Hybrid Electric Vehicles

JOHN M. GERMAN
American Honda Motor Company, Inc.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States

part of this energy and uses it to recharge an energy

1. Introduction: Effects of Hybrid Electric Vehicles storage device.
ultracapacitors Higher specific energy and power versions
2. History
of electrolytic capacitors; devices that store energy as an
3. Hybrid Electric System Design electrostatic charge.
4. Real-World Hybrid Examples
5. Hybrid Advantages and Disadvantages
6. Future Technology Development The internal combustion engine has dominated the
7. Future Hybrid Markets car and light-truck market for over 100 years.
Although remarkable improvements have been made
over the past 30 years to reduce air pollutants to
nearly zero and to almost double vehicle efficiency,
Glossary
increasing concerns about global warming and energy
energy density Energy storage per unit weight. Energy is security are pushing vehicles toward even greater
the power rate multiplied by the length of time the efficiency. Adding a high-power electric motor and
power is maintained; measured as the amount of energy electric storage capacity to an internal combustion
(such as kilowatt-hour) per unit of weight (such as engine offers significant fuel savings. The engine can
kilogram or pound).
be shut off at idle to avoid wasting fuel, the motor
hybrid electric A system that combines a combustion
engine (e.g., gasoline, diesel, or turbine) and an electric
can be driven in reverse when braking to capture
motor and energy storage (e.g., a battery or ultracapa- energy that would otherwise be lost, and the boost
citor). from the electric motor allows use of a smaller, more
hybrid propulsion A combination of two different power efficient, engine. In the long term, the electrical power
sources for vehicle propulsion. One source derives its from the motor can be used to replace existing
power from fuel, such as an internal combustion engine mechanical accessory drives with more efficient
or a fuel cell. The second source is a device that stores electrical devices, as well as to provide power for
and reuses energy. This can be electrical energy or additional features desired by customers. Against
electromechanical energy, such as a hydraulic accumu- these benefits must be weighed the additional com-
lator or a flywheel. plexity and costs of the hybrid electric power system.
load Forces that must be overcome to accelerate a vehicle
and maintain cruising speed. These include air drag, tire
rolling resistance, mechanical resistances in the drive-
train, vehicle mass resistance to acceleration, and acces- 1. INTRODUCTION: EFFECTS OF
sory loads from pumps, air conditioning, and power HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES
steering, for example.
power density The power delivered per unit weight; In the early days of the automobile, around the turn of
measured as the amount of power, such as kilowatts
the 20th century, there was spirited competition
or horsepower, per unit of weight, such as kilograms or
pounds.
between vehicles powered by electricity and by
regenerative braking The capture of energy from a internal combustion engines. The internal combustion
vehicle’s inertia when the vehicle slows down. A large engine won primarily because of the high amount of
amount of the energy that is used to accelerate a vehicle energy in liquid fuels, which allows vehicles to travel
to operating speeds is normally lost when the vehicle farther without refueling than is possible on an electric
slows down or brakes. Regenerative braking captures charge. Ten gallons of gasoline weighs only about

Encyclopedia of Energy, Volume 3. r 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 197
198 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

28 kg (62 lb), but contains about 330 kWh (kilowatt-
The high-power electric motor allows rapid
hours) of energy (1.1 million Btu). By comparison, a engine restarts. This allows the engine to be shut
modern lead-acid battery weighing the same 28 kg off at idle and avoids fuel consumption while the
provides only about 1.1 kWh. This overwhelming vehicle is stopped.
energy advantage of liquid fuel has ensured the
The electric motor can be used to capture
dominance of the internal combustion engine for the regenerative braking energy. This is done by using
past 100 years, despite its relatively low efficiency. the vehicle’s inertia to drive the electric motor in
Problems with the use of internal combustion reverse while the vehicle is slowing down, thus
engines and fossil fuels are well documented, includ- creating free electric energy.
ing low efficiency, air pollution, fossil fuel use, energy
The additional electric power from the motor/
security, dependence on foreign oil suppliers, lead generator can be used to replace mechanical and
poisoning, and leaking storage tanks. To combat these hydraulic devices and pumps with more efficient
problems, many alternatives to the gasoline internal electric versions.
combustion engine have been proposed over the years,
The advantages of hybrid systems have long been
such as steam power, turbine engines, electric vehicles,
recognized. The first hybrid vehicle was built in 1898
and the use of alternative fuels such as methanol,
and several manufacturers sold hybrid vehicles in the
ethanol, compressed natural gas, and propane. The
early 1900s. However, hybrid vehicles also have
latest contender is the fuel cell, powered by hydrogen.
significant problems. They require two propulsion
However, so far, the internal combustion engine has
systems, which take up room, add weight, and
won over all proposed alternatives. It has accom-
greatly increase the cost. Another problem is that
plished this because the incremental advantages of
careful coordination of the operation of the engine
switching to another propulsion system have been less
and the motor is necessary to achieve much of the
than the cost of switching to an entirely new
efficiency benefits and to avoid driveability problems.
infrastructure. In addition, every time the internal
This was not possible with mechanical controls, and
combustion engine has been challenged, it has
the production of hybrid vehicles did not survive
responded with enough improvement to keep the
continued development of the internal combustion
alternative off the market. For example, with the
engine in the early 1900s.
development of modern computer controls and
Renewed interest in hybrid vehicles has coincided
catalysts, air pollutants have been reduced to levels
with development of computer controls and im-
undreamed of even 10 years ago. Fuel efficiency has
proved batteries, combined with increasing concerns
also increased greatly due to advances in technology.
about the contribution of carbon dioxide emissions
The average car today achieves almost twice the fuel
to global warming. Sophisticated computer controls
economy of the average car 30 years ago, in addition
allow maximum efficiency benefits while providing
to accelerating much faster. However, even with the
smooth, seamless coordination of the two propulsion
efficiency increases, the average efficiency of a gasoline
systems. Advanced batteries, such as those made
internal combustion engine in typical in-use operation
with nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), provide higher
is still only about 15%. The other 85% is lost to
energy density and much longer cycle life, which is
engine heat, heated exhaust gases, aerodynamic drag,
important to customer acceptance of hybrid technol-
tire rolling resistance, driveline losses, and braking.
ogy. Hybrid vehicles offer a way to reduce fuel use
Adding an electric motor and energy storage to
significantly, with corresponding reductions in global
the internal combustion engine can significantly
warming gases and fuel cost to consumers, plus
improve efficiency in a variety of ways, depending
modest reductions in criteria air pollutants. The
on how the system is designed:
primary concern with hybrid systems remains the
cost of the additional components.

