HVAC Design Guide

Design Guide for Heating,
Ventilating, and Air Conditioning

Systems
U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Reclamation
Denver, Colorado September 2006
Mission Statements
The mission of the Department of the Interior is to protect and provide
access to our Nation’s natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust
responsibilities to Indian Tribes and our commitments to island
communities.
___________________________
The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, develop, and

protect water and related resources in an environmentally and
economically sound manner in the interest of the American public.
Design Guide for Heating,
Ventilating, and Air Conditioning
Systems
U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Reclamation
Technical Service Center
Mechanical Equipment Group, 86-68410 September 2006
Design Guide for Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Systems
February 29, 2000 8:09 – Last Rev: September 21, 2006
Table of Contents
Page
A. Scope.............................................................................................................. 1
B. Design Considerations. ................................................................................ 1
1. Load Calculations and Weather Conditions ......................................... 1
2. Plant Design and Construction ............................................................. 2
3. Special Environmental Conditions ....................................................... 4
4. Redundant Systems or Equipment ........................................................ 5
5. Basic HVAC Scheme for Plants ........................................................... 6
a. Location of Air Intakes and Exhaust Openings ........................... 6
b. Airflow......................................................................................... 6
c. Substructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation.......................... 7
d. Superstructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation....................... 7
6. Ductwork............................................................................................... 9
a. Design Considerations ................................................................. 9
b. Galvanized Duct ........................................................................ 14
c. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Duct................................................. 16
d. Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Duct ................................. 17
7. Heating Equipment ............................................................................. 17
a. Duct Heaters .............................................................................. 17
b. Unit Heaters ............................................................................... 18
c. Convection Heaters.................................................................... 19
d. Portable Heaters ......................................................................... 19
8. Cooling Systems ................................................................................. 19
a. Ventilation Cooling.................................................................... 20
b. Cold Water Cooling ................................................................... 22
c. Evaporative Cooling .................................................................. 23
d. Refrigeration Cooling ................................................................ 28
9. Ventilating Fans .................................................................................. 30
a. Fan Types and Applications ...................................................... 30
b. Fan Sizing .................................................................................. 34
c. Fan Application and Selection Criteria...................................... 55
d. Changing Fan Performance........................................................ 57
10. Air Filtration ....................................................................................... 62
a. Particulate Filters ....................................................................... 62
b. Carbon (Ozone) Filters .............................................................. 65
11. Service Life of Equipment .................................................................. 68
i
Table of Contents—continued
Page
C. Enclosed Stairwells and Elevator Shafts. ................................................ 69

1. Ventilation .......................................................................................... 69
a. Fan.............................................................................................. 69
b. Control ....................................................................................... 69
c. Dampers ..................................................................................... 69
2. Pressurization...................................................................................... 69
a. Enclosure Integrity..................................................................... 70
b. Design ........................................................................................ 70
c. Operation ................................................................................... 70
d. Controls and Indicating Lights .................................................. 70
e. Testing ....................................................................................... 70
D. Smoke Exhaust ........................................................................................... 73
1. Intake and Exhaust Openings ............................................................. 73
2. Smoke Chases ..................................................................................... 73
3. Smoke Transfer................................................................................... 73
4. Fire and Smoke Dampers.................................................................... 73
5. Smoke Exhaust Panel.......................................................................... 73
a. Override HVAC Controls .......................................................... 73
b. Indicating Lights ........................................................................ 73
c. Zone Purge Control.................................................................... 74
d. Location ..................................................................................... 74
e. Keyed ......................................................................................... 74
f. Test Feature................................................................................ 74
6. Coordination of HVAC and Fire Detection and Alarm System ......... 74
E. Noise and Vibration Considerations ........................................................ 74
1. Fans and Air Handling Units .............................................................. 74
a. High Efficiency.......................................................................... 74
b. Low Velocity ............................................................................. 74
c. Isolate......................................................................................... 74
d. Clearance ................................................................................... 83
e. Transitions. ................................................................................ 83
f. Discharge Duct .......................................................................... 83
g. Speed.......................................................................................... 83
h. Other .......................................................................................... 83
2. Ductwork............................................................................................. 83
a. Velocity...................................................................................... 83
b. Elbows........................................................................................ 83
c. Turning Vanes............................................................................ 83
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Page
d. Branch Takeoffs......................................................................... 83
e. Tees ............................................................................................ 83
f. Offsets ........................................................................................ 83
g. Transitions ................................................................................. 86
h. Clearance ................................................................................... 86
i. Other .......................................................................................... 86
3. Air Terminal Devices.......................................................................... 86
a. Noise Criteria (NC).................................................................... 86
b. Elbows........................................................................................ 86
c. Balancing Dampers.................................................................... 86
4. Sound Attenuation .............................................................................. 86
a. Duct Liner .................................................................................. 89
b. Sound Traps ............................................................................... 90
c. Accoustical Louvers .................................................................. 90
d. Plenum Liners ............................................................................ 90
e. Flow Paths.................................................................................. 90
F. Plant HVAC Design Guidelines................................................................ 90
1. Human Comfort Health and Safety Applications ............................... 92
a. Low Activity and Sedentary Work ............................................ 92
b. High Activity or Maintenance Work ......................................... 93
2. Equipment Protection Applications .................................................... 93
a. Standing Water or Water Pipes.................................................. 93
b. Oil and Chemical Storage .......................................................... 93
c. Motor rooms............................................................................... 93
d. Computer Rooms ....................................................................... 93
e. Control Rooms ........................................................................... 94
3. Mechanical Equipment Rooms ........................................................... 94
a. Location ..................................................................................... 94
b. Floor Space ................................................................................ 94
c. Equipment Clearances. .............................................................. 94
4. Louvers ............................................................................................... 94
a. Style ........................................................................................... 94
b. Area and Velocity ...................................................................... 95
c. Location ..................................................................................... 95
d. Construction............................................................................... 95
5. Air Flow Velocities............................................................................. 96
a. Air System Supply ..................................................................... 96
b. Exhaust System Velocities......................................................... 96
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Page
6. Ventilation Requirements ................................................................... 98

a. Oil Storage and Oil Transfer Rooms ......................................... 98
b. Toilets, Locker Rooms, and Showers ........................................ 98
c. Paint Storage Rooms.................................................................. 99
d. Paint Booths ............................................................................... 99
e. Welding Rooms or Areas........................................................... 99
f. Battery Rooms ........................................................................... 99
g. Chlorine Storage Rooms Inside the Structure.......................... 103
h. Sewage Rooms......................................................................... 104
i. Plant Sump ............................................................................... 104
j. All Other Floors, Rooms and Galleries ................................... 104
k. Any Room with Combustible Gases........................................ 104
7. Recommended Space Temperatures ................................................. 107
8. Recommended Relative Humidity.................................................... 107
9. Building Pressurization..................................................................... 107
a. Recommended Pressure ........................................................... 109
b. Effect of Pressure on Door Opening Forces ............................ 109
10. Water Piping ..................................................................................... 109
a. Design Guide ........................................................................... 109
b. Materials .................................................................................. 110
c. Dielectric Joints ....................................................................... 110
d. Valve Strainers......................................................................... 110
e. Freeze Protection ..................................................................... 110
f. Heat Tracing ............................................................................ 111
G. HVAC System Controls........................................................................... 117
1. General Considerations..................................................................... 117
a. Simplicity................................................................................. 117
b. Energy Recovery...................................................................... 117
c. Free Cooling ............................................................................ 119
d. Average Temperature............................................................... 119
e. Freeze Protection. .................................................................... 119
f. High-Limit Thermostats........................................................... 119
g. Step and Proportional Controllers............................................ 119
h. Integral Controls ...................................................................... 119
i. Independent Controls ............................................................... 120
j. Indicating Panels...................................................................... 120
k. Thermostat ............................................................................... 120
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Page
2. Heating.............................................................................................. 120
3. Cooling.............................................................................................. 121
4. Roof Exhaust Systems ...................................................................... 122
H. Confined Space Heating and Ventilation – Gate Chambers,
Tunnels, Shafts, and Vaults .................................................................... 122
1. General.............................................................................................. 122
2. Supply Systems................................................................................. 122
3. Exhaust Systems ............................................................................... 123
4. Air Quality Standards ....................................................................... 123
5. Airflow Requirements....................................................................... 126
a. Fixed Ventilating System Airflow Design Criteria ................. 126
b. Temporary Ventilating Systems Airflow Design Criteria ....... 128
6. Ductwork........................................................................................... 129
a. Design Criteria. ........................................................................ 129
b. Duct Construction. ................................................................... 131
I. Testing and Commissioning.................................................................... 137
1. Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB) ........................................ 137
a. Balancing Air and Water Flow. ............................................... 137
b. Adjust System. ......................................................................... 137
c. Electrical Measurements.......................................................... 137
d. Equipment Ratings................................................................... 137
e. Controls.................................................................................... 137
f. Noise and Vibration. ................................................................ 137
2. Procedures and Workmanship .......................................................... 137
a. Standard Procedures. ............................................................... 137
b. Certification ............................................................................. 138
c. Standard Reports...................................................................... 138
3. System Design .................................................................................. 138
a. Balancing Dampers.................................................................. 138
b. Transition Requirements.......................................................... 138
c. Minimum Clearances ............................................................... 138
d. Measuring Points ..................................................................... 138
d. Instrument Calibration. ............................................................ 138
4. Leakage Testing ................................................................................ 143
5. Sound and Vibration ......................................................................... 143
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Page
6. Commissioning ................................................................................. 143

a. Level 1: Basic Commissioning ............................................... 143
b. Level 2: Comprehensive Commissioning............................... 144
c. Level 3: Critical Systems ........................................................ 144
References.......................................................................................................... 147
Organizations Associated with Codes and Standards Commonly
Used for HVAC Design Work.......................................................................... 149
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations ............................................................ 151
List of Tables
Tables Page
1 Standard duct sealing requirements ...........................................................13

2 Unsealed longitudinal seam leakage for metal ducts.................................13
3 Applicable leakage classes.........................................................................15
4 HVAC duct pressure – velocity classification...........................................15
5 Evaporative cooler media saturation efficiency.........................................24
6a Altitude correction factors .........................................................................36
6b Temperature/density correction factors .....................................................42
7 Comparison of some important filter characteristics .................................64
8 Estimated equipment service life ...............................................................68
9 Recommended duct liner ...........................................................................90
10 Types of air contaminants..........................................................................97
11 Range of minimum duct design velocities.................................................97
12 Mixing efficiency for various ventilation arrangements..........................105
13 Recommended space temperatures ..........................................................108
14 Recommended relative humidity .............................................................108
15 Unsatisfactory conditions due to negative pressures
within buildings .......................................................................................109
16 K Factor chart for various insulation types..............................................113
vi
List of Tables—continued
Tables Page
17 Heat losses from insulated metal pipes....................................................114

18 Wrapping factor .......................................................................................116
19 Physiological effects of oxygen at different levels..................................124
20 Signs and symptoms of exposure to carbon monoxide............................125
21 Signs and symptoms of exposure to hydrogen sulfide.............................125
List of Figures
Figures Page
1 Duct layout – original design.....................................................................10

2 Duct layout – redesign ...............................................................................11
3 Duct layout – extended plenum redesign...................................................12
4 Types of fans..............................................................................................31
5 System effect curves for outlet ducts—centrifugal fans ............................45
6 System effect curves for outlet ducts—axial fans .....................................46
7 System effect curves for outlet elbows on centrifugal fans .......................47
8 System effect curves for various mitered elbows without
turning vanes..............................................................................................48
9 System effect curves for outlet ducts—axial fans .....................................49
10 Non-uniform inlet flows ............................................................................50
11 Non-uniform inlet corrections ...................................................................51
12 System effect curves for inlet obstructions................................................52
13 System effect factors..................................................................................53
14 System effect curves ..................................................................................54
15 Estimated belt drive loss ............................................................................59
16 Range of particle size.................................................................................63
17 Acoustical comparison of various building core area
layouts ........................................................................................................75
18 Guidelines for the preliminary selection of mechanical
room walls..................................................................................................76
vii
List of Figures—continued
Figures Page
19 Actual versus desired point of operation ...................................................77

20 Selection guide for vibration isolation.......................................................78
20a Notes for selection guide for vibration isolation .......................................79
21 Vibration isolators – Part 1 ........................................................................80
21a Vibration isolators – Part 2 ........................................................................81
22 Lined hood for propeller fan noise control ................................................82
23 Vibration isolation suspension for propeller fans ......................................82
24 Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in elbows ...........................84
25 Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in takeoffs ..........................84
26 Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in duct tees.........................85
27 Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in transitions
and offsets ..................................................................................................85
28 Guidelines for centrifugal fan installations................................................87
29 Guidelines for ducted axial flow fan installations .....................................88
30 Guidelines for unducted axial flow fan installations .................................89
31 Guidelines for sound trap placement near fans and duct
fittings ........................................................................................................91
32 Labyrinth air path used for sound attenuation ...........................................92
33 Welding ventilation hood.........................................................................100
34 Welding ventilation movable exhaust hoods ...........................................101
35 Spiral wrap ...............................................................................................115
36 Reclamation drawing 344-D-12747 (Red Rock
Pumping Plant – HVAC control schematic)...................... follows page 120
37 Reclamation drawing 338-D-2081 (Red Willow
Dam – gate chamber ventilation)....................................... follows page 130
38 FRP duct – sizes and specifications.........................................................133
39 FRP duct – selection data.........................................................................134
40 Sample certified test, adjust, and balance report .....................................139
viii
Design Guide for Heating, Ventilating,

and Air Conditioning Systems
A. SCOPE.—This guide assumes that prospective users will have some heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) design experience but are not
familiar with the specific requirements for the Bureau of Reclamation
(Reclamation) facilities. The guide emphasizes design considerations and
recommendations for applications specific to powerplants, pumping plants,
and confined spaces such as tunnels, gate chambers, and valve vaults. The
guide also identifies recognized codes and standards that should be referred
to as necessary when designing HVAC systems for Reclamation facilities.
Most HVAC system designers should be familiar with the design

requirements for office buildings. Except for recommended ambient
conditions, office HVAC systems are not included in this guide.
Heating and cooling load calculations and procedures for Reclamation

facilities are essentially similar to those for most structures familiar to the
HVAC designer and are not addressed in this guide. The calculations and
procedures are readily available in many of the references noted throughout
the guide and listed in the appendix.
Throughout this guide, the term “Plant” applies equally to powerplants and
pumping plants and the term “Units” refers equally to the main generating
units, pump/generating units, or pump units unless otherwise stated.
B. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.—Plant air conditioning systems may include:

heating, ventilating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying, filtering, and air
distribution to maintain acceptable indoor plant environments. The primary
objective of plant air conditioning systems are to ensure human comfort,
health, and safety, and to ensure equipment protection. HVAC equipment
must satisfy sanitary, hygienic, industrial, fire and emergency requirements
and must comply with established standards for construction, installation,
performance, energy conservation, and safety.
1. Load Calculations and Weather Conditions.—Heating and cooling

loads should be calculated in accordance with the procedures outlined
in the latest edition of American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Handbook of Fundamentals.
Design Heat Transmission Coefficients used for cooling and heating
loads should be obtained from the Plant Structures Branch and should
reflect the actual materials to be specified. Heat transmission
coefficients from ASHRAE should be used only when actual data are
not available such as preliminary calculations.
1
The outdoor air design temperature for heating calculations should be

obtained from the project design data or the ASHRAE Handbook if
insufficient design data are available. Because of the high potential
for damage due to freezing water in pipes, the temperature selected for
calculations should be the 99 percent value. During a normal winter,
there would be approximately 22 hours where the outdoor temperature
would be below the 99 percent value during the months of December
through February.
The summer outdoor air-dry bulb and wet bulb design temperatures
and daily temperature ranges should be determined as explained in the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals for the area of construction.
For office air conditioning (AC) systems where energy conservation
should be a significant consideration, the wet and dry bulb
temperatures selected for calculations should be the 2-1/2 percent
value. At this value, the outdoor dry bulb temperature may be
exceeded approximately 75 hours during the months of June through
September. For plant cooling, continued operation under the most
extreme conditions is the primary consideration. Therefore, the
extreme design conditions should be used.
HVAC calculations rely on lengthy, iterative procedures that are very

tedious if performed manually. Many software packages are now
available to improve accuracy and reduce calculation time. These
packages usually contain a complete set of ASHRAE weather data,
and calculations designed for specific air system configurations i.e.
constant volume (CV) and variable air volume (VAV), variable
volume and temperature, etc. Reclamation projects are seldom
constructed at one of the locations shown on the ASHRAE weather
data, however, the data can be adjusted to approximate local
conditions. Designers should be aware of the intended applications
and underlying assumptions used by the software designer.
2. Plant Design and Construction.—Small plants are generally

designed to house most of the heat producing equipment such as
motors, generators, switchgear, and busses in one large open bay. The
HVAC system for this type of plant is the easiest to design due to the
simplicity of the air distribution system and controls required. Larger
plants usually contain a service bay area and several equipment rooms,
shops, offices, control rooms, lunchrooms etc. Most equipment can
operate over a wide range of temperatures; therefore, the rooms have
similar ambient design requirements and may be conditioned by a
2
single HVAC unit. Some rooms such as uninterrupted power supply

