NOTES

NOTES
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Composition of Atomic
Nuclei:
Ernest Rutherford first developed
the nuclear model of the atom,
consisting of a small dense
positively charged nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
He suggested the presence of
the neutron inside the nucleus,
which was discovered by James
Chadwick (1932).
The nucleus makes up 99.9% of the
atom’s mass, and its size is of the
order 10-15m (Unit for nuclear
dimension measurement: 1 fermi =
^10–15m.)
It is a bound collection of protons
and neutrons, together referred to
as nucleons
A proton has a positive charge
equal to 1.6x10-19C and a mass of
1.673x10-27kg whereas a
neutron has no charge and a
mass of 1.675x10-27kg
The atomic number or the
charge number (Z) represents
the total number of protons
present in the nucleus
The mass number or nucleon
number (A) represents the sum
of the number of protons and
neutrons inside the nucleus

1
PreMed.PK
 NOTES
ISOTOPES
Isotopes:
The atoms of an element having the
same charge number but different
mass number due to a different
number of neutrons are called
isotopes.
Hydrogen has 3 isotopes

Protium (H1) Deuterium (H2 Tritium (H3)

P P n
P n P
n

Protium (H1)which has 1 proton

in the nucleus only
Deuterium (H2) which has 1
proton and neutron in its
nucleus
Tritium (H3) which has 1 proton
and 2 neutrons in its nucleus.

The chemical properties of isotopes

of an element are the same as
chemical properties of an element
depend on the number of
electrons.
Therefore isotopes of the same
element cannot be separated by
chemical methods; they can be
separated with the help of physical
methods like mass spectrography.

2
PreMed.PK
 NOTES
MASS SPECTROGRAPH
Mass Spectrograph: The ions are accelerated to a
certain velocity using an electric
This is a device that has two main field so the K.E. of the ions can be
functions: calculated from the P.D. used to
It is used to identify and accelerate the ion and the mass-
measure the mass and to-charge ratio of the ion:
abundance of particles, atoms, ½ mv2=Ve
and molecules in a sample. So v= √2Ve/m
It works on the principle that a The centripetal force applied by
beam of ions experiences the magnetic field is given by
deflections when it moves through Bev=mv^2/r
electric and magnetic fields. This Bevr/v^2=m (Substituting
deflection depends on the mass-to- value of v from the previous
charge ratio of the ions. equation):
First the sample is ionized, m= Ber/ (√2Ve/m)
creating charged particles. These m= B^2er^2/2V
ions are accelerated by an This equation shows that if
electric field and then pass V, B, and e are kept constant
through a magnetic field, which then the radius of deflection
causes them to deflect. The depends on the mass of the
degree of this deflection ion, helping ions with
depends upon the charge to different mass-to-charge
mass ratio of the ions. ratio be separated.
The ions are then separated
based on this ratio, with the
lighter ions experiencing more
deflection compared to heavier
ones.
After separation, the ions are
detected by a detector which
generates an electrical signal
which is proportional to the
number of ions that hit it.
This signal is then amplified and
recorded as a mass spectrum
which shows the abundance of
ions at different mass-to-charge
ratios.

3
PreMed.PK
 NOTES
MASS DEFECT AND
BINDING ENERGY
Nuclear Mass:
This nuclear binding
Nuclear masses are measured with energy is derived from the
the atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) strong nuclear force.
1 a.m.u. Is exactly the mass of B.E.= Δmc2
1/12th of the C12 isotope B.E.= (Zmp+ (A-Z)mn -
1 a.m.u. = 1.660x10-27 kg mnucleus)c2
When mass is considered Binding Energy per
equivalent to energy, a.m.u. is nucleon is the average
converted to Joules and eV (units energy required to extract
of energy) a nucleon from the
1 a.m.u. = 1.4924x10-10J nucleus. It is also called the
1 a.m.u. = 931.5 MeV packing fraction.
The mass of a nucleus is less B.E. per nucleon or B.E./A=
than the mass of the (Zmp+ (A-Z)mn -
constituents of the nucleus. This mnucleus)c2/A
difference in mass is known as The B.E./A is a measure of
the mass defect. the stability of the nucleus,
Δm= Zmp+ (A-Z) m-nucleus greater the B.E. , the more
where m-nucleus is the stable the nucleus.
experimentally determined The decrease in B.E./A is due
mass of the nucleus. to certain factors:
Surface effect: The
Binding energy is the energy
nucleons that are near the
with which the nucleons are
surface are less tightly
bound within the nucleus. It is
bound as compared to
the energy equivalent of the
those at the center. A
mass defect.
smaller nucleus has more
The energy which is required
nucleons near the surface,
to break a nucleus into its
hence decreased B.E./A
constituents is the binding
Large Nuclear Size: The
energy.
number of protons
The energy which is released
increases in larger nuclei,
when the nucleus is formed
causing Coulomb’s
from its constituents is the
repulsive force to increase
binding energy.
which opposes the nuclear
force, causing the B.E./A to
decrease.