Engines are least efficient when operating at low
loads. The electric motor can be used to supply part or
all of the propulsion energy at low speeds and loads,
minimizing engine use under inefficient conditions.
2. HISTORY

The electric motor can assist the engine during
2.1 Early Hybrid Electric Vehicles
acceleration. This allows use of a smaller engine
without any loss in overall performance. For a given From about 1890 through 1905, electric vehicles,
load, smaller engines have better efficiency, due to internal combustion-powered vehicles, and steam
lower frictional and heat losses. cars were all competitively marketed and sold in the
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 199

United States. Electric vehicles had an early devel- introduced at the time, with small gasoline engines
opment lead in the United States due to the work of that could be turned on when needed. However, the
electricity pioneers, such as Edison, Tesla, and large battery packs required for this type of vehicle
Westinghouse. Also, the limited driving range of were too expensive and degraded performance too
electric vehicles was sufficient for the small U.S. cities much to be commercially viable.
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the The oil crises of 1973 and 1979 turned the auto
great distances between cities had roads that were industry on its head. Gasoline shortages, fuel price
largely inadequate for vehicle travel. However, it was spikes, and predictions of continued oil shortages
obvious from the beginning that batteries severely and increasing fuel prices caused the public to
limited the range and utility of electric vehicles. suddenly demand higher efficiency vehicles. Congress
Although most developers went straight to internal responded in 1975 with the Energy Policy and
combustion-powered vehicles, some did try to marry Conservation Act (EPCA). The cornerstone of EPCA
the advantages of the electric vehicle and the internal was Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
combustion engine. standards, which mandated that cars double their
Justus Entz probably built the first hybrid vehicle average fuel economy by 1985 and that the Depart-
in 1898 for the Pope Manufacturing Co. in Connecti- ment of Transportation set cost-effective standards
cut. The vehicle caught fire during the initial test for light trucks.
drive and Pope Manufacturing abandoned the As fuel prices went down in the early 1980s and
concept. The first production hybrid vehicles were stayed down the entire decade, the buying public
made in Europe in the early 1900s. Camile Jenatzy gradually forgot about fuel economy. By 1990,
demonstrated a parallel hybrid system at the vehicle purchasers were back to demanding other
1901 Paris Auto Show, with a 6-hp engine and a attributes they valued more highly than fuel savings,
14-hp motor/generator. In 1903, the Lohner–Porshe such as luxury, performance, and utility. The average
group brought out a series hybrid system, using a 20- fuel economy of new cars and light trucks, combined,
hp engine to drive a 21-kW direct current (DC) peaked in 1987 and has been slowly declining ever
generator and an electric motor in each of the two since. Against the declining public concern with fuel
front wheels. A few years later, the Mercedes economy was increasing concern about a new
Company teamed with Mixte to introduce the problem, global warming. Every gallon of gasoline
Mercedes-Mixte. To improve the limited range of burned produces about 20 lb of carbon dioxide, the
electric vehicles, two well-known U.S. electric car primary greenhouse gas accused of increasing global
manufacturers, Baker and Woods, independently temperatures. In addition to global warming con-
developed hybrid vehicles in 1917. However, after cerns, the Gulf War of 1991 provoked concerns
some initial development and vehicle operation, both about national energy security.
concluded that the hybrid approach added too much Faced with such concerns, several attempts were
complexity, weight, and cost. made in Congress to raise CAFE standards beyond
the levels set during the early energy crisis years.
However, in Congress, there was also signi-
ficant opposition to raising the CAFE standards;
2.2 Modern Development of
resistance came from a coalition of members
Hybrid Vehicles
concerned about the health of the domestic auto
Air pollution concerns in the late 1960s and early industry and general antiregulatory interests, and
1970s spurred renewed interest in electric vehicles from those who did not believe that global warming
and hybrid electric vehicles. At that time, many is a significant concern.
people believed the internal combustion engine was
inherently highly polluting and that it would need to
2.3 Supercar
be replaced in order to clean up the air. Battery–
electric vehicles were a logical candidate because Rather than try to push a mandatory program
they have no emissions while in operation, although through Congress, President Clinton and Vice-
there is some offset from increased emissions from President Gore struck a deal with General Motors
electric power plants. However, the short range and (GM), Ford, and Chrysler. If the domestic auto-
high cost of batteries continued to be insurmountable makers would promise to try to build ultraefficient
problems. To extend the range of primarily electric cars, the Clinton administration would back off from
vehicles, a substantial number of concepts were its campaign promise to raise CAFE standards. In the
200 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

fall of 1993, the President announced that the U.S. 3. HYBRID ELECTRIC
government and the American auto industry would SYSTEM DESIGN
work together to build a family car that got 80 mpg,
or about three times the mileage of an average car. The amount of power needed to propel a vehicle
Officially named the Partnership for a New Genera- varies greatly, depending on the driving requirements.
tion of Vehicles (PNGV), most people soon dubbed The vehicle must be designed to meet the most
the program ‘‘Supercar.’’ The partnership spent 9 demanding requirements, such as hard accelerations
years and about $3 billion, roughly half each from under fully loaded conditions. However, this amount
the government and industry, on developing a super- of power is needed infrequently. The large majority of
efficient hybrid vehicle. General Motors, Ford, and driving requires only a small fraction of the available
Chrysler each developed a working hybrid demon- power from the engine. With a hybrid electric system,
stration vehicle, as illustrated by GM’s 80-mpg a smaller, more efficient engine can be used, with an
Precept concept vehicle (Fig. 1). Although the electric motor added to restore performance.
program spurred advances in materials and hybrid Other types of hybrid systems have been consid-
design, it did not produce a vehicle that the ered. For example, Chrysler built a prototype vehicle
automakers felt could be mass-produced at a price in the early 1990s that combined a combustion
consumers would be willing to pay. engine with a flywheel that stores mechanical energy
The primary problem with the Supercar program and provides power to the wheels. More recently,
was the arbitrary goal of 80 mpg. This goal forced Ford and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
the automakers to choose options that were not cost- (EPA) cooperated on a hybrid that combines an
effective or were not marketable, such as diesel internal combustion engine with a hydraulic/nitrogen
engines, lightweight materials, and extreme aero- gas energy storage system. This system can provide
dynamic improvements. However, the program did considerable power from a stop and may find an
spur significant advances in hybrid design that are application for helping to launch heavy-duty trucks.
being incorporated into future hybrid vehicles. For the large majority of applications, only the
The announcement of the PNGV program also hybrid electric vehicle offers improved fuel economy
helped spur Toyota into designing its own hybrid and adequate performance at a cost customers might
vehicle, the Prius, in secret. Toyota’s goal was a more be willing to pay. In addition, the high amount of
realistic 55 mpg, or twice the mileage of an average electrical power available on hybrid electric vehicles
car, using a highly efficient gasoline–electric hybrid can be used to meet the increasing electrical power
design. The initial design was tailored to congested demands associated with other vehicle features,
urban driving conditions in Japan and performance potentially adding value beyond just higher power-
was not adequate for the U.S. market. However, train efficiency.
it was sold in Japan while Supercar was still
establishing concepts. Toyota redesigned the hybrid
system on the Prius 2 years later to increase 3.1 Types of Hybrid Electric Systems
performance to levels acceptable to U.S. customers.
In the meantime, Honda developed its own hybrid Although the ways in which the electric motor and
vehicle, the Insight, and beat Toyota to the U.S. the engine can be designed, and how they interact,
market in late 1999. are virtually limitless, the two basic configurations
are series and parallel hybrids.