(UPS), communication, office, and control rooms generally have
different ambient requirements and may require conditioning by
separate HVAC units.
Plants are normally divided into unit bays where each bay is equal to
the portion of the structure required for the unit. Unit bays may be
cooled simultaneously by a central air conditioning system,
individually by dedicated HVAC equipment, or by a combination of
centrally located and unit specific HVAC equipment depending on the
plant layout, heating and cooling loads, and the type of temperature
controls desired.
Central systems will generally maintain the most uniform temperature

conditions throughout the plant and can be designed for general smoke
evacuation. Central systems may become complicated when the plant
is compartmentalized requiring extensive use of exposed and
embedded ducts, fire dampers, smoke dampers, and control dampers.
Furthermore, unless the system includes redundancy, failure of the
central air conditioning system may cause plant temperatures to rise
excessively and may cause shutdown of some units. However, plant
shutdowns due to HVAC system failure are rare and are most likely
occur when the units are cooled with 100 percent unconditioned
outdoor air. HVAC equipment commonly used for this type of system
may include air-handling units supplying unconditioned or
conditioned air. When conditioned air is required, the following
options are generally considered in the order given: air handling unit
with cold water coils using site water (generally limited to water
temperatures below 65 degrees Fahrenheit [ºF]); direct evaporative
coolers; indirect/direct evaporative coolers; chilled water, and direct
expansion (DX) coils. Well water is also an option if a sufficient
quantity is available. It should be noted that many local jurisdictions
forbid the use of treated (potable) water for cooling HVAC heat
rejection equipment such as condensers.
Reclamation practice has generally been to provide indoor mechanical

equipment rooms for centrally located HVAC equipment. Indoor
equipment rooms are most often provided to protect equipment from
vandalism. When a centralized location is not possible, dedicated
HVAC equipment may be located near the unit(s) to be cooled. The
ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment provides the
following recommendations for sizing mechanical equipment rooms:
The floor space requirements for mechanical equipment room’s varies
from 4 to 9 percent of the gross building area, however, most buildings
3
require an equipment room ranging from 6 to 9 percent of the gross

floor area. Ceiling height should be 12 to 20 feet depending on the
amount of overhead ductwork to be used. Interior shafts for ductwork
should have an aspect ratio ranging from 2:1 to 4:1 to facilitate
installation of ducts between the mechanical room and shaft. Shafts
should be sized 10 to 15 percent larger than initial requirements to
allow space for future modifications. When possible, separate supply
and exhaust shafts should be provided to enable use of the exhaust
chase as a plenum.
Depending on the type of control desired, the dedicated HVAC

equipment may be interlocked to operate with the unit to be cooled or
may be controlled by a remote thermostat located near the unit. If the
interlocking control scheme is used, any heating equipment provided
must be independently controlled to provide freeze protection when
the units are shutdown during winter months. HVAC equipment
commonly used for this type of system may consist of: basic air
handling units supplying unconditioned air, direct evaporative cooling
units with positive exhaust fans, water coil units (use site water or well
water if cool enough and available in sufficient quantity), or chilled
water cooling units. Packaged vertical DX type AC can also be used
for computer rooms or office areas; however, they are rarely used for
plant cooling applications.
Where all units are identical in size and layout, the air conditioning
systems for each bay should also be identical, to the maximum extent
possible, to simplify the HVAC system design and minimize the
number of spare parts which must be stored.
Air conditioning systems for bays containing service areas, office

spaces, control rooms, computer rooms, and visitor facilities should
be designed so that multiple pieces of equipment identical to the
equipment used in unit bays can be furnished where feasible.
Dedicated air conditioning system with independent controls should
be provided for offices and control rooms since the ambient
temperatures in these areas must often satisfy human comfort and
frequently house temperature sensitive equipment.
3. Special Environmental Conditions.—Some plant rooms such as

control, computer and UPS rooms, lunch rooms, and office spaces
require tighter environmental control to avoid wide temperature
fluctuations, to ensure proper operation of equipment, and to provide
comfort conditions for sedentary personnel. Furthermore, since these
rooms may be occupied when the plant HVAC system is shutdown,
4
the HVAC systems and controls should be completely independent of

the Plant HVAC system. In most instances, these spaces require
similar environmental conditions and a single centrally located HVAC
system may be used.
4. Redundant Systems or Equipment.—When inadvertent temperature

shutdown of the main units cannot be tolerated, redundancy must be
considered. Redundancy may be complete or partial. Complete
redundancy generally consists of two equally sized air conditioning
systems, with each system capable of providing the total heating and
cooling requirements. This degree of redundancy is the most fail-safe,
however, it is also the most expensive, difficult to justify, and seldom
used.
Frequently, redundant equipment is sized for 50 to 75 percent of the

total capacity required to maintain the design conditions. This may or
may not be acceptable depending on whether it results in under sizing
or over sizing of equipment. A more reasonable approach when sizing
for partial redundancy, is to select each piece of equipment to maintain
the minimum or maximum requirements that will prevent damage to
equipment or jeopardize the health of occupants. For example,
Reclamation plants are typically designed to maintain temperatures of
45 ºF in winter and 85 to 95 ºF in summer. The extremes to be
avoided are freezing of standing water and ambient temperatures of
104 ºF that is the maximum recommended ambient temperature
required to prolong insulation life. Therefore, the full load (combined)
capability of the HVAC system would be sized to maintain the
minimum temperature at 45 ºF and the maximum temperature at 85 to
95 ºF. However, each piece of equipment would also be capable of
maintaining the low limit at 35 ºF and the high limit at 102 ºF.
The controls for redundant systems or equipment should include

automatic and manual switching to equalize wear on all components.
The automatic switching controls should also energize redundant or
backup equipment when the primary component fails.
Although redundant systems can be very expensive, their use may be

justified for a particular project. Designers should contact project
personnel to discuss the criticality of maintaining the plant on-line
under extreme temperature conditions and to determine the degree of
redundancy necessary or required. These discussions should take
place early in the design phase before proceeding with complete air
conditioning system designs and equipment selections.
5
5. Basic HVAC Scheme for Plants
a. Location of Air Intakes and Exhaust Openings.—When

possible, cooling should begin with 100 percent outdoor air.
Outdoor air louvers should be located opposite major heat
sources such as electrical control equipment and transformers.
The bottom of the intake louvers should be located a minimum
of 2-feet from ground level. Locate louvers away from air
polluting sources, such as engine generators, and building
exhaust air openings. Avoid locations near light fixtures that
tend to attract insects at night. The Uniform Building Code
(UBC) provides guidelines for relative location between intake
and exhaust air openings. When specific information is not
available, allow 50 to 75 feet of space between air intake and
exhaust openings.
In areas where noise generated by the plant is limited by locally

established noise criteria, the location and design of intake
openings should be given special consideration. Sound insulation
or attenuating equipment may be necessary to prevent
unacceptable plant or air conditioning system noise from reflecting
through the air intakes into the yard and surrounding area.
b. Airflow.—The substructure levels of Reclamation plants are

always cooler than the main level. In general, air distribution
systems should be designed to supply air to the lower levels of
the plant and return air from the upper levels. This will allow the
warm air to pre-cool as it flows over exposed cold surfaces, such
as pipes, discharge lines and penstocks. Air is then circulated
and transferred up through areas containing major electrical
equipment where many of the heat gains are concentrated. Air
supplied directly to generator or motor rooms is usually too hot
to transfer to other areas; therefore, it should be exhausted or
returned to the air conditioning unit as return air.
Air transfer fans are commonly used to move air around the
plants. These fans are especially advantageous when space
constraints prevent or limit installation of ductwork. Air transfer
is normally across the plant and upwards. Air should flow the
length of the bay before transferring to the next room or level.
The air temperature entering and leaving each space should be
calculated to ensure that adequate cooling is still possible. If
necessary, spot coolers can be located to provide supplemental
cooling.
6
c. Substructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation.—The

substructures of plants are heated and cooled to maintain
minimum and maximum temperatures for equipment protection,
to prevent freezing, and to ensure personnel comfort. The
minimum ambient design temperature is usually 45 ºF for
equipment freeze protection. Maximum ambient design
temperatures may range from 85 to 95 ºF when refrigeration type
conditioning equipment is used, to 104 ºF when minimally
conditioned or unconditioned air is used. Areas, such as control
rooms and offices that are occupied by sedentary personnel are
maintained at 68 to 75 ºF.
Air transfer from unit bays to oil, paint, battery, toilet, sumps,
janitor, welding, or chemical storage rooms is the preferred
method for ventilating these spaces. However, air from these
rooms is considered contaminated and must be directly
exhausted outdoors away from air intake louvers.
d. Superstructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation.—In

general, superstructures should not be cooled or heated except in
those cases where: temperatures must be maintained to protect
equipment from freezing or excessively high temperatures; and
Condensation of water on metalwork will cause corrosion or
other damage to the metalwork, or where water droplets will
cause damage to equipment below.
Superstructure ventilation system should be independent of the

main HVAC system. The space below the high superstructure
ceiling tends to get very hot due to external solar heat gain and
rising warm air from internal heat sources. If undisturbed, the
air will stratify with the hottest air immediately below the
ceiling and progressively cooler air moving towards the
conditioned space below. Allowing air to stratify can reduce
the cooling load in the conditioned space. Except for the
radiant effects (approximately 50 percent for fluorescent and
65 percent for incandescent) the heat gain from lights can be
stratified. Furthermore, only the radiant effect from the roof
and upper walls (approximately 33 percent) actually reaches
the floor level. Because of stratification, only the lower part of
the superstructure, i.e. the occupied area needs to be cooled with
conditioned air. The following equations (1) and (2) (developed
from Jennings) may be used to estimate ceiling and average
temperatures (in ºF) in superstructures due to stratification, i.e.,
no fans opposing heat rise:
7
(1) Ceiling temperature (Tc) for room heights (H) less than
20 ft, is given by:
Tc = [1.00 + 0.02h] Tb
Where: h = the room height in feet above the breathing

line not to exceed 15-feet,
Tb = the breathing line temperature. The breathing

line is measured 5 feet above floor level in ºF.
(2) Average room temperature (Tavg) for room height (H) less
than 20 feet is given by:
Tavg = [1.00 + 0.02(H/2 – 5)] Tb
Note: Tavg = (Tc + Tf)/2,
Where: Tf = Floor temperature at h = -5
When the roof fans are operating, stratification is not possible,

and the temperature difference between the floor and ceiling may
be small. The following equations (3) and (4) (developed from
Jennings) may be used as a conservative estimate for the average
temperatures (in °F) in superstructures with fans opposing heat
rise.
(3) Average temperature (Tavg) for a ceiling height (H) less

than or equal to 15 feet is given by:
Tavg = [1.00 + 0.01(H – 5)] Tb
(4) Average temperature (Tavg) for a ceiling height (H) greater

than 15 feet is given by:
Tavg = (1.1) Tb + 0.1(H-15)
During the winter, stratification is not desirable because the heat

supplied to the conditioned space rises towards the ceiling where it is
lost due to heat transfer through the ceiling and upper wall areas.
Multi-purpose power roof fans capable of supplying, exhausting, and
circulating air provide a means of coping with stratification and the
cooling and heating requirements of superstructures. These fans
consist of a propeller fan, housing, hood, filters and control dampers.
The fans can be purchased as preassembled package units with
8
associated controls or may be assembled from components as required.

The powered roof exhausters are controlled by a thermostat to operate
continuously in the exhaust mode when 100 percent outdoor air is
cooling the generator or motor room floor. When the HVAC system
switches to conditioned air, the roof exhausters should de-energize and
the air allowed to stratify to reduce the cooling load. During winter,
the fan controls should switch to divert hot air from the ceiling
towards the floor to reduce heating load.
6. Ductwork.—Ductwork should be designed in accordance with the

provisions of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, or the Sheet
Metal and Air Condition Contractor’s National Association
(SMACNA) HVAC System Duct Design Manual. Installation of
ductwork should comply with SMACNA HVAC Duct Construction
Standards.
a. Design Considerations
(1) Minimize the number of fittings.—Fittings are expensive

and cause significant increases in pressure loss compared to
straight duct.
(2) Use semi-extended plenums.—Plenums reduce the number

of transition fittings and facilitate balancing. Figures 1, 2,
and 3, illustrate how use of the extended plenum concept
can reduce the number of fittings and simplify a duct
design.
(3) Seal ductwork.—Standard duct sealing requirements are

shown on table 1.
Table 2 shows air leakage from the longitudinal seams of

unsealed ductwork. The Longitudinal seam leakage for
metal duct is approximately 10 to 15 percent of the total
duct leakage.
9
Figure 1.—Duct layout – original design.
10
Figure 2.—Duct layout – redesign.
11
Figure 3.—Duct layout – extended plenum design.
12
Table 1.—Standard duct sealing requirements

Pressure class
Seal class Sealing requirements inches w.g. Pa
Class A: All Transverse joints,
A longitudinal seams, and duct wall 4- and up 1,000
penetrations
Class B: All Transverse joints and
B 3 750
longitudinal seams only
C Class C: All Transverse joints only 2 500
In addition to the above, any variable volume system duct of 1-in. w.g. (250 Pa) and -in. w.g. (125 Pa)
construction class that is upstream of the VAV boxes shall meet Seal Class C. SMACNA HCAC Duct
Construction Standards, 1995.
Table 2.—Unsealed longitudinal seam leakage for metal ducts

Leakage1
cfm/ft l/s per meter
(seam length) (seam length)
Type of duct/seam Range Average Range Average
Rectangular
Pittsburg Lock 0.01 to 0.56 0.16 0.015 to 0.87 0.25
Button Punch Snap Lock 0.01 to 0.16 0.08 0.015 to 0.25 0.10
Round
Snap Lock 0.04 to 0.14 0.11 0.06 to 0.22 0.17
Grooved 0.11 to 0.18 0.12 0.17 to 0.28 0.19
1
Leakage rate is at 1-inch w.g. (250 Pa) static pressure. SMACNA HVAC Duct System Design, 1990.
13
Table 3 shows applicable leakage classes and can be used

in conjunction with the following equation to estimate the
amount of air leakage for a given duct system:
F = CL PN
Where: F = leakage rate (cfm/100 ft2 duct surface)

CL = Leakage Class Constant (table 3)
P = Static pressure, inch wind generated (w.g.)
N = 0.65, exponent related to turbulence
Example: Estimate the air leakage from a round metal

distribution system with surface area A = 800 ft2 and static
pressure P = 2.5 inch w.g.
Table 3 does not show a 2.5 inch w.g., therefore, use

3 inch w.g. to obtain a leakage class constant CL = 6.
The estimated leakage rate is:
F = (6) (2.5 0.65) = 10.9 cfm/100 ft2
and the estimated total leakage QL is:
QL = AF = (800) (10.9/100) = 87.2 cfm
(4) Use round duct.—For a given perimeter, round duct has

lower friction loss than rectangular duct.
(5) Reduce aspect ratio.—The surface area and cost of

ductwork increases with increased aspect ratio (H/W).
On rectangular ducts maintain an aspect ratio as close to 1
as possible. Try not to exceed a ratio of 1:4
b. Galvanized Duct.—Galvanized duct is commonly used and is

the preferred material for Reclamation applications.
(1) Pressure class.—Specify and use the lowest pressure class.

If no class is given, SMACNA standards allow a default
value of 1-inch for systems other than VAV, or 2-inches for
VAV systems. The default value may or may not be
adequate for the intended application. The pressure class
has significant effects on the metal gauge thickness and
reinforcement requirements for the duct. Pressure classes
are shown in table 4.
14
Table 3.—Applicable leakage classes1
Duct class
, 1, 2, inch w.g. 3 inch w.g. 4, 6, 10 inch w.g.
(see table 4)
Seal class None C B C
Transverse All Joints, Seams,

Applicable Transverse
N/A Joints and and Wall
sealing Joints Only
Seams Penetrations
Leakage class constant (CL) cfm/100 ft2 at 1 inch w.g.
Rectangular
48 24 12 6
metal
Round and
30 12 6 3
oval metal
Rectangular
N/A 6 N/A N/A
fibrous glass
Round fibrous
N/A 3 N/A N/A
glass
1
The leakage classes listed in this table are average values based on tests conducted by
SMACNA/ASHRAE/TIMA. Leakage classes listed are not necessarily recommendations on allowable
leakage. The designer should determine allowable leakage and specify acceptable duct leakage
classifications. SMACNA HVAC System Duct Design, 1990.
Table 4.—HVAC duct pressure – velocity classification1
Static
pressure Operating
class inch pressure Type of Maximum
w.g. in. w.g. pressure Seal class velocity ft/min
up to Pos/Neg C 2,000
1 over to 1 Pos/Neg C 2,500
2 over 1 to 2 Pos/Neg C 2,500
3 over 2 to 3 Pos/Neg B 4,000
4 over 3 to 4 Pos A 4,000
6 over 4 to 6 Pos A As specified
10 over 6 to 10 Pos A As specified
1
Modified version of Table 4-1 shown in SMACNA HVAC System Duct Design, 1990.
15
(2) Galvanized coating.—Sheet steel should be G-60 (for dry

or low humidity) or G-90 (for damp or wet areas) coated
galvanized steel of lock forming grade conforming to
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A653
and A924 standards.
(3) Reinforcement.—Depending on the pressure class, duct

dimensions, and metal gauge, duct may or may not require
reinforcement. SMACNA Duct Construction Standards –
Metal and Flexible, dictates when and what type of
reinforcement is required. Therefore, designers may select
the pressure class, metal gauge thickness and reinforcement
requirements or choose to specify the pressure class
requirements and leave the details to the contractor. The
latter has been the more common approach on Reclamation
jobs.
(4) Leakage class.—All duct constructed for and 1-inch

pressure classes should be sealed to Class C requirements.
Standard sealants are not intended for extreme applications
such as weatherproof, waterproof, or ultra-violet resistant;
temperatures above 120 ºF; submerged below water; or
totally leak free. Where any of these conditions are to be
encountered, special sealants should be specified.
(5) Leakage testing.—Unless the application is critical,

leakage testing of systems below 3-inch pressure class is
not recommended due to the expense. Government
inspectors should ensure that the contractors work reflects
good quality control. Ductwork rated above 3-inch
pressure class should be leak tested only if the expense can
be justified.
c. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Duct.—PVC duct is not widely used

in Reclamation projects. The most common applications for
PVC duct are systems exhausting corrosive fumes. PVC duct
can be used for 2-inch, 6-inch, and 10-inch negative and positive
pressure applications in round and rectangular shapes. Because
PVC material is seldom used, no further discussion is included in
this manual. Designers should refer to SMACNA Thermoplastic
Duct PVC Construction Manual for PVC duct construction
standards, guide specifications, and material specifications.
16
d. Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Duct.—FRP duct is only

used in tunnel ventilation systems where high moisture or wet
conditions prevail. Refer to the section on confined spaces in
this manual for additional information concerning use of FRP
duct.
7. Heating Equipment.—Most plants are constructed at remote

locations where natural gas is not available. Propane is not used for
heating applications due to storage, the below grade location of
mechanical rooms, and the logistics of frequent refilling at remote
locations. Primary heating is usually provided by electric duct heaters
or unit heaters. Electric heaters should be avoided in spaces
containing explosive gases or atmospheres. Heaters for these spaces
must comply with the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70
– otherwise known as the National Electric Code (NEC), explosive-
proof construction requirements. Many Reclamation plants operate
throughout the year; therefore, these plants are capable of generating
recoverable heat. When possible, the heat generated by electric
motors or generators should be recovered and used to temper cooler
air.
a. Duct Heaters.—Duct heaters are available in two

configurations, open element and finned-tube. The open element
tends to run cooler, have very low pressure drops, are much
lighter, have greater clearance between the elements, and are
lower cost. Finned tube coils are safer because the element is
encased, less prone to damage form airborne contaminants, can
be used in hazardous locations, easier to service individual
elements, rugged construction provides greater mechanical
stability and protection from physical damage, more uniform
airflow reduces hot spots, enable more precise control due to
higher thermal inertia. Finned-tube electric resistance coils are
preferred over the open element (blast) coils due to the more
rugged construction and safety.
(1) Minimum velocity requirements.—Duct heaters require

minimum airflow velocities to ensure safe operation. Design
velocities should be obtained from manufacturer’s data.
Designers should verify that duct sizes and airflows are
selected to provide the minimum velocities required. This is
especially important in multi-speed fan applications where
airflows may vary significantly between the minimum and
maximum requirements. In multi-speed fan applications,
single stage heaters should be avoided and multi-stage or
17
modulated heater control should be provided. Regardless of

which fan speed or heating strategy is used, the air velocity
into the coil must always exceed the minimum velocity
required for the heater output at any given time.
(2) Installation considerations.—Heaters are also available for

flanged or slip-in installation. The location of electric duct
heaters within a duct is very important to ensure uniform
flow across the entire face of the heater. Heaters must be
installed in accordance with the terms of their Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) listing. Duct heaters should be installed
a minimum of 4 ft downstream and upstream from
obstructions that may cause non-uniform airflow such as
fans, elbows, contractions, expansions, and filters.
Occasionally the duct dimensions are larger than standard

heater dimensions. Custom heaters are not necessary for
these conditions. One major heater manufacturer indicates
that standard slip-in heaters can be used with oversize
ducts, and no screens or plates, provided the heater area
(HxW including frame) occupies at least 80 percent of the
duct cross sectional area. This type of installation should
be verified by the heater manufacturer for any given
installation. Typically, perforated plates or screens are
installed in the open space between the standard heater and
the duct to equalize the airflow over the cross-sectional
area of the duct and heater. The plate or screen should
have at least 50 percent free area.
For general heating, the coils are usually installed in the

main air-handling units. However, heaters are frequently
installed in the supply air ducts to provide supplemental
heating when necessary.
(3) Safety devices.—Various safety devices are used to prevent

failures due to overheating. Differential pressure switches
are normally installed across the duct heater to de-energize
the heater when sufficient airflow is not provided. High
limit thermostats are normally installed downstream of the
duct heater to de-energize the heater if the air temperature
rises to predetermined set points usually 135 to 165 ºF.
b. Unit Heaters.—When centralized air systems are not used, or

when spot heating is necessary, wall mounted unit heaters
18
containing a heating coil, fan, and integral thermostat are

recommended. Unit heaters are generally mounted along the
exterior plant walls. The installed height varies with heater size.
For best results, unit heaters should be oriented to discharge air
parallel to the walls to create a circular airflow pattern. One or
two 10 to 15 kW heaters should be provided near large overhead
service bay doors to provide supplemental heat when the doors
are opened. Safety devices are included with the heaters.
Thermostats may be integral or remote. Integral thermostats are
satisfactory when equipment protection is the primary objective.
When heaters are located high above the occupied zone, and
personnel comfort is the main objective, remote thermostats
installed 5-feet above floor level (commonly referred to as the
5-foot breathing line) provide the best ambient control.
c. Convection Heaters.—Floor or wall mounted convection