4
PreMed.PK
 NOTES
The B.E./A increases with the
mass number until it reaches
a maximum value of 8.8 MeV
at A=58. After that, it
gradually decreases to a
value of 7.6MeV at A=238.
For A<28, the curve shows
some peaks at 2He4, 4Be8,
6C16, 8O16, 10Ne20, 12Mg24 .
This is due to the extra
stability of these elements in
comparison to their
neighbors.

5
PreMed.PK
 NOTES
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity : Beta decay:

It is the spontaneous release of This happens when the neutron-

subatomic particles or energy in the to-proton ratio of a nucleus is too
form of gamma radiation by high. It is of two types.
unstable nuclei to attain stability. B- decay: This is the decay of a
neutron into a proton with the
The process of radioactive decay emission of an electron and an
is spontaneous i.e. not affected antineutrino(v- ). The proton
by external factors and random stays within the nucleus and
i.e. the time at which a particular the electron is emitted
nucleus will decay cannot be energetically.
predicted. 0n1 → 1p1 + -1e0 + v-
During these nuclear changes, ZXA → z+1YA + -1β0 + v-
the laws of conservation of B+ decay: This is when a
momentum, mass, energy, and proton decays into a
charge remain applicable. neutron with the emission of
All radiation that is emitted from a positron and a neutrino (v)
a radioactive sample is not alike; 1p1 → 0n1 + 1e0 + v
it consists of 3 different types. ZXA → z-1YA + +1β0 + v

Gamma decay:
Alpha decay:

In this, neither the mass nor the

It is when a nucleus of an atom
charge of the parent nucleus
becomes unstable due to a very low
changes. A high-energy nucleus is
neutron-to-proton ratio. It then
converted to a more stable
decays and emits an alpha particle
nucleus by releasing gamma
(He nucleus: 2 protons and 2
photons.
neutrons). An alpha particle has a
ZXA* → ZXA + γ where ZXA*
charge of +2 and a mass of 4 a.m.u.
represents the excited
zXA → z-2YA-4 + 2α4
state of the nucleus

Spontaneous and Random

nuclear decay :

Nuclear decay is random which

means that it cannot be
predicted, the precise moment
for disintegration is not known
for a particular nucleus
It is spontaneous because it is
not affected by any external
factors.

PreMed.PK 6
 NOTES Half life and rate of decay : The number of nuclei present
varies with time according to
Half life is the time it takes for the equation: N= N0 e-λt
half of the radioactive nuclei in a where N0 is the number of
sample to decay OR the time it undecayed nuclei at t=0,
takes for the activity of a N=number of undecayed
radioactive sample to decrease nuclei at time t and λ=decay
to half of its original value. constant
The activity/rate of decay is For t= T1/2 , N= N0/2
defined as the number of N0/2= N0 e-λT1/2 ½= e-
disintegrations that take place λT1/2 2= eλT1/2 ln2=λT1/2
per second. T1/2=ln2/λ so T1/2=0.693/
No radioactive element can λ
completely decay as an infinite Value of half life is constant
time is required for all the atoms for each radioactive
to decay. element. The half-life is a
The number of atoms decaying measurement of the
in a particular period is stability of radioactive
proportional to the number of elements. The rate of
atoms present in the beginning radioactive decay is directly
of the period(undecayed atoms). proportional to the stability
If at a particular time the of the isotope.
number of radioactive atoms is N The activity is the number of
then after a time interval Δt, the disintegrations per unit time
number of decaying atoms ΔN is (ΔN/Δt).
proportional to Δt and N. A= -ΔN/Δt=λN
ΔN∝ -N Δt (negative sign The SI unit of activity is
Becquerel where 1 Bq
because N decreases as t
increases) represents one decay per
ΔN = -λNΔt where λ=decay second.
constant Curie is a common unit to
If for a particular atom, the measure activity. 1 Ci=
decay constant is large, then 3.70x10^10 Bq
in a particular time period, Artificial radioactive elements
the number of atoms that will are formed when high energy
decay will also be large. It can particles are bombarded on the
also be defined as the stable element, which excites
fraction of decaying atoms the nuclei causing it to become
per unit time. It has unit s-1. unstable and radioactive