3.1.1 Series Hybrid

In the series hybrid, the engine is connected to a
generator, which in turn is used to supply the motor
and/or charge the battery (Fig. 2). Only the electric
motor is directly used to drive the wheels. The battery
pack can be charged by the engine and generator set
and by using the generator to capture energy
normally lost to braking. The principal advantage
of this configuration is that the engine can be run in
more efficient operating zones and shut off when it is
FIGURE 1 The GM Precept concept hybrid vehicle. not needed. The system also eliminates the need for
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 201

Battery Battery

Inverter Inverter Inverter

Engine
Engine

Generator Motor
Transmission Motor

FIGURE 2 Series hybrid system diagram. Courtesy of Toyota

Motor Company. FIGURE 3 Parallel hybrid system diagram. Courtesy of Toyota
Motor Company.

clutches and conventional transmissions. The need to motor or motors. This system is referred to as a
convert the output of the engine to electricity before ‘‘through-the-road’’ parallel hybrid, because the two
driving the motor creates significant inefficiencies if power sources are run in parallel by independently
the engine is used as the primary power source, so this driving different wheels. The primary advantage of this
configuration is usually set up with a small engine system is that it adds part-time all-wheel-drive (AWD)
that provides a range booster to a large battery pack. capability. It also allows more flexibility in the
This configuration has very low emissions and has mounting location of the electric motor. However,
excellent efficiency during slow stop-and-go driving. the system adds considerable complexity and cost. In
However, it requires a large, heavy battery pack, addition, the AWD capability is limited to the energy in
which significantly increases cost and reduces vehicle the battery pack and cannot be maintained indefinitely.
performance. It is also much less efficient during high- Another option is to add ‘‘plug-in’’ capacity. The
speed driving, due to losses in converting the basic hybrid system is self-contained, with all of the
mechanical power from the engine to electricity and electricity generated by the on-board motor/genera-
in charging and discharging of the battery. In tor while the vehicle is in operation. A vehicle with a
addition, the internal combustion motor must still battery pack that can be optionally recharged while
be large enough to meet minimum acceleration needs the vehicle is parked, by plugging it into an electrical
should the battery pack become depleted. output, is commonly referred to as a grid-connected
hybrid. Grid-connected hybrids can be used with
3.1.2 Parallel Hybrid either parallel or series design. The advantage of a
The parallel hybrid uses an engine and a motor, grid-connected system is that it allows significant
which are both connected directly to the drivetrain driving range in all-electric mode, without turning on
(Fig. 3). The highest efficiency range of each is the engine. Grid-connected hybrids have been
selected and used, depending on operating condition. promoted as a way to extend the range of a true
A parallel system is more complicated than a series electric vehicle, while still relying on the all-electric
system and there are additional challenges in operation for urban operation with no combustion
integration of the two power sources. The major emissions at the vehicle. However, the value of
advantage is that large efficiency gains can be electric-only operation has greatly diminished as
realized even with a relatively small, light battery ultraclean gasoline engines have become available.
pack. This minimizes the additional cost of the More importantly, the electric-only vehicle also
battery pack and the performance penalty from the suffers from many of the problems of a pure electric
weight of the batteries. vehicle, such as the need for a large, heavy, and
expensive battery pack and long recharge times.
3.1.3 Variations on the Basic Design
The simplest way to arrange a parallel hybrid is to
3.2 Hybrid Components
mount the electric motor in line with the engine.
Another feasible arrangement is to power one set of 3.2.1 Electric motor
wheels (either front or rear) with the conventional Because the electric motor is used frequently, both for
engine and the other set of wheels with an electric acceleration and for regenerative braking, efficiency
202 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

and high torque are important attributes. If the motor

is placed between the engine and the transmission,
then a compact design and high heat resistance are
also important. There are currently two basic types of
electric motors. One is an induction alternating
current (AC) motor. This design uses part of the
electric current to generate the magnetic field, within
which the motor windings turn. The second design is
a permanent magnet direct current motor. This type
of motor generally uses three-phase windings and
switching modules to control the flow of electricity
sequentially to each phase. The AC design is simpler
and cheaper. However, brushless DC (BLDC) perma-
nent magnet motors are more efficient, more com-
pact, and lower weight. The most efficient BLDC
motors use magnets sintered with rare earth metals, FIGURE 4 Electric motor placement on the Honda Civic
such as neodymium. It is the cost of the magnet that Hybrid. Courtesy of Honda Motor Company.
makes DC motors more expensive.
Another important factor is the design voltage of
the hybrid system. Higher motor power capacities
are best met at higher voltages, because this reduces
current and allows smaller wires and more efficient
motors and inverters. The operating voltage can
affect the choice of battery and the type of power
electronics, which has cost implications. If the
electric motor is located between the flywheel and
the transmission clutch, it becomes very important to
make the motor as thin as possible to minimize
increases in powertrain length. This is especially
important for transverse-mounted front-wheel-drive
applications, in which the distance between the
wheels is limited. Fig. 4. illustrates the placement of
a compact motor design on the Civic Hybrid. The
BLDC electric motor uses concentrated windings to
conserve space (Fig. 5).
FIGURE 5 Thin electric motor designed to fit between the
3.2.2 Energy Storage engine and transmission on the Honda Civic Hybrid. Courtesy of
Battery packs are the primary type of energy storage Honda Motor Company.
for hybrid electric vehicles. The only reasonable
alternative is the ultracapacitor. Unless significant
all-electric range is desired, energy requirements achieved, the electric motor must provide at least a
for hybrid electric vehicles are fairly modest. Energy 50% torque boost at low engine speeds. Although
storage is primarily used for acceleration, regenera- the electric motor can be biased to provide its
tive braking, and low-speed, low-power operation. maximum power at relatively low engine speeds, this
At higher loads, it is more cost-efficient to use the still requires an electric motor that has at least 15%
engine to power the vehicle than it is to increase of the power output of the engine. Even for a small
the size of the battery pack. Thus, hybrid vehicle car, the electric motor needs to be at least 10 kW
electric power requirements are either brief or low (about 13 hp). The electric motor power require-
load. Although some energy reserve is needed for ments scale up with vehicle size and with the use of
extended hill climbs, energy storage demands are electric-only operation. Thus, batteries for hybrid
relatively small. vehicles must be able to provide or absorb high
On the other hand, power requirements are power rates to support acceleration and to recapture
substantial. If significant engine downsizing is to be high amounts of energy during brief braking events.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 203