heaters are commonly used for spot heating in offices or toilets.
Radiant panel heaters are usually restricted to toilets. The panels
may be ceiling mounted (8-foot ceilings only) over commodes or
on adjacent walls.
d. Portable Heaters.—Portable electric heaters are primarily used

to provide supplemental heat in work areas. Sizing and
acquisition of portable heaters are not normally included in
Reclamation designs.
8. Cooling Systems.—In plants having units rated over 1,500 kilowatts

per unit, the generators or motors should be furnished with integral
water-cooled systems. Water-cooled units generally need 0.8 gal/min
per kilowatt of motor or generator loss. The maximum ambient
(discharge) temperature for water-cooled units is 40 ºC (104 ºF). The
plant air conditioning units should handle all other loads within the
plant.
When the main motor or generator units are air cooled, cooling can be
provided by ventilation, evaporative cooling units, water coil cooling
units, or refrigeration equipment. Frequently, cooling water is
available directly from reservoirs, penstocks, or discharge lines. When
the water temperature is too high (above 60 ºF) refrigerating cooling
equipment will probably be required. In these cases, water can be
used for heat rejection from refrigeration equipment compressors or
condensers.
19
Supply air should be directed at the cold surfaces of discharge lines

and penstocks to remove excess moisture from the air and to cool the
air before using it to cool areas with high heat sources.
a. Ventilation Cooling.—Ventilation cooling (100 percent

untreated outdoor air) can be provided in locations where
summer design temperatures are at least 10 ºF cooler than the
required indoor ambient temperature. Air cooling with
temperature differential less than 10 ºF is usually not practical
because of the very high air flows required.
(1) When used.—Ventilation cooling systems are most

common in small pumping plants such as those which
employ vertical turbine or floor mounted centrifugal pumps
where motors do not exceed 450 horsepower (Hp). The
pump motors at Glendive Pumping Plant (Buffalo Rapids
Project, Montana) are rated at 1,500 Hp and are air cooled.
This plant and others, with much smaller units, have a
history of unit shutdowns due to overheating caused by
inadequate cooling.
(2) Airflow requirements.
(a) Air cooled motors.—Air cooled motors or generators

usually require cooling air flows of 100 to 125 ft3/min
per kilowatt of motor or generator loss. The air is
usually supplied to the units at a maximum
temperature of 104 ºF and is warmed 50 to 68 ºF in
passing through the motors before it is rejected into
the same space.
(b) Indoor dry-type transformers.—Indoor transformers

require airflows approximating 100 ft3/min per
kilowatt of transformer loss. A maximum ambient
temperature of 104 ºF is normally recommended for
transformer rooms at sea level. This temperature is
an average for a 24 hour period. The maximum
ambient temperature at any time should not exceed
18 ºF above the maximum average temperature or
122 ºF. Generally the exhaust air should not exceed
27 ºF over the inlet air temperature. The
recommended ambient temperature varies with the
transformer class and altitude. A transformer
specialist should be consulted to determine the
20
transformer class proposed. At 3300 feet above sea

leave, the maximum ambient temperature should not
exceed 86 ºF. Above 3300 feet the ambient
temperature for Class AA 60 and 80 ºC transformers
should be lowered approximately 3 and 4 ºF
respectively for every 3000 foot increase in elevation.
For Class AA/FA and AFA 60 and 80 ºC
transformers the ambient temperature should be
lowered approximately 6 and 8 ºF respectively for
every 3000 foot increase in elevation. When natural
ventilation is used to cool transformer rooms, inlet
and outlet openings should be sized to provide a
minimum free area of 1 ft2 for transformers totaling
less than 50 kVA plus 1 ft2 for every 100 kVA
transformer (provided not less than 3-inch2 free area
per kVA in service). Intake openings should be
located near the floor and exhaust openings near the
ceiling.
(3) Design considerations.—Most air cooled motors draw

cool air from the surrounding space near the floor and
exhaust hot air into the same space through openings near
the top of the motor. To avoid excessive drafts, when
possible, air should be ducted directly to the unit air intakes
and exhaust. However, ducting should not be installed as a
retrofit without consultation with the motor/generator
manufacturer. Addition of ductwork to a unit designed for
free air induction may actually hinder airflow and cause the
motor to overheat. This condition was a contributing factor
in the overheating problems experienced at the Glendive
Pumping Plant. Outdoor air is normally supplied directly
to the pump or generator room.
On single story plant, a typical ventilating system

arrangement includes several powered roof exhausters
with outdoor air intake louvers along the walls. Another
common arrangement employs propeller fans mounted
low along one long wall and exhaust louvers along the
opposite wall near the ceiling.
On multi-level plants, an air handling unit may supply air

to the cooler lower level of the plant where the air is pre-
cooled by cold surfaces such as water pipes and below
21
grade concrete walls. The air is allowed to flow upward

through floor openings directly below the unit air intakes.
Plants cooled by ventilation air only tend to be very noisy

because of the high airflows required. Noise sources
should be evaluated and preventive measures implemented
to maintain acceptable levels. Refer to the ASHRAE Noise
and Vibration Control for design, specifications and
construction considerations.
b. Cold Water Cooling.—Air handling units with water coils

have been used in many Reclamation applications. Water must
be cold enough to provide adequate cooling. Water drawn from
the lower levels of reservoirs is colder and better suited for AC
applications. Water is usually taken from a tap connected to the
discharge/penstock lines that may provide the required pressure
and eliminate the need for pumps. Alternatively, water may also
be taken from the suction line or draft tube. Normal airflow
velocity is 500 ft/min. Normal water flow velocity is
approximately 3 ft/sec. Generally, the difference between the
entering water temperature and the leaving air temperature is
approximately 11 to 12 degrees.
(1) Plant cooling.—For plant cooling where equipment

protection is the primary consideration, the water
temperature should not exceed 65 ºF. This will provide
a supply air temperature of approximately 76 to 77 ºF,
and maintain a room temperature of 85 to 90 ºF. With the
narrow temperature differential between the room air and
supply air, supply airflows may be high if the cooling
loads are also high. However, since plants are basically
unoccupied, drafts can be tolerated.
(2) Occupied spaces.—Typical supply air temperatures for

office spaces is 56 ºF with a 20 to 25 ºF differential
between the room and supply temperatures. These
conditions provide good air movement while preventing
excessive drafts. For occupied spaces where human
comfort is essential, the water temperature should not
exceed 50 ºF. However, this will result in above normal
supply air temperature of approximately 61 ºF and require
above normal airflows. Furthermore, excessive airflows
cause uncomfortable drafts and increase noise which and
are not acceptable for comfort applications. Although
22
these conditions can be mitigated by increasing the number

of supply grilles or diffusers, additional equipment and
space will be required. When these are not feasible, a DX
or chilled water system should be considered. These
systems are described elsewhere in this manual.
c. Evaporative Cooling.—In addition to the main units, plants

require significant amounts of air to cool other loads including:
transformers, switchgear, busses, panels, lights, auxiliary pump
motors, and skin loads due to solar energy. When the outdoor air
temperature, cooling loads, or both are too high for ventilation
cooling, evaporative cooling should be considered before
resorting to refrigeration cooling systems. Modern commercial
evaporative coolers are significantly more effective (efficient)
than those previously available. The new coolers are available in
single stage (direct) or multistage (indirect/direct) configurations.
(1) Design considerations.
(a) Media and saturation effectiveness.—The

performance capability of an evaporative cooler
depends on the difference between the outdoor dry
bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature. This
difference is commonly referred to as the wet bulb
depression. The greater the wet bulb depression, the
greater the cooling effect possible. The supply air
temperature from an evaporative cooler is based on
the saturation effectiveness of the evaporative
cooling media that is usually published in
manufacturer's data. The effectiveness is a measure
of how close the leaving air dry bulb temperature
approaches the wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the media, or alternatively, how close the
leaving air comes to the saturation temperature.
Although many types of evaporative cooler media are

available, the most common type consists of a rigid,
cross-fluted fiberglass or cellulose commonly referred
to by the trade names Glas-dek and Cel-dek
respectively. As shown in table 5, the saturation
effectiveness of the media increases with the
thickness and decreases with higher airflow
velocities.
23
Table 5.—Evaporative cooler media saturation efficiency

Saturation efficiency — percent
Face velocity Evaporative media thickness
(fpm/sq. ft.) 6 inches 8 inches 12 inches 18 inches 24 inches
300 74.0% 84.0% 91.0% 98.5% 99.7%
350 72.0% 82.0% 90.0% 98.2% 99.6%
400 71.0% 81.0% 89.5% 98.0% 99.5%
450 69.0% 80.0% 89.0% 97.8% 99.3%
500 68.0% 79.0% 88.8% 97.5% 99.0%
550 67.0% 78.0% 88.5% 97.0% 98.9%
600 66.0% 77.0% 88.2% 96.8% 98.8%
650 65.0% 76.0% 88.0% 96.3% 98.7%
Pressure drop — inches w.c.
300 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.14
350 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.19
400 0.06 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.26
450 0.08 0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32
500 0.10 0.14 0.21 0.29 0.39
550 0.12 0.17 0.26 0.36 0.47
600 0.14 0.20 0.30 0.42 0.56
650 0.16 0.24 0.35 0.49 0.64
® ®
Note: • Data based on CELdek or GLASdek evaporative media.
• 500 FPM is standard.
Media are available from 4 to 24-inches thick. The

standard airflow velocity is 500 ft/min. The most
common media thickness used on Reclamation plants
is 12 inches; however, 8, 12, and 18 inch with
saturation effectiveness of approximately 79, 88.5,
and 97.8 per cent, respectively, at the 500 ft/min,
have been used. Some have been designed with
velocities ranging from 400 to 550 ft/min.
Once the saturation effectiveness, outdoor dry and

wet bulb temperatures, and indoor design temperature
are known, the required supply air temperature can be
calculated or determined from the manufacturers
24
published ratings. The following equation can be

used to calculate the leaving air temperature:
Tlvg = Tdb – es(Tdb – Twb)
Where: Tlvg = air temperature leaving the

media
Tdb = outdoor dry bulb temperature
entering the media
es = saturation effectiveness (from
table 5)
Twb = outdoor wet bulb temperature
Example: Assume outdoor design conditions of

109 ºF dry bulb, coincident wet bulb of 71 ºF,
500 ft/min airflow velocity, the leaving air
temperature would be:
109 – (0.79)(109 – 71) = 79 ºF for 8-inch media;
109 – (0.89)(109 – 71) = 75.4 ºF for 12-inch media;
109 – (0.98)(109 – 71) = 71.8 ºF for 18-inch media;
Since the fan and motor are normally installed in the

airstream, the actual supply air temperature to the
conditioned space would be slightly higher (2 to 3 ºF)
depending on the supply fan and motor losses.
(b) Freeze protection.—Freeze protection is another

major concern with evaporative cooling systems.
This is especially true for unmanned plants in remote
locations where freezing is possible. For these
locations and conditions, the water circuit for the
evaporative coolers should be designed for automatic
draining. Automatic draining usually requires
thermostatically controlled solenoid valves in the
supply and drain piping. The valves open when a
preset temperature, usually 35 to 40 ºF, is sensed. All
piping and the cooling unit sumps and other auxiliary
equipment such as strainers, pumps, etc. should be
drained. Heat tape should be applied to all piping
with low points that will not drain but are subject to
freezing. Refer to section F.10.f (2) of this document
25
for heat tape sizing procedures. Once fall outdoor

temperatures drop to near freezing, a further need for
evaporative cooling is highly unlikely for the
remaining season. The system controls should
lockout the water supply valve to preclude filling the
water circuits and sumps.
(c) Water quality and filtration.—Water quality is very

important to successful application of evaporative
cooling equipment. Correct bleed-off rates and
adequate makeup water must be available to prevent
fouling due to increased mineral concentrations and
deposits. In some cases chemical treatment may be
required. To prevent plugging of nozzles and valves,
water should pass through a strainer capable of
filtering particles larger than 1/32-inch. Motor
operated self-cleaning strainers are preferable to the
manual backwash type.
(d) Humidity.—High relative humidity will adversely

impact the effectiveness of these units. Most
Reclamation plants are located in arid areas with low
relative humidity. However, plants in Arizona can be
adversely affected during the annual monsoon season
when relative humidity is high. Under these
conditions, evaporative cooling is not very effective
and refrigerated cooling may be required. Plant
humidity levels should be maintained between 30 and
60 percent to control growth of bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and condensation on metal surfaces that are
subject to corrosion. Room humidistat should be
provided to de-energize the cooling unit water pump
when the relative humidity approaches 60 percent.
(e) Exhaust.—Direct evaporative cooling systems should

include good exhaust capability to prevent high
humidity. HVAC systems are commonly designed to
pressurize the conditioned spaces to stop outdoor air
infiltration that increases the cooling load and room
humidity. While this practice is acceptable in
refrigerated systems, it has not always worked well in
Reclamation plants using evaporative cooling
systems. Perhaps the exhaust openings have been
undersized or the humidity control was not operating
26
properly. Exhaust air openings and equipment should

be sized to prevent over pressurization. Use of
exhaust fans instead of non-powered roof exhaust
ventilators or exhaust louvers has been found to be
more effective.
(2) Direct evaporative coolers.—Direct evaporative coolers

consist of an air handler section and direct evaporative
cooling section. Direct cooling units have been used
extensively in the Reclamation s Southern Nevada
Pumping Plants. These units are operated in the fan only
mode when the outdoor air temperature is low enough to
meet the cooling load requirements. When ventilation
cooling is inadequate, the water pump circuit is energized
to provide evaporative cooling. The effectiveness of direct
coolers may range between 80 and 99 percent.
(3) Indirect evaporative coolers.—Indirect evaporative coolers

cool air without adding moisture therefore they do not
increase humidity. Indirect coolers include an air-to-air
heat exchanger, evaporative media (such as the media
described above), and a secondary (outdoor) air fan and
outdoor air louvers. The secondary air is cooled as it flows
through the evaporative media. The cooled air flows
through a heat exchanger that indirectly cools the primary
(supply) air to the space.
Another type of indirect cooler used on Reclamation plants

incorporates cooling tower, which includes similar
components except that the air-to-air heat exchanger is
replaced with a water cooling coil. The cooling tower
provides cooled water to a water cooling coil. Primary air
flows through the cooling coil and is cooled without
addition of moisture. The primary benefit of indirect
coolers is their capability to cool without adding moisture,
i.e. increasing the humidity of the primary air.
The effectiveness of indirect coolers may range between

50 and 75 percent.
(4) Indirect/direct coolers.—When increased cooling without

refrigeration is desired, direct and indirect coolers can be
combined into multistage units referred to as indirect/direct
cooling units. These units are typically staged to operate as
27
follows: first stage – ventilation only; second stage –

indirect cooling; and third stage – direct evaporative
cooling.
Equipment manufacturers have published overall saturation

effectiveness for these units ranging between 115 and
125 percent. Indirect/direct evaporative coolers can also be
provided with refrigeration coils to provide cooling when
the outdoor air humidity is too high for evaporative
cooling.
d. Refrigeration Cooling.—Refrigeration cooling is used in plant

cooling systems when: cooling loads are very high, greater
humidity control is desired, or other cooling methods are not
practical or acceptable. Mechanical equipment rooms must be
provided to isolate the refrigeration equipment from other areas
of the plant. These rooms have specific size, ventilation and fire
code requirements that should be observed. Mechanical
equipment rooms should comply with the requirements of the
Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) and (UBC).
(1) Plant chilled water cooling.—The loads in large plant

equipment are usually too high for DX equipment,
therefore, chilled water systems with water cooled
condensers are fairly common. Water chillers are usually
the reciprocating type. A water temperature at least 5 ºF
below the apparatus dew point temperature is required for
an economical design. Plant chilled water systems are
typically selected to supply 45 ºF water to air handler units
(AHUs) and fan coil units (FCUs). A 10 ºF water
temperature rise is normal for Reclamation work. The
following may be used for very rough estimates in the
preliminary stages of a design:
Airflow = 1 cfm per ft2 of motor/generator room floor

Air supply temperature = 56 ºF
Chiller size = 60 BTUH per ft2 of motor/generator room
floor
Chiller Hp = 1.4 x No. of tons cooling
Condenser water = 3.2 gals/ton (assuming 7.5 ºF rise)
Chilled water = 2.4 gals/ton (assuming 10 ºF rise)
(2) Occupied spaces.—Refrigeration cooling is normally

reserved for occupied spaces such as control rooms, shops,
28
and offices where human comfort is essential.

Refrigeration air conditioning systems are also used for
cooling communications rooms, electronic rooms, and
computer rooms, where close temperature and humidity
tolerances are necessary for proper equipment operation.
The air conditioning systems for these spaces should be
completely independent of the plant cooling systems where
equipment can tolerate higher temperatures.
(a) Minimum ventilation requirements.—Minimum

outdoor air ventilation requirements, as dictated by
ASHRAE Ventilation Standards, must be provided at
all times to ensure odor control. Use of economizers
should be considered to conserve energy by providing
free cooling when outdoor air conditions are
favorable. In dry climates dry bulb controllers
provide adequate control of the economizer. Where
humidity is a concern, enthalpy controllers provide
better control of the economizer and should be
considered.
(b) Air systems.—The type of air system and

refrigeration equipment used for air conditioning
applications varies considerably. Direct expansion
CV systems, such as packaged vertical or horizontal
units, are common for small plants and spaces.
Where spaces contain windows and loads vary
throughout the day, due to solar affect, VAV should
be considered. Humidification capability is seldom
installed in these systems. The cooling system
condensers may be air or water cooled.
(c) Sizing criteria.—The following criteria may be used

for rough preliminary sizing of AC systems for small
offices, lunch rooms, UPS, electric shops, and similar
spaces:
Cooling = 40 BTUH/ft2;
Heating = 38 BTUH/ft2;
Air supply = 1.3 cfm/ft2;
Supply air temperature = 56 ºF
29
(3) Computer rooms.—Computer rooms require very close

temperature and humidity controls usually achieved
through dedicated cooling equipment specifically designed
for computer room applications. True computer rooms are
seldom occupied and require close temperature and
humidity tolerances. Computer room AC systems should
be designed to re-circulate air continuously. When these
spaces are occupied, minimal outdoor air is required and is
usually provided by tapping into another air conditioning
unit providing air to general office spaces.
(a) General system configuration.—Computer room air

conditioners are usually packaged vertical, CV, water
cooled, DX units. These units are equipped with a
disposable water canister to provide humidification or
a waterline if clean water is available.
(b) Sizing criteria.—The following criteria may be used

for preliminary sizing of computer rooms AC
systems:
Cooling = 140 BTUH/ft2;

Heating = 20 BTUH/ft2;
Airflow = 4.7 cfm/ft2;
Supply air temperature = 56 ºF.
9. Ventilating Fans.—Many types of ventilating fans are available, each

well suited to a specific application. Figure 4 identifies the different
types of fans available and provides a brief description of their
performance characteristics and applications. All types of fans shown
in Figure 4 have been used in Reclamation applications.
a. Fan Types and Applications.—Following is a list of the types

of fans available and where they are used in Reclamation
facilities:
(1) Centrifugal.—Centrifugal fans are preferred for high

volume, high pressure, ducted systems.
(a) Airfoil and backwards inclined.—Normally found in

large (above 20,000 cfm) air handling units providing
the main air supply to the plant.
30
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
AXIAL FANS
SPECIAL DESIGNS
Figure 4.—Types of fans.
31
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
AXIAL FANS
SPECIAL DESIGNS
Figure 4a.—Types of fans.
32
(b) Forward curve.—The most commonly used fan for

general ventilation and exhaust applications.
Generally used in most types of packaged air
handling units and equipment.
(c) Radial.—Primarily used in particulates exhaust

applications to prevent clogging. The most common
Reclamation applications include: wood shaving,
saw dust, and sand.
(d) In-line centrifugal.—Primarily used in applications

where sufficient floor space is not available and the
fan must fit directly in the duct system. The fans are
available in a square or round configuration. These
fans are not commonly used in Reclamation
applications.
(2) Axial.—Axial fans are preferred for high volume, low

pressure, non-ducted systems.
(a) Propeller.—Propeller fans are intended for high flow,

very low pressure applications where ductwork is not
required. Maximum efficiency reached near free
delivery, i.e. with no suction and discharge ductwork.
These fans are very common in Reclamation plants.
Primarily used to improve air circulation within
rooms or galleries, to transfer air between rooms, and
to exhaust air directly outdoors. Roof exhaust
assemblies consisting of a propeller fan, exhaust
hoods, control damper, and thermostat are commonly
used to provide passive and powered roof exhaust in
plants.
(b) Tubeaxial.—High flow medium pressure capability.