PreMed.PK 7
 NOTES
INTERACTION OF NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS WITH MATTER

Alpha particles: Gamma rays:

As it passes through a Photons of gamma rays interact

medium(solid/liquid/gas), it with matter in mainly 3 different
causes ionization of atoms in the ways, depending on their
medium and loses energy in the energy. At lower energies(>0.5
process. MeV), the dominant process is
It does not experience an the photoelectric effect. At
appreciable deflection from its medium energies, it is Compton
straight path as long as it does scattering, and at high energies
not approach atomic nuclei i.e. <1.02 MeV, the dominant
head-on due to its massive size. process is Pair production.
It continues to cause ionization The intensity of γ rays in air
until it loses all its energy, it then decreases as the inverse square
gains 2 electrons from the of the distance from the source.
medium and becomes a Helium In solids, there is an exponential
atom. decrease with increasing depth
Typical sources: Radon-222 of penetration into material.
I=I0e-μx where I0=initial
intensity, I= intensity after
Beta particles:
passing through material,
x=distance covered in medium
They have less ionizing ability and μ= linear absorption
than alpha particles so they will coefficient
continue to move through the Typical sources: Cobalt-60
medium for a longer time(have a
longer range).
Neutrons:
They are more easily deflected
due to their smaller mass. Their
path shows scattering. They are electrically neutral so
The range for beta particles also are extremely penetrating.
depends on the medium density, For a neutron to be stopped, it
the denser the medium, the has to collide with a particle of
shorter will be the range. comparable mass
Typical sources: Strontium-94 Neutrons produce little indirect
ionization when they interact
with materials containing
hydrogen atoms and knock out
protons.

PreMed.PK 8
 NOTES
RADIATION DETECTORS
Most of the radiation detectors A high P.D. is maintained to
make use of the fact that ionization produce discharge through the
is produced along the path of the gas which causes ionization,
particle. producing electrons. When the
Wilson cloud chamber: It shows electrons are accelerated to the
the visible path of ionizing anode, they collide with gas
radiation. It uses the principle atoms, causing them to be
that supersaturated vapors ionized.
condense preferentially on ions.
If the ionizing particle is about to More electrons are produced,
pass where the cloud droplets causing a cascade of electrons
are about to form, they will form towards the anode that makes a
along the particle’s path, short pulse of current pass
showing it as a trail of droplets. through the external resistor. This
Tiny droplets condense about pulse is amplified and registered
these ions and form vapor tracks electronically. The entire pulse
which show the radiation takes less than 1 microsecond. GM
pathway. counter is unsuitable for fast
counting as it has a lon dead time
(10^-4s)
Types of
Tracks produced
radiation Solid state detectors : These
devices use semiconductors to
Thick, straight and detect charged
Alpha
continuous particles/photons. A reverse
bias PN junction diode is used
Thin, discontinuous, and the incident radiation
Beta and extending in an produces electron-hole pairs
erratic manner which causes a current pulse
to flow through the external
circuit. The energy needed to
Gamma No definite tracks
produce and electron-hole
pair is 3-4 eV. The top and
bottom layer is coated with
Geiger muller counter: It gold for conduction.
consists of a stiff, central wire
which makes the anode and a
hollow metal tube filled with gas
(cathode). A thin mica window
allows particles to enter.

PreMed.PK 9
 NOTES Normally no current flows
through the circuit but when the
incident particle penetrates
through the depletion region,
electron-hole pairs are produced,
causing a pulse of current which
is amplified by a scaler unit. The
size of the pulse is directly
proportional to the energy
absorbed by the incident particle.
SSD can detect low-energy
particles and can count very fast.
It is smaller in size and requires a
low voltage.