Batteries developed for electric vehicles in the 3.2.2.3 Lithium-Ion Battery Lithium-ion bat-
1990s were optimized for energy storage, because teries have higher energy and power density com-
they needed to maximize all-electric vehicle range. pared to NiMH batteries. They also have better low-
These batteries are not suitable for hybrid vehicles. temperature performance and a low self-discharge
Batteries were redesigned for hybrid vehicles to rate. However, they need improvements in durability
provide much higher power density, with the trade- and cost before they will be commercially viable for
off of lower energy density. Even with the redesign, hybrid electric vehicles.
most battery packs still must be sized to deliver
maximum power without overheating. This results in 3.2.3 Power Electronics
more energy storage than is needed for the vast Direct current motors generally use three-phase
majority of driving conditions, which increases the motor windings. Three switching modules are
cost and weight of the battery pack. needed to control current flow to the proper wind-
Ultracapacitors have very high power density. They ings as the motor turns. These switches must be able
excel at rapid transfer of power and offer the potential to turn large amounts of current on and off rapidly
for higher durability and lower cooling requirements. and accurately, as well as to control the direction and
They are ideal for assisting acceleration and at phase of the current. This operation produces a
recapturing regenerative braking energy. Unfortu- substantial amount of heat and the power control
nately, they have very low energy density and cannot unit must be cooled to keep the heat from affecting
store enough energy to cover longer load demands, the electronics. The size and cost of the power
such as hill climbs. The energy density is so low that electronics are substantial, due to the high power
no manufacturers are considering their use for hybrid demands of the system and the need for cooling.
vehicles, although some manufacturers are using them The power control unit includes a DC–DC con-
to provide momentary assist on fuel cell vehicles. verter to supply 12 V for the conventional electrical
system. Improvements to the switching method are
3.2.2.1 Lead-Acid Battery The primary advan- being incorporated to reduce switching losses and
tage of the lead-acid battery is low cost. Being increase the efficiency over the output range of the
developed for hybrid vehicles are advanced lead-acid converter.
batteries with higher power, such as the valve-
regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery. However, even 3.2.4 Cooling System
VRLA batteries have relatively low energy density Both the battery pack and the power electronics must
and short cycle life. The short cycle life is a particular be cooled. Charging and discharging a battery is a
concern, because periodic replacement raises the chemical reaction, which generates heat as a by-
effective cost of the system. It is uncertain how product. High battery temperatures degrade perfor-
customers will react to the cost and hassle of mance and shorten battery life. Power electronics
periodically replacing the hybrid battery pack. generate a lot of heat and do not function properly if
Despite the concerns, lead-acid batteries will be used they get too hot. Efficient cooling systems are needed
in some relatively low-power hybrid vehicle applica- for both the battery pack and the power electronics.
tions due to their low cost. Due to the lower heat generated by newer power
electronics, it is now possible to cool the power
3.2.2.2 Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery NiMH electronics with air discharged from the battery.
batteries have higher power and energy density and Combining the battery pack and power electronics
a much longer life cycle compared to lead-acid into a single unit with an integrated cooling system
batteries. They are also completely safe and their offers substantial reductions in overall size and weight.
power output is not affected by the battery state
of charge. The main concern with nickel–metal
3.3 Fuel Efficieny Benefits
hydride batteries is that they are very expensive.
Other concerns are high self-discharge rates, low- 3.3.1 Engine Downsizing
temperature operation, and higher cooling require- The greatest demands on horsepower and torque
ments. NiMH batteries are used in higher power occur while accelerating and climbing grades. Mini-
hybrid designs, such as the Toyota Prius, the Honda mal power is needed to maintain a vehicle’s speed
Insight and Civic Hybrid, and the upcoming while cruising on a level road. By using an electric
small sport utility hybrid vehicles from Ford and motor to provide a power boost to the engine when
General Motors. appropriate, a smaller engine can be used. Other
204 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

things being equal, a smaller engine is more efficient example, the high torque of the electric motor allows
for a given load, because it has lower frictional the engine to turn more slowly, and hence more
losses, less heat loss to the engine block and cylinder efficiently, during highway driving while still main-
head, and larger throttle openings, which reduce the taining adequate acceleration. Another example is
energy lost in forcing intake air past the throttle careful integration with transmission operation, to
(commonly referred to as pumping losses). keep the engine running at higher efficiency speed and
load points.
3.3.2 Regenerative Braking The boost from the electric motor can also
A large amount of energy is lost in conventional facilitate use of innovative engine designs, such as
vehicles when the vehicle slows down or brakes. This the Atkinson cycle gasoline engine. The Atkinson
energy is primarily consumed by braking and engine cycle uses a longer expansion stroke to extract more
friction, which includes mechanical friction and energy from the combustion process and boost
pumping losses. The electric motor can be used as a efficiency. The downside of the Atkinson cycle is
generator to capture this energy. When the vehicle is that it generates much lower peak torque and
slowing down or braking, the electric motor cap- horsepower. This is more acceptable on a hybrid
tures—or regenerates—electrical energy from the vehicle because the electric motor can provide power
vehicle’s forward momentum that would otherwise boost during acceleration.
be wasted. This energy is stored in the battery pack
until it is reused during acceleration, when power 3.3.5 Electrical Accessories
from the gasoline engine is boosted by power The additional electric power can be used to improve
generated by the electric motor. This process is the efficiency of engine accessories, such as the air
referred to as ‘‘regenerative braking.’’ If the electric conditioner, power steering pump, and water pump.
motor is bolted to the engine, then some of the Currently, most accessories are driven by mechanically
potential regenerative braking energy is lost to engine connecting them to the engine with belts, gears, or
friction. Installation of a clutch between the engine chains. The mechanical efficiencies are often very low.
and the electric motor eliminates engine friction Another problem is that the accessory speed goes up
during braking and increases the amount of energy and down with the engine speed. This is very wasteful,
available for recharging the battery. However, the because the accessory must be sized to provide
clutch adds cost and increases packaging problems, adequate operation at low engine speed. Using electric
especially for front-wheel-drive vehicles. motors to power accessories allows much more
efficient designs, because they can be operated
3.3.3 Idle Off independently of the engine and only as needed.
Hybrid systems allow the engine to be shut off at On conventional vehicles, the use of electric
idle, eliminating idle fuel consumption and emis- accessories is limited by alternator load, which is
sions. The powerful electric motor can restart the already reaching the limits of a 12-V alternator. The
engine far more quickly than can a conventional vehicle electric demand has increased from a few
starter motor. In most cases, the motor is powerful hundred watts 10 years ago to over a kilowatt today.
enough to spin the engine up to normal idle speed in Inducing high currents in a 12-V system results in
only about 0.2 sec. This allows smooth, rapid restarts high efficiency losses and requires large, heavy, and
that are acceptable to the driver. In addition, fuel expensive electrical cables. The high power and
injection usually does not start until after the engine higher voltage available from the hybrid electric
is already up to normal idle speed, which virtually motor can enable use of electric air-conditioning
eliminates unburned fuel and its attendant hydro- compressors and electric pumps for power steering
carbon emissions. The average vehicle sits and idles and circulation of fluids.
about 20% of the time, thus turning off the engine at
idle can reduce fuel consumption by about 5–10%.
3.4 Design Considerations
3.3.4 Engine Efficiency Design of hybrid systems is an exercise in trade-offs.
Proper integration of the electric motor and the Larger electric motors and battery packs allow more
internal combustion engine can have a major impact acceleration assist and smaller engines, recapture
on the efficiency of the engine during different driving more regenerative braking energy, and enable some
conditions. Optimization of the overall system allows all-electric operation to replace the most inefficient
the engine to operate in more efficient modes. For engine operation modes. Very large battery packs and
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 205