Pressure curve dips to the left of peak pressure.
Avoid operation in this area. Fan may be used in low
to medium pressure applications with ductwork.
Common in Reclamation work and primarily used for
air transfer applications between floors and where
floor space is limited and the fan must be installed in-
line with the ductwork. Operating range is 65 to
90 percent of wide open cfm.
33
(c) Vaneaxial.—Medium flow, high pressure capability.

Pressure curve dips to the left of peak pressure.
Avoid operation in this area. Blades may have fixed,
adjustable or controllable pitch. Guide vanes are
provided to straighten airflow and improve efficiency.
Fan may be used in low, medium and high pressure
applications with ductwork where straight-through
flow and compact design are required. Common in
Reclamation work and primarily used for air transfer
applications between floors and where floor space is
limited and the fan must be installed in-line with the
ductwork. Maximum static efficiency is higher than
the tubeaxial fan and is approximately 65 percent.
(3) Powered roof ventilators.—Fans are available in

centrifugal or axial configurations. The centrifugal design
is slightly quieter. These fans are available in supply and
exhaust and down blast and up blast models. Commonly
used for general low pressure, non-ducted applications
where positive exhaust is necessary or desirable. The down
blast models are used for most exhaust application where a
packaged low silhouette roof mounting is desirable. Wall
exhaust applications are also common. The up blast model
direct exhaust air away from the roof surface and are used
for exhausting toxic chemicals or fumes.
b. Fan Sizing.—The steps followed when sizing a fan are

commonly available in HVAC handbooks and texts and will not
be discussed. The reader is referred to the ASHRAE Handbook
of Fundamentals. The ASHRAE Handbook tends to be heavily
weighted towards the theoretical and less towards the practical;
however, it is revised every four years, so the information more
closely reflects new research and industry trends. The SMACNA
HVAC System Duct Design tends to be more practical and user
friendly. The following discussion pertains to common mistakes
made by inexperienced personnel when designing duct systems.
These mistakes have significant effects on the performance of
the fan and ventilating or exhaust system.
(1) Density (altitude and temperature) correction.—The data

presented in fan manufacturers performance tables or curve
are based on sea level altitude and 70 ºF. Before using the
fan manufacturers tables or curves for selecting a fan, the
criteria at the required altitude and temperature must be
34
corrected to sea level conditions. Motor cooling is also

affected by air density and decreases with increasing
altitude. The following recommendations are offered:
(a) Fan corrections.—For altitudes changes between

0 and 2000 ft above sea level, and temperatures
between 32 and 120 ºF, no corrections are necessary
for fans used in normal Reclamation applications.
See table 6 for applicable altitude and temperature
corrections.
(b) Motor corrections.—For altitudes below 3,000 ft,

motor operation should not be adversely affected.
Above 3000 ft motor cooling may be affected and the
motor manufacturer should be consulted. In many
cases the motor induction rating may have to be
increased.
(2) System effect.—Manufacturers performance tables or curves

for a fan are based on testing conducted with ductwork to
produce uniform entrance and exit conditions at the fan. The
tables represent the best performance possible under
controlled laboratory conditions. However, field
installations may vary significantly from laboratory
conditions. Frequently, either through inexperience or space
limitations, the ductwork connections to a fan are less than
ideal and contribute to poor fan performance. The most
common occurrence adversely affecting fan performance is
installing elbows too close to the fan suction and discharge
openings. Either of these conditions will produce non-
uniform flow causing pressure losses exceeding those
attributed to the elbows alone. This excess pressure loss is
commonly referred to as a system effect loss. System
effect cannot be measured in the field. The designer must be
aware of the conditions causing the system effect losses and
eliminate the condition when possible. If the condition
cannot be eliminated, calculate the system effect losses and
add them to the losses attributed to other ductwork and
system components. Figures 5 through 14 illustrate various
conditions causing system effects and how to calculate the
resulting pressure losses.
35
Table 6a.—Altitude correction factors
Barometer Relative
density, static
Specific pressure, or Hp CFM CFM
Altitude Inches lbs/in 2 volume correction Air Density transmission correction
(feet) mercury atmospheric (ft3/lb) factor (lbs/ft3) factor factor
0 29.92 14.70 13.340 1.000 0.0750 1.080 1.000

100 29.81 14.64 13.381 0.996 0.0747 1.076 1.003
200 29.71 14.59 13.430 0.993 0.0745 1.072 1.007
300 29.60 14.54 13.478 0.989 0.0742 1.068 1.010
400 29.49 14.48 13.527 0.986 0.0739 1.065 1.014
500 29.38 14.43 13.576 0.982 0.0737 1.061 1.018
600 29.28 14.38 13.626 0.979 0.0734 1.057 1.021
700 29.17 14.33 13.675 0.975 0.0731 1.053 1.025
800 29.07 14.28 13.725 0.971 0.0729 1.049 1.029
900 28.96 14.22 13.775 0.968 0.0726 1.045 1.033
1000 28.86 14.17 13.825 0.964 0.0723 1.042 1.036
1100 28.75 14.12 13.876 0.961 0.0721 1.038 1.040
1200 28.65 14.07 13.926 0.957 0.0718 1.034 1.044
1300 28.54 14.02 13.977 0.954 0.0715 1.030 1.048
1400 28.44 13.97 14.028 0.950 0.0713 1.027 1.052
1500 28.33 13.92 14.079 0.947 0.0710 1.023 1.055
1600 28.23 13.87 14.131 0.944 0.0708 1.019 1.059
1700 28.13 13.82 14.183 0.940 0.0705 1.015 1.063
1800 28.03 13.76 14.235 0.937 0.0703 1.012 1.067
1900 27.92 13.71 14.287 0.933 0.0700 1.008 1.071
2000 27.82 13.66 14.339 0.930 0.0697 1.004 1.075
2100 27.72 13.61 14.392 0.926 0.0695 1.001 1.079
2200 27.62 13.56 14.445 0.923 0.0692 0.997 1.083
2300 27.52 13.51 14.498 0.920 0.0690 0.993 1.087
2400 27.42 13.47 14.551 0.916 0.0687 0.990 1.091
2500 27.31 13.42 14.605 0.913 0.0685 0.986 1.095
2600 27.21 13.37 14.659 0.910 0.0682 0.982 1.099
2700 27.11 13.32 14.713 0.906 0.0680 0.979 1.103
2800 27.02 13.27 14.767 0.903 0.0677 0.975 1.107
2900 26.92 13.22 14.822 0.900 0.0675 0.972 1.111
36
Table 6a.—Altitude correction factors—continued
Barometer Relative
density, static
Altitude Inches lbs/in 2 volume correction Air density transmission correction
3000 26.82 13.17 14.876 0.896 0.0672 0.968 1.115
3100 26.72 13.12 14.931 0.893 0.0670 0.964 1.119
3200 26.62 13.07 14.987 0.890 0.0667 0.961 1.123
3300 26.52 13.03 15.042 0.886 0.0665 0.957 1.128
3400 26.42 12.98 15.098 0.883 0.0662 0.954 1.132
3500 26.33 12.93 15.154 0.880 0.0660 0.950 1.136
3600 26.23 12.88 15.210 0.877 0.0657 0.947 1.140
3700 26.13 12.83 15.267 0.873 0.0655 0.943 1.144
3800 26.03 12.79 15.323 0.870 0.0653 0.940 1.149
3900 25.94 12.74 15.380 0.867 0.0650 0.936 1.153
4000 25.84 12.69 15.438 0.864 0.0648 0.933 1.157
4100 25.75 12.65 15.495 0.860 0.0645 0.929 1.162
4200 25.65 12.60 15.553 0.857 0.0643 0.926 1.166
4300 25.56 12.55 15.611 0.854 0.0641 0.922 1.170
4400 25.46 12.50 15.669 0.851 0.0638 0.919 1.175
4500 25.37 12.46 15.728 0.848 0.0636 0.916 1.179
4600 25.27 12.41 15.786 0.845 0.0633 0.912 1.183
4700 25.18 12.37 15.845 0.841 0.0631 0.909 1.188
4800 25.08 12.32 15.905 0.838 0.0629 0.905 1.192
4900 24.99 12.27 15.964 0.835 0.0626 0.902 1.197
5000 24.90 12.23 16.024 0.832 0.0624 0.899 1.201
5100 24.80 12.18 16.084 0.829 0.0622 0.895 1.206
5200 24.71 12.14 16.145 0.826 0.0619 0.892 1.210
5300 24.62 12.09 16.205 0.823 0.0617 0.889 1.215
5400 24.53 12.05 16.266 0.820 0.0615 0.885 1.219
5500 24.43 12.00 16.327 0.817 0.0612 0.882 1.224
5600 24.34 11.96 16.389 0.814 0.0610 0.879 1.229
5700 24.25 11.91 16.450 0.811 0.0608 0.875 1.233
5800 24.16 11.87 16.512 0.807 0.0606 0.872 1.238
37
Barometer Relative
density, static
5900 24.07 11.82 16.575 0.804 0.0603 0.869 1.242
6000 23.98 11.78 16.637 0.801 0.0601 0.866 1.247
6100 23.89 11.73 16.700 0.798 0.0599 0.862 1.252
6200 23.80 11.69 16.763 0.795 0.0597 0.859 1.257
6300 23.71 11.64 16.827 0.792 0.0594 0.856 1.261
6400 23.62 11.60 16.890 0.789 0.0592 0.853 1.266
6500 23.53 11.56 16.954 0.786 0.0590 0.849 1.271
6600 23.44 11.51 17.019 0.783 0.0588 0.846 1.276
6700 23.35 11.47 17.083 0.780 0.0585 0.843 1.281
6800 23.26 11.43 17.148 0.778 0.0583 0.840 1.285
6900 23.18 11.38 17.213 0.775 0.0581 0.837 1.290
7000 23.09 11.34 17.279 0.772 0.0579 0.833 1.295
7100 23.00 11.30 17.344 0.769 0.0577 0.830 1.300
7200 22.91 11.25 17.410 0.766 0.0574 0.827 1.305
7300 22.83 11.21 17.477 0.763 0.0572 0.824 1.310
7400 22.74 11.17 17.543 0.760 0.0570 0.821 1.315
7500 22.65 11.13 17.610 0.757 0.0568 0.818 1.320
7600 22.57 11.08 17.678 0.754 0.0566 0.815 1.325
7700 22.48 11.04 17.745 0.751 0.0564 0.811 1.330
7800 22.40 11.00 17.813 0.749 0.0561 0.808 1.335
7900 22.31 10.96 17.881 0.746 0.0559 0.805 1.340
8000 22.23 10.92 17.950 0.743 0.0557 0.802 1.346
8100 22.14 10.87 18.019 0.740 0.0555 0.799 1.351
8200 22.06 10.83 18.088 0.737 0.0553 0.796 1.356
8300 21.97 10.79 18.157 0.734 0.0551 0.793 1.361
8400 21.89 10.75 18.227 0.732 0.0549 0.790 1.366
8500 21.80 10.71 18.297 0.729 0.0547 0.787 1.372
8600 21.72 10.67 18.367 0.726 0.0544 0.784 1.377
8700 21.64 10.63 18.438 0.723 0.0542 0.781 1.382
38
Barometer Relative
density, static
8800 21.55 10.59 18.509 0.720 0.0540 0.778 1.387
8900 21.47 10.55 18.580 0.718 0.0538 0.775 1.393
9000 21.39 10.50 18.652 0.715 0.0536 0.772 1.398
9100 21.31 10.46 18.724 0.712 0.0534 0.769 1.404
9200 21.22 10.42 18.796 0.709 0.0532 0.766 1.409
9300 21.14 10.38 18.869 0.707 0.0530 0.763 1.414
9400 21.06 10.34 18.942 0.704 0.0528 0.760 1.420
9500 20.98 10.30 19.015 0.701 0.0526 0.757 1.425
9600 20.90 10.26 19.089 0.698 0.0524 0.754 1.431
9700 20.82 10.22 19.163 0.696 0.0522 0.751 1.437
9800 20.74 10.19 19.237 0.693 0.0520 0.749 1.442
9900 20.66 10.15 19.312 0.690 0.0518 0.746 1.448
10,000 20.58 10.11 19.387 0.688 0.0516 0.743 1.453
10,100 20.50 10.07 19.463 0.685 0.0514 0.740 1.459
10,200 20.42 10.03 19.538 0.682 0.0512 0.737 1.465
10,300 20.34 9.99 19.615 0.680 0.0510 0.734 1.470
10,400 20.26 9.95 19.691 0.677 0.0508 0.731 1.476
10,500 20.18 9.91 19.768 0.674 0.0506 0.728 1.482
10,600 20.10 9.87 19.845 0.672 0.0504 0.726 1.488
10,700 20.02 9.84 19.922 0.669 0.0502 0.723 1.493
10,800 19.95 9.80 20.000 0.667 0.0500 0.720 1.499
10,900 19.87 9.76 20.079 0.664 0.0498 0.717 1.505
11,000 19.79 9.72 20.157 0.661 0.0496 0.714 1.511
11,100 19.71 9.68 20.236 0.659 0.0494 0.712 1.517
11,200 19.64 9.64 20.316 0.656 0.0492 0.709 1.523
11,300 19.56 9.61 20.395 0.654 0.0490 0.706 1.529
11,400 19.48 9.57 20.475 0.651 0.0488 0.703 1.535
11,500 19.41 9.53 20.556 0.649 0.0486 0.701 1.541
11,600 19.33 9.49 20.637 0.646 0.0485 0.698 1.547
39
Barometer Relative
density, static
11,700 19.26 9.46 20.718 0.644 0.0483 0.695 1.553
11,800 19.18 9.42 20.800 0.641 0.0481 0.692 1.559
11,900 19.10 9.38 20.882 0.639 0.0479 0.690 1.565
12,000 19.03 9.35 20.964 0.636 0.0477 0.687 1.572
12,100 18.95 9.31 21.047 0.634 0.0475 0.684 1.578
12,200 18.88 9.27 21.130 0.631 0.0473 0.682 1.584
12,300 18.81 9.24 21.213 0.629 0.0471 0.679 1.590
12,400 18.73 9.20 21.297 0.626 0.0470 0.676 1.596
12,500 18.66 9.16 21.382 0.624 0.0468 0.673 1.603
12,600 18.58 9.13 21.466 0.621 0.0466 0.671 1.609
12,700 18.51 9.09 21.551 0.619 0.0464 0.668 1.616
12,800 18.44 9.06 21.637 0.616 0.0462 0.666 1.622
12,900 18.36 9.02 21.723 0.614 0.0460 0.663 1.628
13,000 18.29 8.98 21.809 0.611 0.0459 0.660 1.635
13,100 18.22 8.95 21.896 0.609 0.0457 0.658 1.641
13,200 18.15 8.91 21.983 0.607 0.0455 0.655 1.648
13,300 18.08 8.88 22.071 0.604 0.0453 0.652 1.654
13,400 18.00 8.84 22.159 0.602 0.0451 0.650 1.661
13,500 17.93 8.81 22.247 0.599 0.0449 0.647 1.668
13,600 17.86 8.77 22.336 0.597 0.0448 0.645 1.674
13,700 17.79 8.74 22.425 0.595 0.0446 0.642 1.681
13,800 17.72 8.70 22.515 0.592 0.0444 0.640 1.688
13,900 17.65 8.67 22.605 0.590 0.0442 0.637 1.695
14,000 17.58 8.63 22.696 0.587 0.0441 0.634 1.701
14,100 17.51 8.60 22.787 0.585 0.0439 0.632 1.708
14,200 17.44 8.56 22.878 0.583 0.0437 0.629 1.715
14,300 17.37 8.53 22.970 0.580 0.0435 0.627 1.722
14,400 17.30 8.50 23.062 0.578 0.0434 0.624 1.729
14,500 17.23 8.46 23.155 0.576 0.0432 0.622 1.736
40
Barometer Relative
density, static
14,600 17.16 8.43 23.248 0.574 0.0430 0.619 1.743
14,700 17.09 8.39 23.341 0.571 0.0428 0.617 1.750
14,800 17.02 8.36 23.436 0.569 0.0427 0.614 1.757
14,900 16.95 8.33 23.530 0.567 0.0425 0.612 1.764
15,000 16.89 8.29 23.625 0.564 0.0423 0.610 1.771

Notes:
Altitude Feet above sea level (s.l.)
2 2
Barometer 29.92 in. Hg or 14.7 lbs/in = 1 atmosphere at s.l. @ 70ºF i.e. : 1 in. Hg = 0.491 lbs/in
5.2559
Formula: in. Hg @ given alt. = 29.921(1-(0.00000688)(alt.))
3
Specific Volume Standard Air @ s.l. @ 70 ºF has Specific Volume = 13.34 ft /lb.
Formula for how Specific Volume varies with change in alt.:
Specific Volume @ given alt. = 13.34 x (Relative Density @ s.l. ÷ Relative Density @ given alt.)
3
Relative Density Ratio of the Density of Air @ given alt. @ 70 ºF to the Density of Air @ s.l. @ 70 ºF (= 0.075 lbs/ft )
Static Pressure Correction Factor Static Pressure varies as the density (or specific volume) changes
For constant cfm and rpm:
P2/P1 = V1/V2 , where:
P1 = Static Pressure @ given alt.
P2 = Static Pressure @ s.l.
V1 = Specific Volume @ given alt.
V2 = Specific Volume @ s.l.
Example: Determine Static Pressure used for sizing fan (at s.l.) if calculated
Static Pressure requirement is 0.82 at 1800 ft
P2 = 0.82 in. w.g. x 14.235/13.34 = 0.875 in. w.g. @ s.l.
Horsepower Correction Factor Brake Horsepower varies as Relative Density @ constant cfm and rpm
Hp2/Hp1 = V1/V2, where:
Hp1 = Brake Hp @ given alt.
Hp2 = Brake Hp @ s.l.
V1 = Specific Volume @ given Alt.
V2 = Specific Volume @ s.l.
Similarly, Hp1 = Hp2 x Relative Density @ given alt.
Air Density Reciprocal of Specific Volume
Formula: Air Density @ given alt. = Relative Density @ given alt. x Air Density @ s.l. (0.075)
CFM Transmission Factor Heat capacity of air.
Formula: CFM Trans. Factor = Air Density @ given alt. @ 70 ºF x 60 minutes x 0.24
(specific heat of air)
CFM Correction Factor Obtained from Q2/Q1 = V1/V2, where:
Q2 = cfm @ s.l. and 70 ºF
Q1 = cfm @ given alt. and temperature
V2 = Specific Volume @ s.l. and 70 ºF
V1 = Specific Volume @ given alt. and temperature
This factor is used in the formula Q1 = Q2 (f1 x f2), where:
Q2 = cfm @ s.l. and 70 ºF
Q1 = cfm @ given alt. and temperature
f1 = CFM correction factor
f2 = Temperature correction factor (see Table 6b)
Fan or Blower RPM Change in RPM is inversely proportional to the square root of the Density of Air
41
Table 6b.—Temperature/Density Correction Factors

