases (e.g., helium, neon)
 Transition metals: Groups 3-12
 Lanthanides and Actinides: These are in the f-block (located at the bottom of the table).

3.1.6 Discuss the characteristics of different groups (I - VIII):

  Group I (Alkali Metals): These elements (lithium, sodium, potassium) are highly
reactive, especially with water. They have one valence electron, which they readily lose
to form +1 ions.
 Group II (Alkaline Earth Metals): These elements (beryllium, magnesium, calcium)
are somewhat less reactive than alkali metals and have two valence electrons, which they
lose to form +2 ions.
 Group III (Boron Group): Elements like boron, aluminum, and gallium have three
valence electrons. They can form +3 ions.
 Group IV (Carbon Group): Elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium have four
valence electrons. They can form covalent bonds and are essential in organic chemistry.
 Group V (Nitrogen Group): Elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic have five
valence electrons. Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule (N₂) and is essential for life.
 Group VI (Chalcogens): Elements like oxygen, sulfur, and selenium have six valence
electrons. Oxygen is vital for respiration, and sulfur is important in industrial processes.
 Group VII (Halogens): These elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine) have seven valence
electrons and are highly reactive, especially with alkali metals. They form salts when
combined with metals.
 Group VIII (Noble Gases): These elements (helium, neon, argon) have eight valence
electrons, making them very stable and non-reactive (inert).

Certainly! Here's the breakdown for the new set of questions:

3.2.1 Recognize the similarity in the chemical and physical properties of elements
in the same family of elements:

Elements within the same family (or group) of the periodic table share similar chemical and
physical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons. These valence
electrons largely determine how an element reacts chemically. For example:

 Group 1 (Alkali Metals): Elements like lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K)
are all highly reactive, especially with water. They each have one valence electron, which
they easily lose to form cations with a +1 charge.
 Group 17 (Halogens): Elements like fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), and iodine (I) are
reactive nonmetals, and they each have seven valence electrons. They tend to gain one
electron to form anions with a -1 charge.
 Group 18 (Noble Gases): Elements like helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar) are
chemically inert because they have full valence electron shells (usually 8, except for
helium which has 2), making them stable and non-reactive.

The physical properties (such as boiling and melting points, density, and phase at room
temperature) also follow trends within groups, although these trends can vary based on the
element's position in the group.
3.2.2 Describe the periodic trend by using shielding effect, electronegativity,
atomic radii, electron affinity, and ionization energy within a group and a period
of the periodic table:

1. Shielding Effect:

 The shielding effect refers to the reduction in the attractive force between the nucleus
and the outermost electrons due to the presence of inner electron shells.
o In a period (from left to right): The shielding effect remains relatively constant
because additional electrons are being added to the same shell.
o In a group (from top to bottom): The shielding effect increases because
additional electron shells are being added as you move down the group, so outer
electrons are further from the nucleus and experience less attraction.

2. Electronegativity:

 Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract and bond with electrons.

o In a period (from left to right): Electronegativity increases. As the atomic
number increases, the number of protons in the nucleus also increases, pulling the
electrons more strongly.
o In a group (from top to bottom): Electronegativity decreases. The larger atomic
size means that the outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus, so the
attraction between the nucleus and the bonding electrons is weaker.

3. Atomic Radii:

 Atomic radius refers to the size of an atom.

o In a period (from left to right): The atomic radius decreases. As the number of
protons increases, the electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus, reducing the size
of the atom.
o In a group (from top to bottom): The atomic radius increases. As you move down
a group, additional electron shells are added, so the outermost electrons are farther
from the nucleus, resulting in a larger atomic radius.

4. Electron Affinity:

 Electron affinity is the energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom.
o In a period (from left to right): Electron affinity becomes more negative (i.e.,
energy is released more readily). As you move across a period, the nucleus
becomes more positively charged, attracting the added electron more strongly.
 o In a group (from top to bottom): Electron affinity becomes less negative. The
added electron is farther from the nucleus, and there is more shielding from inner
electron shells, making the attraction weaker.

5. Ionization Energy:

 Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.

o In a period (from left to right): Ionization energy increases. As the nuclear charge
increases, it is harder to remove an electron because the attraction between the
nucleus and electrons becomes stronger.
o In a group (from top to bottom): Ionization energy decreases. As the atomic size
increases and electrons are farther from the nucleus, it takes less energy to remove
an outer electron due to weaker attraction.

Summary of trends:

 Across a period (left to right):

o Atomic radius decreases.
o Electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity increase.
o Shielding effect stays constant.
 Down a group (top to bottom):
o Atomic radius increases.
o Electronegativity, ionization energy, and electron affinity decrease.
o Shielding effect increases.