motors allow off-board recharging from the electric the electric motor has very high torque output, while
grid. However, battery packs are very expensive and still providing significant fuel savings from idle-off
their additional weight affects performance. Thus, it and regenerative braking. The result can be thought
is highly desirable to limit the size of the battery pack. of as an environmental supercharger. Because per-
The type of battery also has a profound impact on formance is valued more highly than fuel economy
durability, size, and cost. Finally, the design and by most U.S. new-vehicle purchasers, this may be a
sophistication of the hybrid system, including indivi- way to help public acceptance of hybrid vehicles.
dual components and how they are integrated, can
have a greater impact on fuel efficiency than the 3.4.3 Motor-Only Operation
simple inclusion of individual hybrid features. The next step in design sophistication is to add
Juggling the relative benefits, costs, and packaging motor-only operation. These systems use the electric
of all the different options is difficult. Each manu- motor to propel the vehicle at low speeds and loads,
facturer has a different idea of how to balance the eliminating engine operation in its most inefficient
factors. Ultimately, the market will determine what modes. Unfortunately, the incremental efficiency
works and what does not. gains from motor-only operation are modest. There
Hybrid vehicles can incorporate different fuel- is little efficiency benefit from motor-only operation
efficient techniques, such as idle off, regenerative above about 20 mph, because the engine can operate
braking, engine downsizing, motor-only operation, reasonably efficiently at higher speeds. Even below
and off-board recharging. Except for idle-off, each of 20 mph the engine must be used for harder accelera-
these features can be utilized to different levels. tions, so the primary efficiency benefits are in
congested, low-speed urban driving, such as those
3.4.1 Integrated Starter Generator encountered in Japan. In addition, large amounts of
The most basic hybrid type is the integrated starter motor-only operation require larger battery packs,
generator. These are conventional vehicles that have a driving up cost and weight. Limited use of motor-
higher power electric motor that can turn the engine only operation at low speeds can achieve some
off when the vehicle is stopped and restart it as needed. efficiency improvement at reasonable cost, but the
The starter generator motor can be mounted on the overall impact under typical U.S. driving conditions
driveshaft or it can be connected with a belt. Most is relatively small.
systems under development use a 42-V lead-acid
battery pack, although 12-V systems are also being 3.4.4 Grid-Connected Hybrids
evaluated. These systems are relatively inexpensive and The final step in hybridization extends the motor-
can provide some additional power for accessories. only range by allowing the battery to be recharged
However, the fuel economy improvement is generally from the electric grid. However, the value of electric-
only 5–10%. An integrated starter generator system only operation has greatly diminished as ultraclean
generally is not classified as a hybrid vehicle unless its gasoline engines have become available. In any case,
electrical motor also provides propulsion assistance. the very high cost and weight of the large battery
packs needed for these systems generally preclude
3.4.2 Full-Function Hybrid their use in production.
The next step is to use a larger, full-function electric
motor and a high-voltage battery pack to provide
assist on all accelerations. This design significantly 4. REAL-WORLD
increases the cost of the system, but it greatly HYBRID EXAMPLES
expands the amount of regenerative braking, enables
engine downsizing, and allows integration of the In the real world, engineers can get creative about
engine and motor functions. Depending on the applying hybrid concepts to actual vehicles. Hybrid
sophistication of the system and the amount of vehicles in production or being readied for produc-
engine downsizing, fuel economy improvements can tion in the United States illustrate a number of
range from about 20 to 50%. innovative hybrid techniques.
Trade-offs between fuel economy and perfor-
mance are also possible. One interesting design
4.1 Toyota Prius
concept is to add an electric motor without down-
sizing the engine. This can dramatically increase The Prius was the first modern hybrid to be placed in
vehicle performance, especially at low speeds, when production, starting sales in Japan in late 1997. A
206 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

version for the United States was introduced in 2000 capacity. The electric motor is rated at 44 hp,
(Fig. 6). Rather than choose between series and allowing limited acceleration and cruise at light
parallel systems, Toyota developed a new type of loads and low speeds on just the electric motor. The
hybrid system that combines some of the advantages Prius also uses an Atkinson cycle engine for
of both (Fig. 7). The Prius powertrain is based on the maximum efficiency. The overall design excels at
parallel type. However, it uses a planetary gear low-speed fuel efficiency and the city rating of
system and a separate generator to optimize the 52 mpg is much higher than the highway rating of
engine’s operation point and to allow series-like 45 mpg. These values represent a fuel economy
operation. Toyota’s hybrid system requires a power improvement of about 80% on the U.S. EPA city
split device and an extra generator and inverter. driving cycle, although less than 20% on the U.S.
However, it offers great flexibility in engine opera- EPA highway cycle. On the Japanese driving cycle,
tion and calibration. The system also acts as a involving relatively low speeds and many starts and
continuously variable transmission (CVT), eliminat- stops, the Prius offers about a 100% improvement
ing the need for a conventional transmission. over a car of comparable size and performance.
The Prius used a relatively small NiMH battery
pack, rated at 288 V and about 2 kWh of storage
4.2 Honda Insight and Civic Hybrid
Honda was the first company to market a modern
hybrid vehicle in the United States, introducing the
Honda Insight in late 1999 (Fig. 8). Honda devel-
oped an electric motor assist system for the Insight
(Fig. 9), which integrates a high-torque, high-effi-
ciency brushless DC motor between the engine and
the transmission. This 10-kW (13-hp) motor is only
60 mm (2.4 in) thick and is connected directly to the
engine’s crankshaft. This is a straightforward method
for packaging a parallel hybrid system and minimizes
the weight increase.
The Insight’s 144-V NiMH battery pack is rated at
about 1 kWh of storage and weighs only about 22 kg
FIGURE 6 The Toyota Prius. Courtesy of Toyota Motor (48 pounds). This helps to maintain in-use perfor-
Company. mance and efficiency while maintaining most of the
hybrid system benefits. The Insight also incorporates
a wide range of other efficiency technologies, such as
Battery an all-aluminum body, aerodynamic improvements,
and a 1.0-liter three-cylinder engine with variable
valve timing, reduced friction, and lean burn. With a
manual transmission, the fuel economy ratings are
Inverter Inverter 61 mpg in the city and 68 mph on the highway, the

Generator

Engine
Motor

Power split
device

FIGURE 7 Hybrid system for the Toyota Prius, illustrating the

planetary gear system and separate motor and generator. Courtesy FIGURE 8 The Honda Insight. Courtesy of Honda Motor
of Toyota Motor Company. Company.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 207

Lean-burn VTEC engine Battery (Ni-MH) the motor/generators can be used to recharge the
NiMH battery pack.