Relative Density Correction Factor = (529.67)/(T+459.67)
Relative Density Relative Density Relative Density Relative Density
Air Correction Air Correction Air Correction Air Correction
Temp °F Factor Temp °F Factor Temp °F Factor Temp °F Factor
-40 1.262 48 1.043 136 0.889 224 0.775
-38 1.256 50 1.039 138 0.886 226 0.772
-36 1.250 52 1.035 140 0.883 228 0.770
-34 1.244 54 1.031 142 0.880 230 0.768
-32 1.239 56 1.027 144 0.877 232 0.766
-30 1.233 58 1.023 146 0.875 234 0.764
-28 1.227 60 1.019 148 0.872 236 0.761
-26 1.221 62 1.015 150 0.869 238 0.759
-24 1.216 64 1.011 152 0.866 240 0.757
-22 1.210 66 1.008 154 0.863 242 0.755
-20 1.205 68 1.004 156 0.860 244 0.753
-18 1.199 70 1.000 158 0.858 246 0.751
-16 1.194 72 0.996 160 0.855 270 0.726
-14 1.188 74 0.993 162 0.852 272 0.724
-12 1.183 76 0.989 164 0.849 274 0.722
-10 1.178 78 0.985 166 0.847 276 0.720
-8 1.173 80 0.981 168 0.844 278 0.718
-6 1.168 82 0.978 170 0.841 280 0.716
-4 1.162 84 0.974 172 0.839 282 0.714
-2 1.157 86 0.971 174 0.836 284 0.712
0 1.152 88 0.967 176 0.833 286 0.710
2 1.147 90 0.964 178 0.831 288 0.708
4 1.142 92 0.960 180 0.828 290 0.707
6 1.137 94 0.957 182 0.825 292 0.705
8 1.133 96 0.953 184 0.823 294 0.703
10 1.128 98 0.950 186 0.820 296 0.701
12 1.123 100 0.946 188 0.818 298 0.699
14 1.118 102 0.943 190 0.815 300 0.697
16 1.114 104 0.940 192 0.813 302 0.695
18 1.109 106 0.936 194 0.810 304 0.694
20 1.104 108 0.933 196 0.808 306 0.692
22 1.100 110 0.930 198 0.805 308 0.690
24 1.095 112 0.927 200 0.803 310 0.688
26 1.091 114 0.923 202 0.801 312 0.686
28 1.086 116 0.920 204 0.798 314 0.685
30 1.082 118 0.917 206 0.796 316 0.683
32 1.077 120 0.914 208 0.793 318 0.681
34 1.073 122 0.911 210 0.791 320 0.679
36 1.069 124 0.907 212 0.789 322 0.678
38 1.064 126 0.904 214 0.786 324 0.676
40 1.060 128 0.901 216 0.784 326 0.674
42 1.056 130 0.898 218 0.782 328 0.672
44 1.052 132 0.895 220 0.779 330 0.671
46 1.047 134 0.892 222 0.777 332 0.669
42
Table 6b.—Temperature/Density Correction Factors—continued

334 0.667 428 0.597 522 0.540 616 0.492
336 0.666 430 0.595 524 0.538 618 0.491
338 0.664 432 0.594 526 0.537 620 0.491
340 0.662 434 0.593 528 0.536 622 0.490
342 0.661 436 0.591 530 0.535 624 0.489
344 0.659 438 0.590 532 0.534 626 0.488
346 0.657 440 0.589 534 0.533 628 0.487
348 0.656 442 0.587 536 0.532 630 0.486
350 0.654 444 0.586 538 0.531 632 0.485
352 0.653 446 0.585 540 0.530 634 0.484
354 0.651 448 0.584 542 0.529 636 0.483
356 0.649 450 0.582 544 0.528 638 0.483
358 0.648 452 0.581 546 0.527 640 0.482
360 0.646 454 0.580 548 0.526 642 0.481
362 0.645 456 0.578 550 0.525 644 0.480
364 0.643 458 0.577 552 0.524 646 0.479
366 0.642 460 0.576 554 0.523 648 0.478
368 0.640 462 0.575 556 0.521 650 0.477
370 0.638 464 0.573 558 0.520 652 0.476
372 0.637 466 0.572 560 0.519 654 0.476
374 0.635 468 0.571 562 0.518 656 0.475
376 0.634 470 0.570 564 0.517 658 0.474
378 0.632 472 0.569 566 0.516 660 0.473
380 0.631 474 0.567 568 0.515 662 0.472
382 0.629 476 0.566 570 0.514 664 0.471
384 0.628 478 0.565 572 0.513 666 0.471
386 0.626 480 0.564 574 0.512 668 0.470
388 0.625 482 0.562 576 0.511 670 0.469
390 0.623 484 0.561 578 0.510 672 0.468
392 0.622 486 0.560 580 0.509 674 0.467
394 0.620 488 0.559 582 0.508 676 0.466
396 0.619 490 0.558 584 0.508 678 0.466
398 0.618 492 0.557 586 0.507 680 0.465
400 0.616 494 0.555 588 0.506 682 0.464
402 0.615 496 0.554 590 0.505 684 0.463
404 0.613 498 0.553 592 0.504 686 0.462
406 0.612 500 0.552 594 0.503 688 0.462
408 0.610 502 0.551 596 0.502 690 0.461
410 0.609 504 0.550 598 0.501 692 0.460
412 0.608 506 0.549 600 0.500 694 0.459
414 0.606 508 0.547 602 0.499 696 0.458
416 0.605 510 0.546 604 0.498 698 0.458
418 0.603 512 0.545 606 0.497 700 0.457
420 0.602 514 0.544 608 0.496 702 0.456
422 0.601 516 0.543 610 0.495 704 0.455
424 0.599 518 0.542 612 0.494 706 0.454
426 0.598 520 0.541 614 0.493 708 0.454
43
Table 6b.—Temperature/Density Correction Factors—continued

710 0.453 804 0.419 898 0.390 992 0.365
712 0.452 806 0.418 900 0.390 994 0.364
714 0.451 808 0.418 902 0.389 996 0.364
716 0.451 810 0.417 904 0.388 998 0.363
718 0.450 812 0.417 906 0.388 1000 0.363
720 0.449 814 0.416 908 0.387 – –
722 0.448 816 0.415 910 0.387 – –
724 0.447 818 0.415 912 0.386 – –
726 0.447 820 0.414 914 0.386 – –
728 0.446 822 0.413 916 0.385 – –
730 0.445 824 0.413 918 0.384 – –
732 0.444 826 0.412 920 0.384 – –
734 0.444 828 0.411 922 0.383 – –
736 0.443 830 0.411 924 0.383 – –
738 0.442 832 0.410 926 0.382 – –
740 0.442 834 0.409 928 0.382 – –
742 0.441 836 0.409 930 0.381 – –
744 0.440 838 0.408 932 0.381 – –
746 0.439 840 0.408 934 0.380 – –
748 0.439 842 0.407 936 0.380 – –
750 0.438 844 0.406 938 0.379 – –
752 0.437 846 0.406 940 0.378 – –
754 0.436 848 0.405 942 0.378 – –
756 0.436 850 0.404 944 0.377 – –
758 0.435 852 0.404 946 0.377 – –
760 0.434 854 0.403 948 0.376 – –
762 0.434 856 0.403 950 0.376 – –
764 0.433 858 0.402 952 0.375 – –
766 0.432 860 0.401 954 0.375 – –
768 0.431 862 0.401 956 0.374 – –
770 0.431 864 0.400 958 0.374 – –
772 0.430 866 0.400 960 0.373 – –
774 0.429 868 0.399 962 0.373 – –
776 0.429 870 0.398 964 0.372 – –
778 0.428 872 0.398 966 0.372 – –
780 0.427 874 0.397 968 0.371 – –
782 0.427 876 0.397 970 0.370 – –
784 0.426 878 0.396 972 0.370 – –
786 0.425 880 0.395 974 0.369 – –
788 0.425 882 0.395 976 0.369 – –
790 0.424 884 0.394 978 0.368 – –
792 0.423 886 0.394 980 0.368 – –
794 0.422 888 0.393 982 0.367 – –
796 0.422 890 0.392 984 0.367 – –
798 0.421 892 0.392 986 0.366 – –
800 0.420 894 0.391 988 0.366 – –
802 0.420 896 0.391 990 0.365 – –
44
Figure 5.—System effect curves for outlet ducts—centrifugal fans.
45
Figure 6.—System effect curves for outlet ducts—axial fans.
46
Figure 7.—System effect curves for outlet elbows on centrifugal fans.
47
Figure 8.—System effect curves for various mitered elbows without turning vanes.
48
Figure 9.—System effect curves for outlet ducts—axial fans.
49
Figure 10.—Non-uniform inlet flows.
50
Figure 11.—Non-uniform inlet corrections.
51
Figure 12.—System effect curves for inlet obstructions.
52
Figure 13.—System effect factors.
53
Figure 14.—System effect curves.
54
c. Fan Application and Selection Criteria.—Fans are frequently

selected based on airflow requirement, cost, efficient operation,
low noise, speed, and low, medium or high pressure. However,
other considerations are equally important including: chemical
resistance to corrosive gases, vapors, or fumes; ferrous and
nonferrous construction for use in potentially explosive
applications; space limitations, drive arrangement, rotation,
discharge configuration, and motor position should all be
considered. These factors should not be disregarded when
selecting a fan. The following recommendations are offered:
(1) Continuous operation.—Continuously operating fans

(battery room, oil room, paint rooms, plant sumps, air
transfer, circulating, superstructure roof or wall exhausters,
and main air handling units) should be selected for high
efficiency.
(2) Intermittent operation.—Intermittently operating fans

(toilets, welding exhaust systems, engine exhaust systems,
tunnels, vaults, gate chambers and other confined spaces)
should be selected for economic cost.
(3) Occupied spaces.—Fans operating in occupied spaces

(offices, control rooms) should be selected for the lowest
acceptable noise criteria consistent with the application.
(4) Explosive areas.—Fans used in potentially explosive

environments (battery rooms, solvent fume exhaust hoods,
propane fired engine generator rooms, tunnels with methane
gas) should be nonferrous construction. Explosion proof
construction in accordance with National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) 70 may also be required. Air
Movement and Control Association (AMCA) provides three
non-sparking construction classifications. All classes must:
have the bearings out of the airstream; be grounded; and
have non-sparking belts. The classifications are as follows:
(a) AMCA A – Requires all components in the airstream

be made of nonferrous materials. Steel shafts are
allowed. This the most expensive class.
(b) AMCA B – Requires all components in the airstream

be made of nonferrous materials. Housing can be steel.
55
(c) AMCA C – Nonferrous wearing ring is required on

the inlet cone so that, if the impeller shifts, it will
rub a nonferrous material. This is the least
expensive class.
(5) Performance ratings
(a) Curve ratings.—When possible, select fans based

on the manufacturer s performance curve. By
superimposing the system curve on the fan
performance curve, the expected operating point
can be clearly seen. The performance curves will
also show areas where potential unstable operation
may occur, i.e. areas where the performance curve
breaks or dips. These areas should be avoided. If the
system curve results in fan operation to the right of
peak efficiency, the fan will be undersized but will
tend to operate in a more stable region. If the system
curve results in fan operation to the left of peak
efficiency, the fan will be oversized and may operate
in a less stable region. Fans should be selected to
operate slightly to the right of maximum efficiency.
(b) Table ratings.—When using table ratings, select fans

from the middle range of the cfm rating. Fans in this
range will tend to be more efficient and have some
additional capacity to accommodate miscalculation of
pressure losses. Fans selected near the top of the
table may be too small and those near the bottom of
the table may be larger than necessary.
(6) Drive type
(a) Direct drive.—Direct drive fans are more reliable

than belt-drive because there is no belt to break.
When the fan operating conditions are expected to
remain constant, and size permits, direct drive fans
are preferred for remote and unmanned applications.
Direct drives are also preferred when the fan is
located in an area where maintenance will be
difficult.
(b) Belt drive.—Belt-drive fans offer greater

flexibility than direct drive fans because the
airflow characteristics can be varied by changing
the operating speed. The following should be
considered with regard to belt drives:
56
(i) Drives should be installed with adequate

provisions for center distance adjustment to
accommodate belt stretch.
(ii) Centers should not exceed 2-1/2 to 3 times the

sum of the sheave diameters nor be less than the
diameter of the larger sheave.
(iii) The angle of wrap (arc) created by belt contact

on the smaller sheave should not be less than
120 degrees.
(iv) Sheave ratios should not exceed 8:1.
(v) The belt speed should not exceed 5,000 ft/min,

nor be less than 1,000 ft/min. A speed of
4,000 ft/min is considered best practice.
(vi) Sheaves should be dynamically balanced for rim

speeds in excess of 5,000 ft/min.
(vii) A service factor of 1.2 is normal for belts

operating between 16 to 24 hours per day.
However, Reclamation specifications require
belts with a service factor of 1.6.
d. Changing Fan Performance.—Occasionally fan airflow

must be increased or decreased to accommodate changes in
space loads or use. With Old and New airflows known,
the fan laws are used to calculate the speed, pressure and
power requirements for the new operating point. The fan
laws stated simply are: [1] Volume varies directly with the
speed; [2] Pressure varies with the square of the speed;
[3] Horsepower varies as the cube of the speed and directly
as the density. Performance changes normally require an
increase or decrease in the fan operating speed or the motor.
(1) Increasing air flow.—An increase in speed may also

increase the pressure class of the fan and duct system. Refer
to the fan performance curve or consult fan manufacturer to
verify the new operating point is within the fan pressure class.
Refer to SMACNA Duct Construction Standards to verify the
duct pressure class has not changed. Common pressure
classes for standard duct system design are: , 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
57
and 10 inches. These classifications apply duct under

positive or negative pressures. Failure to operate the fan
and duct system within their pressure class may result in
premature failure of this equipment. In general,
manufacturers’ performance data for fans does not include
belt drive losses. These losses can be estimated from
figure 15 and added to the fan brake horsepower
requirements shown on the manufacturer’s tables to
determine the actual motor horsepower required.
(2) Reducing airflow.—Reducing airflow can have adverse

consequences. Reducing airflow is usually accomplished
by changing drives; installing smaller motors and changing
drives; installing inlet vane dampers. Before airflows are
reduced, the following should be considered:
(a) Effect on heat transfer through heating and cooling

coil.—Airflow must not be reduced below the
minimum required to maintain adequate velocities
through electric heating coils.
(b) Effect on supply air outlets.—Low airflow may result

in poor air distribution causing stagnant conditions in
the space.
(c) Effect on outside air and return air.—Outdoor air

must be greater than exhaust air by 1 to 5 percent to
maintain slightly positive pressure in the building.
(d) Effect on ventilation air.—Minimum outdoor air

mandated by code requirements must be maintained
at all times.
(e) Effect on humidity control.—Reduced airflow may

result in increased humidity levels since there is less
air available to pick up moisture.
(f) Effect on fan performance.—Airflow reduction may

shift the fan operating point to the unstable region
causing surging.
(g) Effect on pressure controls.
58
Figure 15.—Estimated belt drive loss.
59
(3) Example.—The airflow of a fan operating at 9000 cfm and

1-in. w.g. static pressure must be increased to 10,500 cfm.
The fan operates at 1500 rpm and requires 5 brake
horsepower at the rated conditions. Determine the new
operating speed, pressure, and power requirements.
(a) Speed, N (rpm):
N2 = N1(Q2/Q1) = 1,500(10,500/9,500) = 1,658 rpm
(b) Static pressure, P (inch w.g.):
P2 = P1(N2/N1) = 1.0(1,658/1,500)2 = 1.22 inch w.g.
Note: If the duct system was designed for a 1-inch

pressure class, the new fan pressure will exceed the
design pressure class. Those portions of the duct
where the static pressure will exceeded the pressure
class should be reinforced or replaced. Failure to
account for the excess pressure will result in excess
air leakage and noise.
(c) Brake horsepower: When possible, the motor actual

load amps and voltage should be measured and actual
brake horsepower, BHpa, calculated using the following
equation:
BHpa = Hp (Aa /Ar)(Va /Vr)
Where: Hp = Motor horsepower

Aa = Actual motor load amps
Ar = Rated motor load amps
Va = Actual motor volts
Vr = Rated motor volts
For this example, assume that the actual brake

horsepower = 5. Once the actual brake horsepower is
determined, the new brake horsepower is estimated as
follows:
BHp2 = BHp1 (N2/N1)3 = 5.0 (1658/1500)3 = 6.75 Hp
60
(d) Pulley diameter: to determine pulley diameters to

drive the fan, use:
Df = Dm(Nm/Nf)
Where: Df = Diameter of fan sheave – inches

Dm = Diameter of motor sheave – inches
Nm = Speed of motor – rpm
Nf = Speed of fan – rpm
(e) Belt length: to determine pulley belt length, use:
Lb = 2C + 1.57(Df + Dm) + [(Df – Dm)2/4C]
Where: Lb = Length of belt – inches

C = Center-to-center distance between
motor and fan sheave – inches
Df = Diameter of fan sheave – inches
Dm = Diameter of motor sheave – inches
(f) Belt speed: belt speed can be calculated by:
Sb = dN/12
Where: Sb = belt speed – ft/min

d = pitch diameter of pulley – inches
N = rotating speed of pulley – rpm
(g) Angle of wrap:
1 = 180 – 2 sin-1[(R-r)/C]
2 = 180 + 2 sin-1[(R-r)/C]
Where: 1 = angle of wrap for the small pulley -

degrees
2 = angle of wrap for the large pulley –
degrees
R = radius of large pulley – inches
r = radius of small pulley – inches
C = center-to-center distance of pulleys -
inches.
61
(h) Drive losses: Drive losses are usually 3 to 5 percent of

the power to the motor and can be estimated from
Figure 15. Loss must be added to the fan brake
horsepower to determine the actual motor horsepower
required.
10. Air Filtration.—Air supplied to the plant must be filtered to remove

dust and other particulates that may adversely affect the health of
personnel and damage equipment. Various types of filters are available
for removing particulates. Figure 16 identifies the range of particle
sizes. Table 7 compares air filter characteristics. The most commonly
used filters for Reclamation work are: panel, extended surface,
renewable media, and electronic. Each type of air filter has an initial
(clean) and final (dirty) resistance and a recommended operating airflow
speed. For pressure loss calculations, the design resistance for filters
should be midway between the initial and final resistance. Carbon filter
units have been used for ozone removal.
a. Particulate Filters.—The following are the most frequently

used filters in Reclamation applications:
(1) Disposable filters.—Disposable filters are available in panel

or extended surface types. Panel filters have the lowest
efficiency and their use should be limited. When possible, use
medium efficiency extended surface filters. A differential
pressure gauge and indicating light should be provided to
warn maintenance personnel that the filters need servicing.
(2) Renewable media.—Where plants rely on large modular or

built-up AHU or AC systems, plants are remote, or
maintenance personnel are not located at or near the plant,
renewable media (roll) filters should be considered. These
units automatically advance the filter media in response to
increased dirt loading. Advancement can be controlled by
a photocell light circuit or a differential pressure switch.
The photocell control measures the degree of obscurity
through the media and advances the media accordingly.
The Reclamation has experienced problems with the
photocell controllers. Photocell controllers are prone to
false indications such as localized and unusually heavy dirt
deposit that obscure the light and advance the media
prematurely when the remainder of the filter surface is in
satisfactory condition. Consequently, Reclamation design
62
Figure 16.—Range of particle size.
63
Table 7.—Comparison of some important filter characteristics*