PreMed.PK 10
 NOTES
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
It is a reaction in which an incident Fission chain reaction:
nuclear particle or photon causes a
change in a target nucleus.
In this, the first neutron collides
An induced nuclear reaction is
with the heavy nucleus,
one in which the target nuclei
producing two to three more
are bombarded with energetic
neutrons. If those neutrons
light particles.
bombard with other heavy
Quantities that are conserved in
nuclei, the reaction becomes a
nuclear reactions:
chain reaction. The critical mass
Charge
is the mass of the heavy nucleus
Energy (mass)
for which 1 out of the 3 neutrons
Momentum (linear/angular)
produced in one fission reaction
Nucleon number
continues the chain reaction.
The energy equivalent of the
If the mass of the heavy
difference in rest masses on both
nucleus is greater than the
sides of the equation is called the
critical mass, then the chain
nuclear reaction energy (Q).
reaction occurs at rapid
When Q is positive, energy is
speed (explosion).
released, when it is negative,
If the mass < critical mass,
energy is absorbed.
chain reaction does not
The nuclear reaction that led to
proceed.
the discovery of neutron
If mass= critical mass, chain
4Be9 + 2He4 —---> 6C12 + 0n1
reaction proceeds at initial
speed..
Nuclear Fission
It is the reaction in which a heavy
nucleus splits into two nuclei of
roughly the same size along with
energy emission. It produces free
neutrons and photons.
There is no difference between
the sum of mass and charge
numbers on both sides of the
nuclear fission equation.
The fission of one uranium
nucleus releases 2.11 MeV of
energy
Fission takes place very easily
with slow neutrons of U-235
and Pu-239

PreMed.PK 11
 NOTES Nuclear Fusion:

This is when two lighter nuclei

combine to form a heavy nucleus,
with the release of energy.
Some mass is lost and the
equivalent of the lost mass is
given out as energy.
In fusion, more energy per
nucleon can be obtained than
fission.
A large amount of energy is
required to start fusion whereas
hardly any energy is required to
start fission.
To start fusion, the temperature
at which the required speed of
light nuclei is available is 10
million C.
Basically, energy is obtained
from any nuclear reaction in
which the binding energy per
nucleon of the products
increases.

PreMed.PK 12
 NOTES NUCLEAR REACTOR
Definition: 3.1. Control Rods: They are used to
control the number of neutrons
It is a device that is designed to to maintain the critical state (the
maintain self-sustaining fission minimum mass required to
reactions in a controlled way. A sustain the chain reaction).
reactor has 4 main parts: Cadmium and Boron are used
1. Core: In the core, the usually as they can absorb fast-
fuel(enriched Uranium-235) is moving neutrons. The rods are
kept in cylindrical tubes. moved in and out of the core to
2. Moderators: They slow down the control the neutrons.
speed of neutrons produced as 4.1. Coolant: It cools the fuel rods
the neutrons produced by fission and moderator. It carries away
of U-235 have an energy of the heat that is generated in the
several MeV but those required fission process. It is usually water
for fission are neutrons with or heavy water under high
0.025 eV. The material for the pressure. The heat carried by the
moderator should be light so as coolant can be used to run the
to not absorb the neutrons e.g. turbine to generate electricity.
water, heavy water, graphite, .
carbon, etc..

Thermal Reactor Tracks produced

In this, neutrons are slowed down

In this, fast energy neutrons are
to thermal energies to produce
used. It absorbs fast neutrons ad
further
changes to Plutonium-239.
fission.

PWR or pressurised water Neutron is absorbed by U-238

reactor is an example of a followed by 2 beta decay reactions
thermal reactor. which results in the formation of
Pu-239 which is the fission fuel.

In PWR, water is prevented from

boiling by keeping at high
temperatures. This hot water is used
to boil another circuit of water which
produces steam for turbine rotation.