Front 4.4 Future Compact Sport Utility

Vehicle Hybrids
Ford has announced plans for a hybrid versions of
their small sport utility vehicle (SUV), the Ford
Compact electric Power control unit Escape, in 2005. The hybrid system includes a 300-V
motor (10 kW) NiMH battery pack, an efficient electric air-con-
During motor
assist ditioning compressor that operates even when the
During engine is turned off at idle, and relatively large
regeneration electric motors that provide motor-only operation at
low speeds and loads. The drive motor is rated at
FIGURE 9 Hybrid system layout for the Honda Insight, with a
variable valve-timing and lift electronic control (VTEC) engine and 65 kW (87 hp), plus it has a 28-kW motor/generator.
a nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery. Courtesy of Honda Motor The Escape hybrid combines the electric motor,
Company. separate generator, power electronics, and planetary
gear into a single unit that takes the place of a
conventional transmission. This arrangement pro-
best fuel economy ratings ever recorded by the EPA
vides flexible power combinations and is similar in
for a production vehicle.
concept to the planetary gear system used in the
In 2003, Honda expanded the integrated motor-
Toyota Prius.
assist (IMA) system to the Civic. This was the first
Toyota plans to produce the first through-the-road
time a hybrid system was offered as a powertrain
parallel hybrid system for the U.S. market based on
option on a conventional vehicle. A number of
its Lexus RX330 compact SUV in 2005. A V6 gaso-
improvements were made to increase motor torque,
line engine powers the front wheels while two
integrate many of the functions of the battery pack
electric motors, one in the front and one in the back,
and power electronics, and improve battery pack
provide the vehicle with all-wheel-drive capability.
efficiency. The Civic Hybrid also has a cylinder-idling
This vehicle also illustrates a hybrid electric design
system that deactivates valves on three of the four
optimized for performance, providing the vehicle
cylinders during deceleration and braking, cutting
with very high acceleration ability along with a
engine friction by 50% and allowing more power to
significant boost in fuel economy. DaimlerChrysler
be recaptured by the electric motor. The Civic hybrid
also plans to offer a through-the-road hybrid system
with a manual transmission is rated at 46 mpg city
on future models, such as the Jeep Liberty and Dodge
and 51 mpg highway. With the automatic continu-
Durango.
ously variable transmission (CVT) option, fuel
economy is 48 mpg city and 47 mpg highway. These
values represent fuel economy improvements of
4.5 Hybrids as Electric Generators
about 55% (average of manual and automatic) on
the U.S. EPA city driving cycle and about 30% on the Both General Motors and DaimlerChrysler plan to
U.S. EPA highway cycle. offer similar 42-V hybrid systems on full-size pickup
trucks in 2004. An AC induction motor/generator is
integrated into the drivetrain and is used for idle-stop
4.3 Toyota Estima Minivan
and limited acceleration assist. Both use 42-V lead-
Introduced in 2002 and sold only in Japan, the acid batteries, which are recharged with regenerative
Toyota Estima small minivan is the first through-the- braking. The fuel economy improvement is relatively
road parallel hybrid vehicle. The front powertrain modest, about 10–15%, because the engines are not
combines a gasoline engine with a 216-V, 13-kW, downsized, in order to preserve cargo-hauling and
belt-driven integrated starter generator. A second trailer-towing abilities. However, the fuel economy
216-V electric motor, rated at 18-kW, provides on- improvement is secondary to the on-board electrical-
demand power to the rear wheels for temporary four- generating capability provided from the on-board
wheel-drive operation. The computer can choose any engine and generator on these vehicles. The GM
combination of the three power sources and either of pickups provide continuous 20-amp power through
208 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

each of two 110-V outlets. The Dodge Ram can series hybrid system, diesel engine, and lead-acid
provide up to 20 kW of either 110- or 220-V power. battery pack to New York City Transit.
These systems are primarily targeted at construction The first urban delivery hybrid application is
site work, but they may also appeal to campers and FedEx’s recent purchase from Eaton Corporation of
outdoor enthusiasts and to farmers and homeowners 20 delivery trucks with parallel hybrid systems. The
for backup power in case of a power failure. trucks use a smaller, four-cylinder diesel and fuel
economy is expected to increase by 50%. Eaton is
using lithium-ion batteries, which will be the first
4.6 Military Applications market experience with the durability of lithium-ion
batteries in a hybrid vehicle. If these trucks meet
Military actions have some unique characteristics
project goals, the program has the potential to
that make hybrid vehicles very desirable. For
replace FedEx’s 30,000 medium-duty trucks with
example, fuel may need to be transported hundreds,
hybrid vehicles over the next 10 years.
or even thousands, of miles in overseas military
action. Fuel is the single largest supply component in
a military action and the price of delivering a gallon
of fuel to a battlefield can easily exceed $30 per 5. HYBRID ADVANTAGES
gallon. Thus, even a 10–15% improvement in fuel AND DISADVANTAGES
efficiency is extremely desirable to the military, as
long as it does not impact performance and utility. 5.1 Advantages
The military has to furnish its own electricity in a
hostile country and the use of electronic controls and Hybrids have a number of positive features that are
components for weapons, intelligence, and commu- desired by customers, in addition to the obvious fuel
nication is accelerating. Currently, the only way to savings:
meet these rising electrical needs is to haul around

Hybrids use widely available fuel, thus there are
generators, which could be eliminated by generating
no concerns about creating a new infrastructure to
electricity directly from hybrid vehicles. Importantly,
support fueling or recharging.
the military is also very interested in the stealth

The customer benefits from extended range and
capability of hybrid powertrains. The battery pack
fewer trips to the gas station.
can supply electricity to power on-board electronics

The vehicle is quieter inside; both at idle when
for substantial periods, eliminating the noise and
the engine is turned off and on the highway, where
heat signature from a running engine. Military
electric motor assist allows the engine to run at
vehicles would also have the ability to travel limited
slower speeds.
distances on the electric motor alone, making it

Hybrid systems have good synergy with other
easier to move equipment without detection.
fuel-economy technologies. For example, not only
could the hybrid system supply electrical power for
fully adjustable electromechanical valves, but the
4.7 Urban Buses and Delivery Vehicles
motor and the valve timing could also be coordinated
Urban buses and delivery vehicles are ideal applica- to optimize the benefits from the adjustable valves.
tions for hybrid vehicles. The electric motor is very
Emissions can be reduced in a number of ways.
good at launching a vehicle and accelerating at slow Upstream emissions from fuel production and
speeds, plus the frequent stops in urban operation distribution are reduced in direct proportion
offer much larger benefits from regenerative braking. to the reductions in fuel consumption. Increased
In addition to larger fuel savings, brake maintenance driving range reduces evaporative emissions
is also reduced because the regenerative braking from refueling. Hybrid systems also reduce engine-
system helps to slow the vehicle down. Because brake out hydrocarbon and NOx emissions. A conventional
repairs are the single largest maintenance item for starter spins the engine up to only about 200–
urban buses, this is a significant cost saving. 250 rpm and fuel must be combusted to propel the
As of early 2003, roughly 200 urban buses with engine up to normal idle speeds. Combustion is very
hybrid electric powertrains had been placed in unstable at such low engine speeds and much of the
demonstration fleets. Results from the demonstration fuel during the starting process goes out the tailpipe
fleets have been positive, and Orion Bus Industries unburned, as hydrocarbon emissions. The greater
has a contract to deliver 325 production buses with a power available from the hybrid electric motor can
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 209

quickly spin up the engine and fuel is not injected would use resources other than oil. However, fuel
until after the engine has reached normal idle speed. cells still have a lot of issues to resolve. Cost and size
This allows instantaneous combustion and reduced must be dramatically reduced, plus major break-
tailpipe hydrocarbon emissions. Hybrids also offer throughs are needed to enable practical on-board
reductions in engine-out NOx emissions. NOx is hydrogen storage. Durability must also be proved.
formed when nitrogen and oxygen in the air are Even after all these problems are solved, the
compressed at high temperatures. NOx formation problems and cost of creating an entirely new
correlates closely with engine load, such that far infrastructure must be addressed. Thus, fuel cell
more NOx is generated during acceleration than it is vehicles, at best, will need a long time for develop-
during cruises. The hybrid system reduces the load ment and may yet turn out to be a dead end. Hybrids
on the engine during acceleration, with a correspond- can help fill the gap until fuel cells and their related
ing reduction in NOx formation. These reductions in infrastructure are ready. In fact, hybrids might
engine-out emissions make it easier to achieve the become the preferred technology until nonfossil
ultralow levels that will be required starting in 2004. sources of hydrogen are ready, especially because

There is little impact on how the vehicle widespread adoption of hybrid vehicles will reduce
operates. The vehicle drives and operates similar to the benefits of switching to fuel cell vehicles. Hybrids
a conventional vehicle. are also a useful hedge in case fuel cell development

Brake life is extended, because the electric motor hits an insurmountable barrier. Finally, hybrid
captures some of the energy that is usually dissi- vehicles are a good path toward fuel cell vehicles.
pated in the brakes. Many of the hybrid technologies can likely be