Resistance Face
in. w.g.1,2 ASHRAE performance4 velocity Maintenance5
Type Initial Final Arrestance Efficiency fpm Labor Material
Low/medium efficiency
1. Glass throwaway
(2-inches deep) 0.1 0.5 77% NA6 300 High High
2. High Velocity
(permanent units)
(2-inches deep) 0.1 0.5 73% NA6 500 High Low
6
3. Automatic (viscous) 0.4 0.4 80% NA 500 Low Low
Medium/high efficiency
1. Extended Syrface (dry) 0.15- 0.5- 90-99% 25-95% 300-625 Medium Medium
2. Electrostatic: 0.60 1.25
a. Dry Agglomerator/
Roll Media 0.35 0.35 NA7 90% 500 Medium Low
b. Dry Agglomerator/
Extended Surface 0.55 1.25 NA7 95% 530 Medium Medium
c. Automatic Wash
Type 0.25 0.25 NA7 85-95% 400-600 Low Low
Ultra high efficiency
1. HEPA 0.5-1.0 1.0-3.0 Note3 Note3 250-500 High High
Note 1: Pressure drop values shown constitute a range or average, whichever is applicable
Note 2: Final pressure drop indicates point at which filter or filter media is removed and the media is either cleaned or replaced.
All others are cleaned in place, automatically, manually, or media renewed automatically. Therefore, pressure drop remains
constant.
Note 3: 95-99.7% by particle count, DOP Test
Note 4: ASHRAE Standard 52-76 defines (a) A resistance as a measure of the ability to remove injected synthetic dust,
calculated as a percentage on a weight basis and (b) Efficiency as a measure of the ability to remove atmospheric duct
determined on a light-transmission (dust-spot) basis.
Note 5: Compared to other types within efficiency category.
Note 6: Too low to be meaningful.
Note 7: Too high to be meaningful.
Air filters should be used only for supply air systems or other applications where dust loading does not exceed 1 grain per 1000
cubic feet of air. ACGIH, Industrial Ventilation – A Manual of Recommended Practice, 1992
64
typically use a differential pressure gage for visual

indication of filter condition and a differential pressure
switch to advance the media when the pressure loss rises to
a predetermined setting recommended by the manufacturer.
The controls for the filter should also include an indicating
light to warn personnel when the media has fully advanced
to the end of the roll and needs servicing.
(3) Electronic.—Roll filters are not very efficient, therefore,

they are frequently combined with electronic filters where
maximum particulate removal is desired. In most cases a
pre-filter is used to arrest large particulates and a
downstream filter is provided to filter agglomerates that
occasionally flake off the electronic filter.
(4) Washable.—Integral filters furnished with roof or wall

mounted outdoor air supply fans should be the permanent,
washable, 2-inch thick, aluminum mesh type.
b. Carbon (Ozone) Filters.—Reclamation generator designs allow

a minimal amount of ozone generation that is within acceptable
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits.
However, several Reclamation plants have experienced
excessive ozone generation due to corona discharge from
damage to the windings. When designing a carbon filter
installation the following should be given careful consideration:
(1) Exposure limits.—Prolonged exposure to ozone may be

hazardous to personnel depending on the concentration and
the length of time personnel are exposed. The permissible
ozone concentration within a facility is regulated by
OSHA. In addition to health hazards, ozone can cause
corrosion of metals and deterioration of rubber seals.
(2) Monitoring.—Once detected, ozone must be continuously

monitored to ensure that acceptable levels are maintained.
When the concentration rises to the maximum acceptable
OSHA limit, steps must be taken to reduce the levels or to
prevent further increase. Expense and downtime usually
preclude immediate repairs for ozone problems. Until
repairs can be made, carbon filter units should be installed
to absorb the ozone. However, it is important to note that
the size carbon filter units can not be determined by
measuring ozone level in the housing and in the generator
65
room while the unit is operating. No general guidance can

be provided to estimate the airflow requirements or the
amount of carbon required.
(3) Testing and sizing.—The carbon filter size depends on the

ozone generation rate, rate of decay, and background levels.
These values must be determined through controlled testing
and analysis. Reclamation Engineering Monograph No. 44 –
Ozone Abatement in Air-Cooled Hydroelectric Generators,
outlines the methods and procedures required to size carbon
filter units for ozone control. Testing requires coordination
with plant personnel since unit downtime will be required at
various times throughout the tests. If the generating units
can not be taken off-line for testing, the only alternative for
controlling an ozone problem is through trial and error.
Since this relies strictly on guesswork, the carbon filter unit
may or may not control the problem. Furthermore, some
downtime will still be required for cutting duct openings in
the generator housing and connecting ductwork. If the
problem is not controlled, these procedures will have to be
repeated at additional expense and downtime until the
problem is controlled. Although this approach is not
recommended, it has been taken by some Reclamation
facilities. Before purchasing carbon filters, personnel should
try to borrow carbon units used at other plants such as
Montrose, Grand Coulee, and Davis.
Safety factors should be considered. If the ozone problem

persists, eventually the filter will not be capable of
controlling the concentration within acceptable limits.
Therefore, addition of a suitable safety factor (up to
25 percent) should be considered.
(4) Types of carbon filters.—Carbon filters are available in

two forms.
(a) Panel filters.—Commercially available disposable

panel air filters do not contain enough carbon to be
effective against the high ozone concentrations in the
generating rooms. However, at plants experiencing
ozone problems, these filters may be effective at the
reduced concentrations away from the generator
66
room. Panel filters should be installed in the air

handling units serving occupied areas until the ozone
problem is corrected.
(b) Bulk carbon.—Typical carbon filters required for ozone

absorption consist of an air handling unit and several
trays loaded with bulk carbon made from coconut
shells. A spare set of trays should be maintained at the
plant to reduce down time during replacement.
Eventually, the installed carbon will become saturated
and ozone levels will begin to rise. The saturated trays
should be removed and the spare set is installed. The
saturated carbon filters should returned to a supplier for
reactivation and return to the plant.
(5) Controls.—Carbon filter unit controls should be designed

to operate continuously while the generating unit is
operating. If the ozone problem is severe, the carbon filter
unit should continue operating during generator shutdown.
(6) Potential effects on CO2 system.—When carbon filter units

are installed the potential effects on the CO2 system should
also be evaluated.
(a) CO2 Containment.—A CO2 discharge may leak

through improperly installed or poorly constructed
ductwork. Flexible ductwork is prone to leakage and
should not be used. Duct construction and leakage
class should be suitable for the intended pressures of
a CO2 discharge.
(b) Dilution.—If the carbon filter unit cannot be installed

near the generating unit, then the effect of the added
volume of the ductwork should to be considered to
ensure that the required CO2 concentration is
maintained.
(c) Controls.—Once a filter is properly sized, installed,

and ozone levels are controlled, there may be
tendency to postpone repairs that are causing ozone
generation. The temporary fix may become
permanent to the degree that it may be required to
operate longer than originally anticipated. Therefore
filter controls should be designed to automatically
67
shutdown the filter on an impending CO2 discharge.

The degree of operating controls and interlocks
required for equipment protection, and use of low
leakage dampers to ensure CO2 concentration is
maintained within the housing should be considered.
11. Service Life of Equipment.—The service life effective costs of

equipment should be considered in the HVAC design. Table 8 shows
the estimated service life of various types of HVAC equipment.
Table 8.—Estimated equipment service life

Equipment Years1 Equipment Years1
Air conditioners Fans
1. window 10 1. centrifugal 25
2. through-wall 15 2. axial 20
3. packaged water-cooled 15 3. propeller 15
4. roof-mounted 20
Heat pumps Coils
1. air-to-air 15 1. DX, water, steam 20
2. water-to-air 19 2. Electric 15
Roof-top air conditioners Shell-and-tube heat exchangers
1. single-zone 15 24
2. multi-zone 15
Electric unit heater 13 Reciprocating compressors 20
Electric radiant heaters 10 Package reciprocating chillers
20
Air terminals Condensers
1. Diffuers, grilles, registers 27 1. Air-cooled condensers 20
2. Induction and fan-coil 2. Evaporative Condenser 20
units 20
3. VAV boxes 20
Air washers 17 Cooling tower (Galvanized) 20
Duct work 30 Insulation
1. molded 20
2. blanket 24
Dampers 20 Electric transformers 30
Pumps Controls
1. base-mounted 20 1. pneumatic 20
2. pipe-mounted 10 2. electric 16
3. sump and well 10 3. elctronic 15
4. condensate 15
Electric motors 18 Motor starters 17
Valve actuators
1. pneumatic 20
2. self-contained 10
1
Median Years
SMACNA: HVAC Systems Duct Design, 1990
68
C. ENCLOSED STAIRWELLS AND ELEVATOR SHAFTS.
1. Ventilation.—Enclosed stairwells and elevator shafts should be

ventilated continuously. Ventilation air is rarely accomplished
through a supply duct from the main HVAC unit. Air is usually
transferred into the stairwell from the lower levels of the plants. Air
flows up the stairwell to the highest level and exits back into the
superstructure. Air from elevator shafts should be exhausted outdoors.
a. Fan.—Plant stairwells and elevator shafts are usually ventilated

with wall mounted propeller fans located at the bottom of the
stairs. Typical airflow through an enclosed stairwell or elevator
shaft is 900 to 1,000 cfm.
b. Control.—The stairwell and elevator shaft ventilating fans

should be operated continuously. Control equipment typically
consists of a combination motor starter located near the fan. The
controls for the stairwell ventilating system should be
interlocked with the stairwell pressure fan controls to prevent
simultaneous operation of both fans. When fan installation
prevents visual verification of operation, indicating lights should
be provided on the motor starter panels to verify system
operating status. The lights should be energized through an
airflow switch.
c. Dampers.—Stairwell and elevator shaft supply fan openings and

air transfer openings must be provided with leakage class I
fire/smoke dampers. Motor-operated dampers capable of
manual-electric-thermal activation should be provided. This will
facilitate testing and enable automatic reset. A smoke detector
should be located near the stairwell or elevator to de-energize the
ventilating fan and close the dampers if smoke is detected.
2. Pressurization.— Elevator shafts are not normally provided with

pressurization systems, therefore, the following discussion pertains to
enclosed stairwells only. Stairwells should be provided with a
dedicated pressurization system that is independent of the main plant
HVAC system that is automatically de-energized when fire or smoke
is detected in the plant. The fan must be capable of pressurizing the
stairwell with 100 percent outdoor air to provide a refuge zone for
personnel and to allow safe plant evacuation. The system must be
capable of minimizing smoke penetration when a limited number of
doors are opened during evacuation.
69
a. Enclosure Integrity.—To maintain pressure, the stairwell

enclosure must be adequately sealed. On new plant designs
sealing of all openings and penetrations should be coordinated
with the design architects. On retrofit applications a thorough
inspection of the stairwell should be conducted to identify areas
that need to be sealed and to determine the most appropriate
method for sealing. NFPA 92A discusses method and procedures
for estimating leakage through stairwells.
b. Design.—Stairwell pressure system should be designed in

accordance with the requirements and procedures of NFPA 92A
and ASHRAE Design of Smoke Management Systems. A typical
design includes a fan, outdoor air louver, control damper and
operator, relief or bypass dampers, ductwork, and controls.
(1) Airflow.—Although propeller fans may be acceptable,

Reclamation designs have used centrifugal fans almost
exclusively because they are less likely to be adversely
affected by wind. Fan should be sized to provide an
airflow velocity no less than 50 ft/min through open doors
and the required pressure differential between the stairwell
and the building. On plants with occupied spaces, i.e.
offices, a minimum of three doors (door on occupied floor
plus door for the floor above and below the occupied level)
should be assumed to be open simultaneously. An airflow
of approximately 3,500 to 5,000 cfm should be sufficient in
most cases, however, actual code requirements should
always be verified.
(2) Pressure.—The fan pressure required depends on a variety

of conditions including: airflow; enclosure integrity; losses
from all system components; and air temperature both
inside and outside the stairwell. In most cases the plant air
outside the stairwell will be constant and will have little
effect on the pressure system. However in the event of a
fire, the indoor temperature outside the stairwell depends
on whether the area is protected by a sprinkler system. A
fire in a sprinkled area will not have significant effect,
however, a fire in an unsprinkled area will result in very
high temperatures affecting air buoyancy that will affect
the stairwell pressure requirements. Stack effect in the
stairwell may result due to seasonal (winter vs. summer)
temperature variations and its effects on air buoyancy.
70
Wind velocity will also produce pressure variations on

stairwells that must be considered.
(3) Fans.—Fans may be propeller or centrifugal. Propeller

fans have relatively flat performance curves resulting in
quick airflow response without significant pressure
fluctuations when doors are opened and closed. Propeller
fans are also more economical to purchase and install.
However, airflow from propeller fans may be reduced if the
fan is installed in a location subject to wind. If shielded
from the wind, propeller fans are satisfactory.
In areas where wind is a problem or adequate protection

against winds can not be assured, centrifugal fans should be
considered.
(4) Louvers and intake dampers.—Stairwell pressure systems

require high air flows but operate infrequently. Therefore,
adherence to normal air velocity criteria intended to
prevent moisture entrainment, and reduce noise and
pressure loss through intake louvers is not critical.
However, preliminary power estimates should ensure that
adequate power is available to operate the fan at the higher
pressure required to, overcome friction through smaller
louvers. The fresh air intake control damper should be a
parallel blade, two position, motor-operated type. Full
opening time for motor operators should not exceed
75 seconds.
(5) Pressure relief dampers.—The stairwell pressure must be

controlled to ensure that the total maximum force required
to open egress doors (due to the door closing actuator and
the differential pressure across the door) does not exceed
the NFPA 101 Life Safety Code requirements of 30 lbs.
This requires use of relief dampers, bypass dampers,
pressure controllers or other suitable methods described in
NFPA 92A. Pressure relief may be accomplished by relief
dampers or open doorways. Relief dampers may be manual
such as a barometric or counterbalanced relief dampers or
pressure actuated motor-operated type. Because it is
relatively failsafe, the counter-balance relief damper is
preferred over the motor-operated type. Relief openings
should be located on walls away form prevailing winds.
71
Doorways exiting outside the plant are rare in Reclamation

stairwells. This method of relief may also prevent
pressurization if the exit door is blocked open. Therefore
this method of pressure relief has not been used or
recommended.
(6) Single and multiple injection.—Most of the initial

Reclamation stairwell pressure systems were retrofit
installations with a single point of air injection into the
stairwell. The injection point is typically located near the
top of the stairwell and the fan. However, better overall
pressure distribution can be maintained if air is supplied
through multiple injection points spaced at three story
intervals.
c. Operation.—The pressure fan should be off when the

ventilating system fan is operating. When fire or smoke are
detected anywhere in the plant, the stairwell ventilating system
should de-energize, the fire/smoke dampers should close, and the
pressure fan should start. The fan should continue to operate
until manually reset at the Fire Command and Control Panel. A
smoke detector should also be provided in the fresh air intake
duct to the pressure fan to prevent smoke recirculation by
automatically de-energizing the fan.
d. Controls and Indicating Lights.—The pressure fan should be

controlled through a combination motor starter. The fan must be
controlled to enable operation at the desired state in 60 seconds
or less. The starter should be interlocked with the stairwell
ventilating fan controls to prevent simultaneous operation of
both fans. Controls for the stairwell pressure system should be
located in a panel near a plant entry point designated for use by
the local Fire Marshall or other firefighting entity. An airflow
switch should be provided to positively verify airflow at an
indicating light on the stairwell pressure control panel. A system
test circuit should also be included on the control panel to enable
periodic testing of the stairwell pressure system and its interfaces
to other equipment and systems.
e. Testing.—Stairwell should be tested to verify: stairwell

integrity; proper activation by the smoke detectors and the fire
detection and alarm system; ability to maintain required pressure
differences between stairwell and plant; air flows out of the
stairwell through open doors; and door opening forces do not
72
exceed NFPA 101 Life Safety Code requirements. Testing should

be in accordance with NFPA 92A.
D. SMOKE EXHAUST.—Except for stairwell pressure fans which are energized

when fire or smoke are detected, and battery room exhaust fans where
shutdown may pose a greater hazard by allowing hydrogen to accumulate,
all HVAC systems and equipment should be designed to automatically
shutdown when fire or smoke are detected by the fire detection and alarm
system. HVAC systems should also be designed to exhaust smoke after fire
and smoke alarms are reset. Smoke exhaust requires additional planning to
properly locate equipment to allow using the HVAC system to exhaust all
areas of the plant.
1. Intake and Exhaust Openings.—Outdoor air and exhaust louvers

should be separated as much as possible to prevent smoke re-
circulation.
2. Smoke Chases.—When possible, smoke exhaust chases should be

built into the plant.
3. Smoke Transfer.—Smoke transfer between adjacent areas, for smoke

removal purposes, should be avoided.
4. Fire and Smoke Dampers.—Fire and smoke damper locations must

be coordinated with the architect or plant designer. Fire and smoke
dampers should be provided with links capable of manual, electric,
and thermal activation. Fire and smoke dampers to be used for smoke
purging, and those, which would be difficult to manually reset, should
be motor-operated to allow remote control. The damper assembly
should include red indicating lights initiated through micro switches to
provide positive proof of the dampers closed position.
5. Smoke Exhaust Panel.—The smoke exhaust panel provided should

allow use of the HVAC equipment to purge the plant of smoke. The
following should be considered when designing a smoke exhaust
panel:
a. Override HVAC Controls.—The smoke exhaust panel should

override and enable manual remote control of the plant HVAC
systems and equipment to allow smoke purging.
b. Indicating Lights.—The panel should be provided with

indicating lights to monitor the operating status of the purge fans.
73
c. Zone Purge Control.—Sequential purging will minimize smoke

transfer to unaffected areas. When possible, independent
controls should be provided to allow sequential purging of plant
areas or spaces.
d. Location.—The smoke exhaust panel should be conveniently

located near an entry door designated for use by the local fire
Marshall or other firefighting entity.
e. Keyed.—The smoke exhaust panel should be keyed to prevent

use by unauthorized personnel.
f. Test Feature.—The smoke exhaust panel should include test

circuits that will allow momentary operation of the smoke
exhaust system and verification of interfaces with the fire
detection and alarm system.
6. Coordination of HVAC and Fire Detection and Alarm System.—

Coordination of HVAC system controls and smoke exhaust panel
controls with the fire detection and alarm system is essential to ensure
proper interfaces and operation.
E. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONSIDERATIONS.—Poorly designed HVAC

systems are prone to noise and vibration. Figure 17 shows common
mistakes that increase noise and vibration. Figure 18 illustrates good
engineering practices that result in low noise and vibration. Adherence to
the following recommendations should help reduce noise and vibration:
1. Fans and Air Handling Units
a. High Efficiency.—Select the equipment for operation at the

highest efficiency consistent with the application. Verify that the
operating point is to the right of any unstable areas, i.e. areas
where the fan curve dips downward. See figure 19.
b. Low Velocity.—Maintain the lowest possible discharge velocity.
c. Isolate.—Install flexible connectors between the equipment and

ductwork. Provide vibration isolators for equipment with motors
exceeding 1 Hp. Locate between the equipment and the floor or
ceiling as appropriate. The isolators should be appropriate for
the intended application. Figures 20, 20a, 21, 21a, 22, and 23
show the various types of isolators and their applications.
74
Figure 17.—Acoustical comparison of various building core area layouts.
75
Figure 18.—Guidelines for the preliminary selection of mechanical room walls.
76
Figure 19.—Actual versus desired point of operation.
77
Figure 20.—Selection guide for vibration isolation.
78
Figure 20a.—Selection guide for vibration isolation.
79
Figure 21.—Vibration isolators.
80
Figure 21a.—Vibration isolators.
81
Figure 22.—Lined hood for propeller fan noise control.
Figure 23.—Vibration isolation suspension for propeller fans.
82
d. Clearance.—Provide adequate clearances between unducted

equipment and walls. Clearances are usually based on the fan
wheel diameter of the equipment. Provide minimum clearance
of one diameter at the inlet and 1.5 diameters at the fan outlet.
When the mechanical room serves as intake plenum for AHU
units, the clearance between the unit’s air intake and the wall
should be equal to the height of the unit.
e. Transitions.—When possible, fan/AHU discharge transition

should not exceed a total angle of 15 degrees.
f. Discharge Duct.—Provide a minimum of three duct diameters

between the fan/AHU inlet and outlet connections and any duct
fittings or duct mounted equipment. When space constraints
require installation of an elbow within 1.5 diameters of the fan
discharge, use long radius elbows without turning vanes and add
the appropriate pressure loss due to system effect as discussed
elsewhere in this manual.
g. Speed.—Select propeller fans, axial fans and vaneaxial fans for the
lowest possible speed.
2. Ductwork
a. Velocity.— Maintain duct velocities as noted in section F.5 below.
b. Elbows.— For maximum noise reduction, use long radius elbows

with full radius turning vanes. Long radius elbows without vanes
and square elbows with short vanes are satisfactory for most
applications. Square elbows without vanes should be avoided. See
figure 24.
c. Turning Vanes.—The maximum recommended length for single

turning vanes is 36-inches. When longer vanes are required, use
the double thickness type. Use turning vanes at all diverging T
connections.
d. Branch Takeoffs.—Radius or bevel branch takeoffs are preferable

to Y or straight takeoffs. See figure 25.
e. Tees.—See figure 26.
f. Offsets.—Gradual offsets (15 degree maximum) are preferable to