PreMed.PK 13
 NOTES RADIATION EXPOSURE
Background radiation is present
around us at all times due to Absorbed dose tells about the
cosmic radiation and naturally effect of absorbed radiation on
radioactive substances in the the body. It refers to the
Earth’s crust. energy absorbed from ionising
The atmosphere absorbs all radiation per unit mass.
these radiation. The depletion of D= E/m
ozone due to CFCs in the upper SI Unit: Gray (Gy)
atmosphere increases eye and 1Gy= 1J/kg = 100 rad
skin diseases. Equal doses of different
Radon gas from underground radiation produce different
enters buildings and causes the biological effects e.g. the
radiation levels inside buildings same dose of alpha
to rise if there is no good radiation is 20 times more
ventilation. damaging than X-rays.
Food has K-40, C-14 which are Neutrons are the most
radioactive isotopes of damaging to eyes.
potassium and carbon Equivalent dose De = D x RBE
respectively. (where RBE is the relative
Diagnostic tests like X-rays also biological effectiveness)
contribute to the radiation SI Unit= Sievert
exposure. 1 Sv= 1 Gy x RBE = 100 rem
Radioactive waste from nuclear .
facilities, hospitals, research
establishments also contribute low level high level
to this.
Hair loss Anaemia
Biological Effects of
Radiations : Fever (radiation Chromosomal
sickness) abnormalities
All this exposure to radiation can
pose biological damage to cells: Lung stiffening Cancer
Somatic i.e. has immediate
effect such as hairloss, burns
Diarrhoea Cataracts
Genetic i.e. may not appear in
individual’s lifetime e.g. gene
or chromosomal damage Ulceration
Activity describes the strength of
the radiation source. It is
measured in Becquerel (Bq)
where 1 Bq= 1 decay/sec 1
Curie= 3.7x10^10 Bq.
.

PreMed.PK 14
 NOTES
USES OF RADIATIONS
Biological and medical uses of
Radiations :
Food preservation: Gamma rays
are used to kill bacteria, mould,
insects in food
Sterilization: Medical/surgical
equipment is sterilized with the
help of gamma rays
Agriculture: Radiation induced
mutations are used to produce
crop varieties (wheat, rice,
chickpea)
Medical diagnostics: Certain
radio-isotopes are selectively
absorbed by certain organs e.g.
radio iodide by thyroid gland,
phosphorus by bones, cobalt by
liver. These radio-isotopes serve
as tracers to detect position of
tumors.
Medical treatment: Cells that
multipy rapidly are more easily
destroyed by gamma radiation.
Radiotherapy uses gamma rays
from cobalt-60 to treat cancer,
Iodine-131 is used in treatment of
thyroid cancer, Strontium-90
and Phosphorus-32 is used in
treating skin cancer.
Industrial: Cracks in pipes are
detected by X-rays and gamma
rays.

PreMed.PK 15
 NOTES
BASIC FORCES OF NATURE
Gravitational Strong Weak nuclear Weak nuclear
force nuclear force force force

Long range Very short Short range Infinite long

(10^43m) range (10-^17m ) range

Relative
Most dominant Strongest of all Relative strength 10^2
force in nature force, relative strength 10^6 Causes all
strength= 1 chemical
reaction and
binds together
atoms,
molecules,
crystals, etc.

Responsible for
Shapes the Confines Responsible for
all macroscopic
structures of nucleons in the spontaneous
forces e.g.
galaxies nucleus breakup of
friction,
radioactive
adhesion,
elements
cohesion

PreMed.PK 16
 NOTES
BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

Bosons Hadrons Leptons

Particles that play a Particles that interact Particles that

role in nature’s by both weak and interact by weak
fundamental forces strong nuclear force nuclear force, can
(can also interact by exert gravitaional and
graviationa and EM EM force on other
force but strong particles if charged
nuclear dominates at
shorter distances)

Photon for Further classified into Examples include

electromagnetic force, W two: electrons, muons,
—, W+, Z0for weak neutrinos, tau particle
Baryons: Made up
nuclear force, gluon for
of 3 coloured and its neutrino
strong nuclear force,
graviton for gravitation
quarks e.g. proton,
force neutrons
Mesons: made up
one quark and one
antiquark e.g. pions
(the lightest
mesons)

PreMed.PK 17
 NOTES Building blocks of matter:

It was formulated by M. Gell

Mann and G. Zwag
Quarks are the building blocks of
hadrons
There are six quarks with their
charges
Up (+2/3)
Down (-1/3)
Strange (-1/3)
Charm (+2/3)
Top (+2/3)
Bottom (-1/3)
Colour charge: It is a property of
quarks and gluons that is related
to the particles’ strong
interactions.
It is of three kinds- blue,
green, red. Each of these has
opposites i.e. anti-red, anti-
blue, anti-green
All free particles have a colour
charge of zero
Baryons have 1 quark of each
colour
Antibaryons have 1 antiquark
of each colour
Mesons have quark of 1
colour, antiquark of
corresponding anticolour
Strong force holds quarks
together in colourless
combinations similar to how EM
force holds positive and negative
charges to form neutral atom
with net zero charge.
Fermions (electrons, protons,
neutrons) have half integral spin
whereas bosons (photons, alpha
particles) have integral spins.

PreMed.PK 18