Part-time all-wheel drive can be added, if incorporated into fuel cell systems.
desired, by using a through-the-road hybrid system. Room must found for the electric motor, battery

If desired, the motor can be used to boost pack, and power electronics. This is not a problem
performance instead of reducing engine displacement. on larger vehicles, but can pose challenges for smaller

The motor can supply electricity for features cars. A small reduction in interior space can be
desired by customers, such as off-board electricity expected on smaller vehicles. The additional hybrid
generation, heated seats and windows, brake- and components also add some additional weight to the
steer-by-wire systems, multimedia components, dy- vehicle, which reduces performance. For example,
namic ride control, and radar and camera safety/ the hybrid system adds about 100 lb to the Civic.
warning systems. This feature is greatly under- However, this effect is relatively minor compared to
appreciated because electrical technology and acces- the performance and efficiency boosts from the
sories do not currently exist to take advantage of the electric motor.
high power from hybrid vehicles. A growth in Many of the benefits of reducing fossil fuel use are
customer demand for high-power features could be shared by all of society, but the new vehicle
the ‘‘ace in the hole’’ for hybrid system popularity. purchaser must bear the burden of high first cost.
Experience with vehicle emission standards has
shown that, despite widespread support for pollu-
5.2 Potential Barriers
tion controls that raise the cost for everyone, few
Traditionally, customer distrust of new technology customers are willing to pay more individually for
has slowed market penetration. However, public vehicles with lower emissions. New vehicle purcha-
reaction to introduction of hybrids in the United sers do respond rationally to the cost of putting
States has been surprisingly positive. Both the Insight fuel in their vehicles. This means that they severely
and the Prius exceeded their original sales targets and discount expected lifetime fuel savings, both due to
public surveys indicate widespread knowledge and the time value of money and due to expected sale of
acceptance of hybrid technology. For example, a the vehicle in a few years. It also means that most
survey conduced by J. D. Power and Associates in new vehicle purchasers are relatively indifferent
2002 found that 60% of new vehicle buyers would to technologies that enhance fuel economy. The cost
strongly consider a hybrid electric vehicle. of driving a mile today is only about half what it was
There are claims that development resources in the early 1970s before the first oil crisis, because
would be better spent on fuel cells. Certainly fuel fuel prices, adjusted for inflation, are the lowest in
cells are a promising long-term option. Hydrogen history and new vehicles are far more efficient than
fuel cells have virtually no emissions and are extre- they were 30 years ago. Given the multitude of
mely efficient. Large-scale production of hydrogen other factors affecting purchase decisions, it is no
210 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

surprise that efficiency ranks very low in the car- ownership period. This is roughly equivalent to
buying process. assuming that most customers value the fuel savings
Increased costs due to long-term maintenance and only for about the first 50,000 miles of driving.
repair of hybrid components are another potential The following formula, using miles per gallon
barrier to acceptance of hybrid electric vehicles. (mpg), is used to calculate the fuel savings from
Although the electric motor and power electronics hybrid vehicles:
are very reliable and durable, there is a potential    
50; 000 miles 50; 000 miles
concern with battery packs. Batteries in hybrid 
baseline mpg baseline mpg  ð1 þ % mpg increaseÞ
vehicles should be far more durable compared to
the batteries in electric vehicles. This is because most fuel price:
battery deterioration occurs at the lowest 20% and
Estimates using this formula were made for three
highest 20% of the battery state-of-charge. These
different vehicle sizes: small cars, midsize cars, and
conditions are unavoidable with electric vehicles,
large trucks. Estimates were also made for two
which already suffer from limited range. However,
different fuel prices: $1.50 per gallon to represent the
the batteries on hybrid vehicles are carefully con-
United States and $4.00 to represent Japan and many
trolled to always stay in the middle 60% range,
countries in Europe. A reasonable factor for the fuel
allowing much longer battery life. Still, hybrid
economy improvement from just the hybrid system
batteries are not expected to last the life of the
and corresponding engine size reduction is probably
vehicle and are expensive to replace. NiMH batteries
about 30–40% over EPA’s combined cycles. Sensi-
last a lot longer than do lead-acid batteries, but cost a
tivity cases of 20% (for very mild hybrids) and 80%
lot more when they do finally need to be replaced.
(for advanced hybrid systems) are also shown in
The bottom line is that there is really only one
Table I. The results in Table I are supported by the J.
factor holding back hybrid systems—cost, including
D. Power survey on hybrids, which also found that
battery replacement costs. Unfortunately, hybrid
consumers would be willing to pay about $1000 to
systems are not cheap. Manufacturers are under-
$1500 more for a hybrid powertrain.
standably reluctant to discuss the cost of their hybrid
From a societal view, the fuel savings over the full
systems, so it is difficult to determine a realistic cost.
life of the vehicle (which are about three times the
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), in a
values in Table I) are likely to justify the additional
study in 2002 on hybrid costs, estimated that the
cost of hybrid systems. However, the typical new
incremental lifetime cost for a high-volume, full-
vehicle customer does not value the fuel savings
function hybrid system, including in-use battery
enough to pay for the incremental cost. To address
replacement, would be about $2500 to $3600 for a
the cost differential, hybrid system costs need to
compact car, $4000 to $5500 for a midsize SUV, and
come down or the price of gasoline must increase
$4500 to $6300 for a large SUV. To put this
significantly.
estimated hybrid cost into context requires looking
Some customers who drive a lot or value the
at what customers might be willing to pay in
benefits and features more highly are willing to pay
exchange for the fuel savings, both in the United
States and worldwide. To do this necessitates making
a few assumptions. The most critical is customer
TABLE I
discounting of fuel savings.
Customer Value of Hybrid Fuel Savingsa
In the March 2002 issue of The Power Report, J.
D. Power reported some findings from their research Small car Midsize car Large truck
on consumer interest in hybrid vehicles. One was Hybrid FE (34 mpg (23 mpg (14 mpg
that about one-third of potential hybrid buyers increaseb Fuel cost baseline) baseline) baseline)
would still buy a hybrid even if the savings from
þ 20% $1.50/gal $368 $543 $893
reduced fuel costs during their ownership period
$4.00/gal $980 $1449 $2381
would be less than the extra cost of purchasing the
þ 40% $1.50/gal $630 $932 $1531
hybrid option. This is encouraging, in the sense that
$4.00/gal $1681 $2484 $4082
there are some customers who are willing to pay
þ 80% $1.50/gal $980 $1449 $2381
extra for hybrids. However, if this statement is
$4.00/gal $2614 $3865 $6349
turned around, it implies that two-thirds would not
buy a hybrid vehicle if the extra cost of purchasing it a
Savings for the first 50,000 miles.
b
were more than the fuel savings just during their FE, fuel economy.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 211