Z-offsets with vanes. Avoid Z-offsets without vanes. See figure 27.
83
Figure 24.—Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in elbows.
Figure 25.—Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in takeoffs.
84
Figure 26.—Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in duct tees.
Figure 27.—Guidelines for minimizing regenerated noise in transitions and offsets.
85
g. Transitions.—Provide gradual transitions with 7.5 degree side

angle on each side or 15 degree maximum angle on one side.
Avoid sudden or sharp edge expansions. See figure 27.
h. Clearance.—The clearance between ductwork and walls or

ceilings should be equal to 10 percent of the longest side of the duct
but in no case less than 6 inches.
i. Other.—Figures 28 through 30 illustrate many of the

recommendations noted above.
3. Air Terminal Devices (ATDs)
a. Noise Criteria (NC).—Select ATDs for NC 45.
b. Elbows.—Avoid elbows at ATDs. Provide three duct diameters

of straight duct upstream of the ATDs.
c. Balancing Dampers.—When balancing dampers are necessary,

install them a minimum of three duct diameters upstream of the
ATDs.
4. Sound Attenuation.—Good design practice should eliminate the need

for use of sound attenuation equipment. The following
recommendations are offered to aid in correcting existing problems
where system designs failed to adequately account for noise generated
by HVAC equipment. In some cases the noise may exit into sensitive
areas through openings in the plant walls instead of mechanical room
air intake and exhaust louvers. With the exception of acoustical
louvers, all the following have been used at Reclamation facilities.
86
Figure 28.—Guidelines for centrifugal fan installations.
87
Figure 29.—Guidelines for ducted axial flow fan installations.
88
Figure 30.—Guidelines for unducted axial flow fan installations.
a. Duct Liner.—Install internal duct liner in first 10-feet of

discharge ductwork and return duct connected to a fan, air
handling unit, or air conditioning units. One inch liner provides
good high frequency sound attenuation but has little or no effect
on the low frequencies. For better results at high and low
frequencies use 2- or 4-inch duct liner. Table 9 provides
recommended duct liner thickness based on the largest duct cross
section dimension (length or width):
89
Table 9.—Recommended duct liner
Duct dimension Liner thickness

(inches) (inches)
Up to 28 1
29 to 48 2
49 to 68 3
69 and larger 4
Schaffer, Mark E.: A Practical Guide to Noise and Vibration Control
for HVAC Systems
b. Sound Traps.—Sound traps provide the best acoustical

performance however, they can have significant pressure drops.
Figure 31 identifies recommended locations for installation of
sound traps.
c. Acoustical Louvers.—Acoustical louvers can be used when

noise may exit into sensitive areas. Designers should verify that
recommended louver free area velocities are maintained to
prevent moisture entrainment.
d. Plenum Liners.—Where space is available, plenum liners 2- to

6-inch thick provide very good sound attenuation over the
complete sound spectrum.
e. Flow Paths.—Labyrinth airflow paths with acoustical liners can

be created to attenuate sound that would escape through louvers
into surrounding sensitive areas. Figure 32 illustrates a typical
labyrinth configuration.
F. PLANT HVAC DESIGN GUIDELINES.—The following guidelines are offered

to assist designers with little or no experience in plant HVAC system
design. The material presented is only a starting point. The material is
based on the experience of previous designers and accepted industry codes
and standards. In many cases, especially minimum ventilation requirements,
the material presented is subject to change due to periodic revisions of codes
and standards. The information or materials presented in these guidelines
are not intended to circumvent the requirements of applicable codes or
standards. The HVAC system designer is ultimately responsible for
90
Figure 31.—Guidelines for sound trap placement near fans and duct fittings.
91
Figure 32.—Labyrinth air path used for sound attenuation.
verifying compliance with the requirements of the latest codes and

standards. Where codes and standards differ from these guidelines, the
more stringent requirement should be applied in the design.
1. Human Comfort Health and Safety Applications.—When human

comfort, health, and safety are the primary concern, the HVAC system
must control air temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and air
distribution to maintain an acceptable environment for personnel. The
following conditions should be maintained for the level of activity
noted.
a. Low Activity and Sedentary Work
(1) Temperature above 68 ºF and below 78 ºF.
(2) Humidity above 30 percent and below 70 percent relative

humidity.
(3) Cleanliness above 85 percent.
(4) Air motion above 50 ft/min and below 75 ft/min.
(5) Provide minimum outdoor air ventilation of 15 cfm per

person in non smoking areas and 60 cfm per person in
smoking areas.
92
b. High Activity or Maintenance Work
(1) Temperature above 45 ºF and below 85 ºF.
(2) Humidity above 20 percent and below 80 percent relative

humidity.
(4) Air motion above 100 ft/min and below 300 ft/min.

person or as required to control contaminants in the space,
whichever is higher.
2. Equipment Protection Applications.—When equipment protection is

the major objective, the air temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and air
distribution must be controlled to protect equipment from freezing,
corrosion, and high temperatures.
a. Standing Water or Water Pipes.—Where equipment contains

standing water, or water in small pipes, the ambient temperature
should be maintained above 45 ºF.
b. Oil and Chemical Storage.—In areas where equipment contains

chlorine, oils, and solvents, the ambient temperature should be
maintained above 60 ºF and provide minimum ventilation.
c. Motor Rooms.—In areas containing motors maintain space

temperature below 104 ºF.
d. Computer Rooms
(1) Temperature between 72 ºF and 78 ºF.
(2) Humidity between 45 percent and 55 percent relative

humidity.

person.
93
e. Control Rooms
(1) Temperature between 68 ºF and 80 ºF.
(2) Humidity between 40 percent and 80 percent relative

humidity.

person.
3. Mechanical Equipment Rooms
a. Location.—Mechanical equipment rooms should be located

away from areas intended for human occupancy such as offices,
control rooms, lunch rooms, and computer rooms. Locate to
allow reasonable access to outside air and exhaust air louvers.
b. Floor Space.—Allow a minimum of 10 to 15 ft2 of floor space

per 1000 cfm of airflow from fans or air handling units. Allow a
minimum of 12 to 15 ft of ceiling height.
c. Equipment Clearances.
(1) Allow a minimum of 3 feet of clearance between the

equipment and walls. Increase space according to
equipment manufacturer’s recommendations.
(2) Allow a minimum of 4 feet of clearance in front of electric

power and control panel doors. In retrofits, minimum
clearances listed in NEMA codes must be provided.
4. Louvers
a. Style.—Most Reclamation plant designs specify louvers with

4-inch frame depth, 4-inch blade spacing, and 45º blade angle,
and 45 percent free area. However, the louver free areas may
vary considerably depending on the size, blade spacing, blade
angle, and dimensional orientation. Louvers with dimensions
yielding gross areas less than 4 ft2 will generally have free areas
of 35 to 37 percent. For any given dimensions, a taller louver
will usually have a larger free area than a wider louver. If higher
94
free areas are required, louvers with wider blade spacing, i.e.
6-inch or smaller, blade angle of 30º can be used.
b. Area and Velocity
(1) Outdoor air gross area velocity.—To estimate wall

openings required, stationary louver should be sized for a
maximum airflow velocity of 400 ft/min.
(2) Outdoor air free area.—To prevent moisture entrainment,

reduce noise, and minimize pressure loss, the free area
velocity should not exceed 800 to 1100 ft/min and a
maximum pressure drop of 0.15-in. w.g.
(3) Exhaust air.—Size stationary louvers should be sized for a

maximum free area velocity of 500 to 600 ft/min and a
maximum pressure drop of 0.25-in. w.g.
c. Location.—Locate louvers a minimum of 2 feet above ground

level to reduce clogging by debris.
d. Construction
(1) Frames and blades.—When louvers are to be installed near

ground level or where they may be subject to vandalism,
use 16 gage steel construction. Louvers located high
enough from the ground, and not subject to vandalism may
be aluminum.
(2) Screen.—Provide galvanized or stainless steel insect or bird

screens on all louvers. Screen may be specified as a single
number, i.e. mesh, or two numbers, such as 2 x 2 mesh.
The single number ( ) format corresponds to the center-to-
center distance in inches between the wires. The two digit
(2 x 2) format corresponds to the number of openings per
inch of screen. Locate insect screens on the outside face of
the louver to prevent insect and bird nests. Where bird
screens are deemed more desirable than insect screens; use
2 x 2 x 0.063 diameter wire screens. This screen has a free
area of approximately 76 percent. The pressure loss due to
the reduced free area of the screen is not included in the
louver static pressure and must be added to the system
losses.
95
5. Air Flow Velocities
a. Air System Supply
(1) Main ducts.—up to 3000 ft/min not to exceed a friction

loss of 0.25 inch w.g. per 100 feet. Normally the duct size
is based on 0.1 inch w.g. per 100 feet of duct.
(2) Branch ducts.—up to 2100 ft/min not to exceed a friction

loss of 0.2 inch w.g. per 100 feet of duct. Normally the
duct size is based on 0.1 inch w.g. per 100 feet of duct.
(3) Discharge velocities into rooms.—vary from 600 ft/min to

1800 ft/min, depending on the air terminal device
deflection pattern (0º, 22–1/2º, or 45º) and desired throw
(maximum of 3/4 of the distance to the opposite wall). The
Noise Criteria (NC) rating of air terminal devices should
not be ignored when selecting grilles and registers. NC
ratings should not exceed 45.
b. Exhaust System Velocities.—Exhaust velocities, commonly

referred to as transport velocities, depend on the type of material
to be conveyed by the ductwork. Table 10 identifies the particle
sizes and characteristics of various materials commonly
conveyed in exhaust systems. Exhaust velocities for the most
common applications in Reclamation facilities are provided
below. For applications not identified below refer to table 11.
For applications where ducts do not require a minimum transport
velocity, a pressure drop of 0.10-in/100-ft of duct is normally
used to size ducts.
(1) Chlorine rooms.—3,600 ft/m
(2) Oil storage rooms.—3,000 ft/m
(3) Toilet rooms.—1,200 ft/m
(4) Paint storage rooms and booths.—2,000 ft/min minimum.
(5) Welding fumes.—2,000 ft/min minimum.
(6) Battery rooms.—2,000 ft/min minimum.
96
Table 10.—Types of air contaminants
Airborne Size range

materials µm Characteristics
Dust 0.10–30.0 Generated by pulverization or crushing of solids. Typical
examples are rocks, metal, wood, and coal dust. Particle
may be up to 300–400 µm but those above 20–30 µm
usually do not remain airborne.
Fumes 0.001–1.0 Small solid particles created by condensation from vapor
state, especially volatilized metals as in welding. Fumes
tend to coalesce into larger particles as small fume
particles collide.
Mists 0.01–10.0 Suspended liquid particles formed by condensation from
gaseous state or by dispersion of liquids. Mists occur
above open surface electroplating tanks.
Smokes 0.01–1.0 Aerosol mixture form incomplete combustion of organic
matter. The size range does not include fly ash.
Vapors 0.005 Gaseous forms of materials that re liquids or solids at
room temperature. Many solvents generate vapors.
Gases 0.0005 Materials that do not usually exist as solids or liquids at
room temperature, such as carbon monoxide and
ammonia. Under sufficient pressure and/or temperature
they may be changed into liquids or solids.
McDermott, Henry James: Handbook of Ventilation for Contaminant Control, 1985.
Table 11.—Range of minimum duct design velocities
Nature of
contaminant Examples Design velocity – ft/min
Vapors, gases, smoke All vapors, gasses and smoke Any desired velocity.
(Economic optimum velocity
usually 1,000 to 2,000 ft/min)
Fumes Welding 2,000 to 5,000
Very fine light dust Cotton lint, wood flour, litho 2,500 to 3,000
powder
Dry dust and powders Fine rubber dust, bakelite 3,000 to 4,000
molding powder dust, cotton
dust, light shavings
Average industrial Grinding dust, granite dust, 3,500 to 4,000
dust silica flour, brick cutting,
Heavy dusts Sawdust (heavy and wet), 4,000 to 4,500
metal turnings, sandblast dust
ACGIH: Industrial Ventilation, 1992
97
6. Ventilation Requirements.—Whenever possible, the airflow

requirements should be based on the actual hazard conditions
encountered in the space. The air change method is satisfactory for
standard or commonly occurring situations. However, caution should
be exercised when using the air change method to determine
ventilation rates for any application, especially those not identified
below. Where significant amounts of hazardous substances are
generated in work areas or occupied spaces, the number of air changes
may not provide adequate control.
The sources for the ventilation rates tabulated below have been
provided. Because ventilating requirements may change, the sources
should be consulted to ensure the recommended ventilation rates
reflect current requirements. Where the multiple ventilation criteria
are shown, i.e. air changes/hr, cfm/ft2, and cfm,–the criteria resulting
in the highest ventilation requirement should be used.
a. Oil Storage and Oil Transfer Rooms.—Provide 1 cfm/ft2 of

floor area but not less than 150 cfm/min. Ventilate continuously
(see NFPA 850). Maintain a slight negative pressure in the
room. All air from the space must be direct exhausted to
outdoors. Provide a fan airflow switch and indicating lights
(green–on, red–off) to verify fan operation. Locate monitoring
lights and fan motor starter outside the room near entry door to
verify fan operating status.
b. Toilets, Locker Rooms, and Showers.—Operate fan when

space is occupied and for 15 minutes thereafter. Maintain slight
negative pressure. All air from the space must be direct
exhausted to outdoors. For each condition below, ventilate at
rate producing the highest cfm (see ASHRAE Standard 62).
(1) Toilet spaces.—2 cfm/ft2 of floor space; 25 cfm/toilet;

200 cfm minimum.
(2) Locker rooms.—1 cfm/ft2 of floor space for coat hanging

or clean clothes change room. 3 cfm/ft2 for sweaty or wet
clothing
(3) Showers.—2 cfm/ft2 of floor space; 50 cfm/shower head

minimum; 200 cfm minimum.
98
c. Paint Storage Rooms.—Provide 10 to 12 air changes per hour.

Ventilate continuously. Maintain slight negative pressure by
making exhaust air equal to 105 percent of supply air (see
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) Industrial Ventilation – A Manual of Recommended
Practice), all air from the space must be direct exhausted to
outdoors. Provide fan airflow switch, and indicating lights
(green–on, red–off) to verify fan operation. Locate lights and fan
motor starter outside room near entry door.
d. Paint Booths.—Ventilating air requirements vary depending on

type and size of booth, i.e. walk-in type or operator outside, and
type of equipment used, i.e. air or airless. Consult ACGIH for
specific requirements. Ventilate at 150 cfm/min per ft2 but not
less than 20 air changes per minute for preliminary estimates.
All air from the space must be direct exhausted to outdoors.
Operate fan when booth is occupied. Provide fan airflow switch
and indicating lights (green–on, red–off) to verify fan operation.
Locate lights and fan motor starter outside room near entry door.
e. Welding Rooms or Areas.—Actual amount of air depends on

welding rod size and rate of consumption, number of welders
used, and type of exhaust system – local or general. For local
exhaust systems with fixed bench hoods, see figure 33. For fixed
overhead exhaust systems with movable local exhaust hoods, the
ventilation rate depends on the distance between the welding rod
and the face of the hood, see figure 34. Where local exhaust is
not possible, general ventilation rates vary between 1,000 to
4,500 ft3/min per welder depending on welding rod size see
figure 34. Typical welding rod sizes used at Reclamation
facilities are 1/4-inch or less. Therefore, a general ventilation
rate of 2,500 to 3,500 cfm/welder or 6 to 12 air changes per hour
in a welding room should be satisfactory. Provide one portable
welding exhaust system with air cleaners capable of removing
particulates and odors, and recirculating air.
f. Battery Rooms.— Provide continuous ventilation to maintain

hydrogen gas concentration below 0.8 percent by volume during
maximum gas generation conditions. The following should be
noted when determining the required exhaust fan size:
99
Figure 33.—Weld ventilation hood.
100
Figure 34.—Welding ventilation movable exhaust hoods.
101
(1) When the battery is fully charged, each charging ampere

supplied to the cell produces about 0.016 cubic feet of
hydrogen per hour from each cell. This rate of production
applies at sea level, when the ambient temperature is about
77 ºF, and when the electrolyte is “gassing or bubbling.”
(2) Number of battery cells and maximum charging rate (not

float rate) can be obtained from specifications or field
inspection.
(3) Hydrogen gas lower explosive limit is 4 percent by volume.

Good practice dictates a safety factor of 5, which reduces
the critical concentration to 0.8 percent by volume. This
large safety factor is to allow for hydrogen production
variations with changes in temperature, battery room
elevation, and barometric pressure and also allows for
deterioration in ventilation systems.
The following example illustrates the procedure for

determining battery room ventilation requirements.
Assume a battery room volume (Vr) of 900 ft3, a 60-cell
battery with a charge rate of 50 amps per hour, and a
maximum H2 concentration of 0.8 percent by volume.
The total H2 generation is given by:
Gt = GcNA
Where: Gt = total hydrogen generated, ft3/hr

Gc = hydrogen generation per cell, ft3/hr/cell
N = number of cells
A = charging rate, amps
Gh = (0.016)(60)(50) = 48 ft3/hr
The maximum acceptable volume of H2 is given by:
Vh = VrC
Where: Vh = volume of hydrogen, ft3

Vr = total room volume, ft3
C = acceptable hydrogen concentration, percent
Vh = (900)(0.008) = 7.2 ft3
102
The time, T, to reach critical concentration is given by:
T = Vh/Gh = 7.2/48 = 0.15 hrs or 9 minutes
The minimum number of air changes per hour, N, is

determined by:
N = 60/9 = 6.7 changes/hr
The minimum airflow, Q, required, is given by:
Q = VrN/60 = (900)(6.7)/60 = 100 cfm
Ventilation rates for battery rooms are usually small (less than
100 cfm). For preliminary sizing of ventilating requirements,
assume 1 cfm/ft2, or 6 air changes/hr. Maximum hydrogen gas
generation occurs when batteries are approaching full charge.
Locate air intakes near floor. Locate exhaust openings near

ceilings. Locate air intakes and exhaust openings so that they are
diametrically opposed if possible. Avoid routing miscellaneous
ducts through battery rooms.
Ventilate continuously with a dedicated exhaust fan. Maintain

slight negative pressure. The fan should be spark resistant
construction and should be located outside the room if possible.
If the fan must be located in the battery room, the fan, controls
etc. must comply with NEC explosion-proof criteria that will
increase cost significantly. Fan controls should not be designed
for automatic fan shutdown by the fire detection and alarm
system when fire or smoke is detected outside the room. Locate
fan motor starter and control switch outside the room adjacent to
entry door. Provide a differential pressure switch and indicating
lights (green–on, red–off) outside room but near entry door to
verify fan operating status.
g. Chlorine Storage Rooms Inside the Structure.—Ventilate

with 100 percent outdoor air. Provide 15 air changes per hour
continuously and 60 air changes per hour when occupied by
maintenance personnel. Position air intake near floor and no
higher than one duct diameter. Provide an external hazard
warning sign, and an internal gas detection device with a red
indicating light outside the room or enclosure.
103
h. Sewage Rooms.—Provide 12 air changes per hour continuously

(from NFPA 820). Exhaust directly to outdoors.
i. Plant Sumps.—Provide 12 air changes per hour continuously.