the premium for a hybrid vehicle. Hybrid sales will 6.2 Energy Storage
increase as the costs come down. However, hybrids
will probably not break into the mainstream market Energy storage costs are the single largest long-term
in the United States until the cost of hybrid systems obstacle to widespread market acceptance of hybrid
comes down to less than $1500 and/or gasoline electric vehicles. Although lead-acid batteries are
prices increase to over $3.00 per gallon. In the long likely to be used initially in many hybrid vehicles due
term, increased demand for high-power features to their relatively low cost, their limited power
could increase the price customers are willing to density and short cycle life will force manufacturers
pay for hybrid vehicles and make it easier to achieve to turn to advanced batteries in the future.
the necessary cost reductions. Nickel–metal hydride batteries are the near-term
choice, due to their higher power density, longer
cycle life, and better response to high-power pulses.
5.3 Practical Hybrid Designs Unfortunately, nickel–metal hydride batteries are
expensive. Although some cost reduction is expected
Because battery costs dominate customer acceptance in the future, costs are likely to remain at high levels
of hybrid vehicles, it is not practical to design a because of inherently high material costs. Nickel–
hybrid system with a large battery pack for cars and metal hydride batteries also have high cooling
light trucks. All light-duty hybrid vehicles will requirements, due to high heat generation.
continue to be powered primarily by the internal Lithium-ion batteries need improvements in cycle
combustion engine for the foreseeable future. life and cost before they will be commercially viable
Although manufacturers are introducing a wide for hybrid electric vehicles. However, lithium-ion
variety of hybrid systems, they all share the basic battery use is rapidly growing in consumer markets,
design of a parallel system, with electric motors used such as in laptops, and their cycle life and cost are
primarily to assist the internal combustion engine expected to improve. Eventually, lithium-ion bat-
and recapture regenerative braking energy. Some teries should provide a lighter and slightly lower cost
manufacturers choose to add motor-only operation alternative to nickel–metal hydride, as well as better
at low-load, low-speed conditions and series hybrid performance at low temperatures. Although devel-
operation under some conditions, but the efficiency opment of lithium-ion batteries will improve the
gains are limited by the need to minimize the size and situation, their costs will likely still be a barrier to
cost of the battery pack. widespread acceptance of hybrid systems. A break-
through in energy storage is needed if hybrid electric
vehicles are to become universally accepted.
6. FUTURE TECHNOLOGY One possible long-term solution might be to
combine a small battery pack with an ultracapacitor.
DEVELOPMENT Because of their relatively low power density, battery
packs are sized to handle peak power demands
6.1 Electric Motor
during acceleration and regenerative braking. This
The permanent magnet is one of the primary costs of leads to more energy storage than is necessary to
a brushless DC electric motor. Because magnet support efficient hybrid operation. Ultracapacitors
production is a long-established and optimized have very high power density, but can store only a
technology, only modest cost reductions can be small amount of energy. In theory, combining a
expected on magnets. Indeed, the electric motor in battery pack with an ultracapacitor would allow the
general is a mature technology. However, integration ultracapacitor to provide peak power for short
into a hybrid electric vehicle poses some unique acceleration and regenerative braking events, while
packaging challenges, so the first hybrid electric the much smaller battery pack could recharge the
vehicles are paying some additional premiums to ultracapacitor after acceleration and adsorb excess
cover development and tooling costs. These can be energy after regenerative braking. In essence, the
expected to come down in the future as production ultracapacitor would act as a buffer for the battery
volumes increase. In the long run, switched reluc- pack, reducing the battery size requirements and
tance motors may offer advantages over the brushless energy storage system costs. This system is still in
DC motor, because they provide good efficiency and early stages of development and the savings in
reliability with reasonable cost and weight. They battery cost may prove to be less than the additional
may offer a modest decrease in cost in the long term. complexity and cost of the ultracapacitor.
212 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Another possible technology is the solid-state Push: Performance

improvement targets
battery, such as lithium-polymer batteries. Because Government Industry
they do not rely on liquids as the storage medium, Pull: Manufacturer
performance incentives
solid-state batteries have the potential to be much
smaller than conventional batteries. However, these Pull: Incentives
Push: (nonmonetary, Pull:
batteries are still in their infancy and currently have Taxation, monetary),education Viable products
restrictions, (green labels, etc.) (Fuel economy, price,
lower energy density, shorter cycle life, and higher limitations performance,
manufacturing cost compared to lithium-ion batteries. utility, etc.)
Consumers
6.3 Power Electronics FIGURE 10 Schematic emphasizing the importance of inter-
action between consumers, government, and industry.
As with all electronics, advances in power electronics
should continue steadily into the future, continuously
improving performance and reducing cost. Higher Hybrid system costs will come down as the
temperature components are being developed that market expands. The lower costs will, in turn, draw
require less cooling, further improving performance in more customers. J. D. Power predicts that hybrid
and reducing cooling costs and packaging problems. vehicles will account for about 1%t of the market by
The different components and modules are also 2005, 3% by 2009, and nearly 5% by 2013.
being integrated to reduce size and complexity. However, in the long term, it is not clear if hybrid
Hybrid systems can also enable secondary improve- vehicles will stagnate at 5–10% of the market or if
ments, by providing the electrical power needed to costs will eventually drop enough for hybrid vehicles
replace mechanical devices and pumps with superior to break into the mass market. An unknown factor is
electronic equivalents. This offers significant oppor- how much customer demand will increase for high-
tunities to reduce costs and provide features desired power features in the long term. Strong demand for
by customers. high-power features would greatly help market
acceptance of hybrid vehicles.
The industry can provide a market ‘‘pull’’ by
7. FUTURE HYBRID MARKETS providing products desired by the consumer. But
customers cannot be ‘‘pushed’’ into buying vehicles
Hybrid vehicles will continue to expand in niche they do not want. Government programs to stimu-
applications. They offer a number of desirable late demand, provide incentives, and educate the
features, in addition to fuel savings, and will appeal customer could dramatically affect acceptance of
to a limited number of car and light-truck purchasers hybrids and market penetration (Fig. 10).
who value these features or the fuel savings enough
to pay the increased price. Another niche market is
SEE ALSO THE
through-the-road all-wheel-drive hybrid systems,
which will appeal to some drivers in snowy climates. FOLLOWING ARTICLES
On-board electric generating will appeal to a small
segment of contractors, farmers, and recreational Alternative Transportation Fuels: Contemporary
users. Performance hybrids, in which the electric Case Studies
Batteries, Transportation Applications

Biodiesel Fuels
Biomass for Renewable Energy
motor is used to boost acceleration instead of
downsizing the engine, have not been tested in the and Fuels
Energy Efficiency, Taxonomic Overview

market yet, but may appeal to another niche market Ethanol Fuel
Fuel Cell Vehicles
Fuel Cycle
of performance enthusiasts. A hybrid designed with Analysis of Conventional and Alternative Fuel
both high-performance and part-time AWD might be Vehicles
Fuel Economy Initiatives: International
especially appealing to SUV and luxury vehicle Comparisons
Internal Combustion (Gasoline and
customers, because such a design could allow Diesel) Engines
Transportation Fuel Alternatives
customers to have all the features they want, while for Highway Vehicles
still improving fuel economy by about 20%. Finally,
although they do not represent huge markets, Further Reading
military, urban bus, and urban delivery applications An, F., Stodolsky, F., and Santini, D. (1999). ‘‘Hybrid Options for
are very promising and hybrids may come to Light-Duty Vehicles, SAE Paper No 1999-01-2929.’’ Society of
dominate these applications in about 10 years. Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pennsylvania.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 213

Aoki, K., Kenji, N., Kajiwara, S., Sato, H.,Yamamoto, Y. (2000). Sedan and Sport Utility Vehicles,’’ 1006892. EPRI, Palo Alto,
‘‘Development of Integrated Motor Assist Hybrid System,’’ SAE California.
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