(from NFPA 820). Exhaust directly to outdoors.
j. All Other Floors, Rooms and Galleries.—Ventilate at 1 cfm/ft2

of floor area or as dictated by the heating or cooling
requirements for each space.
k. Any Room with Combustible Gases.—The following methods

can be used to determine the time required for ventilation, the
number of air changes required to dilute a know concentration,
and the time to reach a combustible concentration level. The
equations, procedures, and examples are extracted from
NFPA 69:
(1) Time required for ventilation.—The time required to

reduce a given concentration of an explosive vapor to a
safe concentration can be obtained by solving the following
equation for time t:
ln (C/Co) = (-Q/V) Kt
Where: C = desired gas concentration, percent

Co = initial gas concentration, percent
Q = airflow rate, cfm
V = volume of room, ft3
K = mixing efficiency of ventilating scheme.
t = time required to reach the desired
concentration, min.
Values for K are shown in table 12, however, most

authorities recommend a K value no greater than 0.25.
104
Table 12.—Mixing efficiency for various ventilation arrangements

Efficiency (K)1 values
Single exhaust Multiple exhaust
Method of supplying opening openings
No positive supply
1. Infiltration through cracks 0.2 0.3

2. Open doors or windows 0.2 0.4
Forced air supply
1. Grilles and registers 0.3 0.5

2. Diffusers 0.5 0.7
3. Perforated ceiling 0.8 0.9
1
Few data exist on defining the degree of mixing. Most authorities recommend a K value no greater than
0.25. NFPA 69.
Example: A 1000 ft3 room contains a gasoline vapor

concentration of 20 percent by volume. Determine the time
required to reduce the concentration to the lower
flammable limit (LFL) of 1.4 percent if the space is
ventilated with 2,000 cfm air.
ln (1.4/20) = (-2,000/1,000) (0.20) t
t = 6.65 minutes
If the concentration was reduced to 25 percent of the LFL

(0.35 percent concentration), the time required would be 10
minutes. 0.20 mixing efficiency is used as a conservative
design assumption.
(2) Air changes to inert.—The number of air changes required

for entering a combustible gas is obtained by solving the
following equation for N:
ln (C/Co) = - KN
Where: C, Co, and K are as defined above.

N = number of air changes
105
Example: Using the previous example, determine the

number of air changes required to reach the LFL.
ln (1.4/20) = (0.20) N
N = 2 changes per minute
Therefore, the time required to achieve 13.3 air changes is

13.3/2, which is exactly equal to the 6.65 minutes
determined in the previous example.
(3) Time to reach a concentration.—Time to reach a given

concentration can be obtained by rewriting equation 2 as
follows:
C = (G/Q)(1 - e-KN)
This equation can be rewritten as:
-KN = ln [1 – (CQ/G)]
Where: C = target concentration, percent

G = combustible gas entering space, cfm
Q = air entering space, cfm
K = mixing efficiency factor
N = number of theoretical air changes
Example: Assume a gas leak, QL, of 100 ft3/min of a

15 percent combustible gas/air mixture into a 1000 ft3
room. Determine the time to reach a 5 percent
concentration throughout the room.
Based on the statement of the problem, the amount of gas

entering the space is 15 percent of the total leak rate or
0.15(100) = 15 ft3/min. The amount of air is 100–
15 = 85 ft3/min. Assume K = 0.2.
106
The number of air changes required to achieve a 5 percent

concentration of the combustible gas is determined as
follows:
-0.02N = ln [1 – (0.05(85)/15)]
N = 1.67
Since the room volume and leakage rate are known, the
time to reach the expected concentration is determined as
follows:
t = (V/QL) N = (1000/100)1.67 = 16.7 min.
7. Recommended Space Temperatures.—Recommended ambient

space temperatures are shown on table 13.
8. Recommended Relative Humidity.—Recommended relative

humidity values are shown on table 14. In general, Reclamation plants
are considered unmanned structures and no attempt is made to control
humidity through addition of water to the supply air. Computer rooms
are the exception where minimum and maximum humidity levels are
critical and closely controlled. Maximum humidity is controlled when
using evaporative cooling systems because of the significant amount
of moisture added to cool the supply air.
9. Building Pressurization.—Negative pressures may cause

unsatisfactory conditions in the plant. See table 15. When
appropriate, air conditioning systems should be designed to pressurize
the structure to restrict the entry of dust, and control temperature and
humidity due to drafts through door cracks and other openings. The
amount of outdoor air induced into the building through the main air
conditioning units must be equal to the amount of contaminated air
exhausted from the main air handling systems and all continuously
operating exhaust fans.
107
Table 13.—Recommended space temperatures

Space Minimum Maximum
ºF ºC ºF ºC
Oil storage and transfer rooms 45 7.2 80 26.6
Toilets and janitor rooms 65 18.3 85 29.4
Paint storage rooms 45 7.2 80 26.6
Paint booths 65 18.3 80 26.6
Welding rooms 65 18.3 80 26.6
Battery rooms 50 10 80 26.6
Chorine storage indoors 45 7.2 90 32.2
Generator room level 45 7.2 80 26.6
Generator room ceiling level 120 48.9
Pipe galleries 45 7.2 80 26.6
Electrical galleries 45 7.2 104 40
Visitor facilities 68 20 80 26.6
Control rooms 68 20 80 26.6
Computer rooms 72 22.2 78 25.5
UPS rooms 65 18.3 90 32.2
Lunch rooms 68 20 80 26.6
Offices 68 20 80 26.6
HVAC machinery 55 12.8 90 32.2
Air compressor and pump rooms 45 7.2 90 32.2
Table 14.—Recommended relative humidity

Spaces Minimum Maximum
Pipe Galleries 80
Electrical Galleries 40 80
Visitors facilities 30 80
Control rooms 40 80
Computer rooms 45 55
Offices 30 70
Lunch rooms 30 70
Intake air supply 80
108
Table 15.—Unsatisfactory conditions due to negative

pressures within buildings
Negative pressure
inch w.g. Adverse conditions which may result
0.01 to 0.02 Worker draft complaints – High velocity drafts through doors
and windows
0.01 to 0.05 Natural draft stacks ineffective – Ventilation through roof
exhaust ventilators, flow through stacks with natural draft
greatly reduced
0.02 to 0.05 Carbon monoxide hazard – Back drafting will take place in hot
water heaters, unit heaters, and other combustion equipment
not provided with induced draft
0.03 to 0.10 General mechanical ventilation reduced – Airflows reduced in
propeller fans and low pressure supply and exhaust fans
0.05 to 0.10 Doors difficult to open – Serious injury may result from
nonchecked, slamming doors
0.10 to 0.25 Local exhaust ventilation impaired – Centrifugal fan fume
exhaust flow reduced
ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Applications, 1991.
a. Recommended Pressure.—To provide positive pressure within

the building, the amount of outdoor air should be increased to
approximately 105 percent of the amount exhausted or be
balanced to give a positive gage building pressure difference of
0.08 to 0.16 inch of water.
b. Effect of Pressure on Door Opening Forces.—Positive

pressure may affect occupants' ability to open doors or may
prevent doors from completely closing; therefore, excessive
positive pressure should be avoided. According to the NFPA
101 Life Safety Code, the forces required to fully open any door
manually in a means of egress shall not exceed 30 lbs to set the
door in motion. For additional discussions concerning the effects
of positive building pressurization and procedures for calculating
door opening forces refer to NFPA 92A.
10. Water Piping
a. Design Guides.—Water distribution systems should be designed

in accordance with the UPC (Uniform Plumbing Code) and the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
109
b. Materials.—Copper piping conforming to ASTM B33 Type K

should be used to prevent corrosion. Water flow velocities in
copper piping should not exceed 5 ft/sec to prevent erosion.
c. Dielectric Joints.—Where dissimilar metal piping must be

connected, insulating flange sets or insulating unions must be
provided between the piping.
d. Valve Strainers.—Control valves should be protected by

properly sized strainers immediately upstream of the valve.
Provide blow-off valve on strainer.
e. Freeze Protection.—Piping located outdoors, or indoors in

unheated areas, is subject to freezing. This is especially true for
pipe systems containing standing water. Insulation will delay
but not prevent freezing of still water or water flowing at a rate
insufficient for the available heat content to offset the heat loss.
The time required for standing water to cool to 32 °F can be
estimated with the following equation from 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamental Handbook:
= cp (Di /2)2 (RT ) ln [(ti – ta)/(tf – ta)]
Where: = time for water to cool to freezing, h

= density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3
cp = specific heat of water = 1.0 Btu/lb F
Di = inside diameter of pipe, ft
Dp = outer diameter of pipe or inner diameter of
insulation, ft
Dl = outer diameter of insulation, ft
RT = Rp + Rl + Ra = total resistance: pipe, insulation,
air film, ft · °F · h/Btu
Ra = 1/(ha Dl) = resistance between ambient air and
outer surface of insulation per foot of
pipe, ft · °F · h/Btu
ha = air heat transfer coefficient
Rl = ln(Dl/Dp)/(2 kl) = resistance of thermal
insulation per foot of pipe, ft · °F · h/Btu
Rp = ln(Dp/Di)/(2 kp) = resistance of pipe per foot of
pipe, ft · °F · h/Btu (Rp = 0 for metal pipe)
kl = thermal conductivity of insulation, Btu/h · ft · ºF
110
kp = thermal conductivity of pipe material,

Btu/h ft ºF
ta = ambient air temperature, ºF
ti = initial water temperature, ºF
tf = freezing temperature, ºF
The water flow required to prevent freezing can be estimated as

follows:
L/W = cp (RT + RW) ln [ (RT)(ti – ta) / (RT + RW)(tf – ta)]
Where: W = flow rate required to keep pipe free of ice – lb/h

L = length of exposed pipe – ft
R = 1/( kwNu) = resistance between water and inner
surface of pipe per foot of
pipe = 0.23 ft · ºF · h/Btu.
kw = thermal conductivity of water = 0.32
Btuh/h · ft · ºF
Nu = Nusselt number for water = 4.36 for fully
developed laminar flow and constant heat flux.
When appropriate, the piping system design should include

thermostatically controlled valves to automatically drain the
system when a low-limit temperature sensor detects a fall in
temperature below a predetermined set point – usually 35 ºF.
Once outdoor temperature falls below freezing, cooling water is
rarely required to maintain ambient conditions. In these cases,
the HVAC controls should include a manual reset to prevent
refilling the system after a shutdown initiated by the freeze
protection system. Occasionally, some components such as
pump casings and strainers cannot be completely drained. If
complete draining is not possible, or desirable, the piping and
components should be wrapped with electric heat tape. Heat
tape and sizing requirements are discussed below.
f. Heat Tracing.—Heat tracing may be accomplished with fluids

such as hot water and steam, or electric cable. Due to lack of
steam, or hot water in sufficient quantities, heat tracing in most
Reclamation facilities is accomplished with electric cables.
111
(1) Applications:
(a) Freeze protection.—A self-regulating electric cable is

used to prevent freezing of water pipes. This is
primary consideration for outdoor piping applications
and indoor applications where space heating is not
required or is impractical. Most Reclamation
applications fall under this category.
(b) Maintain temperature.—A constant Watt cable with

temperature controls is used to maintain a specific
fluid temperature. This application has very limited
use in Reclamation facilities because most systems
tolerate fairly wide operating ranges.
(c) Snow and ice melting.—Cable can be installed to

prevent undesirable ice formation on or around
equipment.
(2) Sizing heat cable:
(a) Establish design conditions:
Tm = maintenance temperature, ºF
Ts = startup temperature, ºF
Ta = ambient temperature, ºF
Dp = nominal pipe diameter
Insulation type: See table 16 – K factors for various
insulation types
Insulation thickness: inches
Maximum wind speed
Heat loss safety factor
Location of pipe: indoor, outdoor, underground
112
Table 16.—K factor chart for various insulation types1

Temperature (° F) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Fiberglass 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.37 0.39 0.41
Calcium silicate 0.35 0.37 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.53 0.55
Urethane 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.22 0.25 – – – –
Cellular glass 0.38 0.40 0.46 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.65 0.70
1
Select the K factor equal to or below the maintenance temperature for KTm or the K factor equal to or below the
ambient temperature for KTa.
(b) Heat loss from the pipe:
Qp = [2 K (Tm -Ta )] ÷ [z ln (Do /Di )]
Where: Qp = heat loss, Watts/ft of pipe

K = thermal conductivity of insulation,
Btu in/hr ft2 ºF
Do = outside diameter of insulation, inches
D = inside diameter of insulation, inches
z = 40.994 Btu in/W hr ft
Qp can also be determined from table 17. To

determine the heat loss/ft of pipe, multiply the table
value by the difference between the maintenance and
ambient temperatures (Tm -Ta ).
(c) Correction factors:
(i) Location.—Note that table 17 is based on

outdoor applications. For indoor installation
apply a correction factor of 0.9 to heat losses
determined by table 17, i.e. multiply Qp by 0.9.
For underground installations (including below
frost line), or for plastic pipe, apply a 25 percent
safety factor, i.e. multiply by 1.25. For
underground plastic pipe apply a 50 percent
safety factor to account for poor heat transfer
characteristics, i.e. multiply by l.50.
(ii) Wind speed.—Note that table 17 is based on

20 mph wind velocities. Apply a wind speed
correction factor of 5 percent/5 mph wind speed
over 20 mph not to exceed 10 percent to Qp.
113
Table 17.—Heat losses from insulated metal pipes w/ft of pipe per temperature differential (° F)
Pipe size Insulation thickness (inches)

(IPS)
½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
½ 0.054 0.041 0.035 0.028 0.024 0.022 0.020 0.018
¾ 0.063 0.048 0.040 0.031 0.027 0.024 0.022 0.020
1 0.075 0.055 0.046 0.036 0.030 0.027 0.025 0.022
1¼ 0.090 0.066 0.053 0.051 0.034 0.030 0.028 0.024
1½ 0.104 0.075 0.061 0.046 0.038 0.034 0.030 0.026
2 0.120 0.086 0.069 0.052 0.043 0.037 0.033 0.029
2½ 0.141 0.101 0.080 0.059 0.048 0.042 0.037 0.032
3 0.168 0.118 0.093 0.068 0.055 0.048 0.042 0.035
3½ 0.189 0.113 0.104 0.075 0.061 0.052 0.046 0.038
4 0.210 0.147 0.115 0.083 0.065 0.056 0.050 0.041
4½ 0.231 0.161 0.125 0.090 0.072 0.061 0.054 0.044
5 0.255 0.177 0.137 0.098 0.078 0.066 0.058 0.047
6 0.300 0.207 0.160 0.113 0.089 0.075 0.065 0.053
7 0.342 0.235 0.181 0.127 0.100 0.084 0.073 0.059
8 0.385 0.263 0.202 0.041 0.111 0.092 0.080 0.064
9 0.427 0.291 0.222 0.156 0.121 0.101 0.087 0.070
10 0.474 0.323 0.247 0.171 0.133 0.110 0.095 0.076
12 0.559 0.379 0.290 0.200 0.155 0.128 0.109 0.087
13 0.612 0.415 0.316 0.217 0.168 0.168 0.118 0.093
16 0.696 0.471 0.358 0.246 0.189 0.155 0.133 0.104
18 0.781 0.527 0.401 0.274 0.210 0.172 0.147 0.115
20 0.865 0.584 0.443 0.302 0.231 0.189 0.161 0.125
24 0.134 0.696 0.527 0.358 0.274 0.226 0.189 0.147
Tank 0.161 0.107 0.081 0.054 0.040 0.032 0.027 0.020
(iii) K factor efficiency.—Multiply Qp by a

correction factor of 2(kTm + kTa) where kTm
and kTa are the thermal conductivities at the
maintenance and ambient temperatures
respectively.
(d) Select a cable.—Refer to manufacturers product data

and select a cable with a heat output that exceeds the
heat loss. If the heat loss exceeds the heat output of
the cables available, the cable must be wrapped
around the pipe as shown in figure 35.
114
Figure 35.—Spiral wrap.
115
(e) Determine length of cable required by adding the

following to the length of pipe:
(i) Component allowances for each occurrence of

the following items:
Flange pair: 1.5 ft

Pipe support: 2.0 ft
Butterfly valve: 2.5 ft
Ball valve: 2.7 ft
Globe valve: 4.0 ft
Gate valve: 5.0 ft
(ii) Wrapping allowance.—If the cable is wrapped

around the pipe, refer to table 18 to determine
the additional length of cable and the pitch.
Table 18.—Wrapping factor (feet of cable per foot of pipe)

Pipe Pitch (inches)
size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 18 24 30 36 42
½ 1.90 1.47 1.29 1.19 1.14 1.10 1.08 1.06 — — — — — — — — — —
¾ 2.19 1.64 1.40 1.27 1.19 1.14 1.11 1.09 1.07 1.06 — — — — — — — —
1 2.57 1.87 1.55 1.38 1.27 1.21 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.07 — — — — — — —
1¼ 3.07 2.18 1.76 1.53 1.39 1.30 1.24 1.19 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.08 1.06 — — — — —
1½ 3.43 2.41 1.92 1.65 1.48 1.37 1.29 1.24 1.20 1.16 1.14 1.10 1.08 1.06 — — — —
2 4.15 2.86 2.25 1.90 1.67 1.52 1.42 1.34 1.28 1.24 1.20 1.15 1.12 1.10 1.05 — — —
2½ 4.19 3.36 2.61 2.17 1.89 1.70 1.56 1.46 1.39 1.33 1.28 1.21 1.17 1.13 1.08 1.05 — —
3 5.88 3.99 3.06 2.52 2.17 1.93 1.76 1.63 1.53 1.45 1.39 1.30 1.23 1.19 1.11 1.07 1.05 —
4 7.43 5.01 3.82 3.11 2.65 2.33 2.09 1.92 1.78 1.67 1.58 1.45 1.36 1.29 1.17 1.11 1.08 1.06
5 9.09 6.10 4.63 3.75 3.17 2.77 2.47 2.24 2.06 1.92 1.81 1.63 1.51 1.42 1.25 1.17 1.12 1.09
6 10.75 7.20 5.44 4.40 3.70 3.22 2.86 2.58 2.36 2.19 2.04 1.83 1.67 1.55 1.34 1.23 1.16 1.12
8 13.88 9.28 6.99 5.63 4.72 4.08 3.60 3.23 2.94 2.17 2.51 2.22 2.00 1.83 1.53 1.36 1.26 1.20
10 17.20 11.49 8.65 6.94 5.81 5.01 4.41 3.95 3.58 3.28 3.03 2.65 2.37 2.15 1.75 1.52 1.38 1.29
12 20.34 13.58 10.21 8.19 6.85 5.89 5.18 4.62 4.18 3.83 3.53 3.07 2.73 2.40 1.97 1.68 1.51 1.39
14 22.30 14.89 11.18 8.97 7.49 6.44 5.66 5.05 4.57 4.17 3.85 3.34 2.96 2.67 2.11 1.79 1.59 1.46
16 25.44 16.98 12.75 10.22 9.53 7.33 6.42 5.74 5.18 4.72 4.35 3.77 3.33 3.00 2.34 1.97 1.73 1.57
18 28.58 19.07 14.31 11.47 9.57 8.22 7.21 6.42 5.80 5.29 4.86 4.20 3.71 3.33 2.58 2.15 1.88 1.69
20 31.71 21.16 15.88 12.72 10.61 9.11 7.99 7.11 6.42 5.85 5.38 4.64 4.09 3.66 2.82 2.34 2.03 1.81
24 37.99 25.34 19.02 15.22 12.70 10.90 9.55 8.50 7.66 6.98 6.41 5.52 4.85 4.34 3.32 2.72 2.33 2.07
Note: To determine the wrapping factor, divide the calculated heat loss by the heat output of the cable. Locate the value that is equal to or
the next highest in the row for the pipe size in your application. The value at the top of the column is the pitch or spacing from center
to center of the cable along the pipe.
116
G. HVAC SYSTEM CONTROLS
1. General Considerations.—Most plant heating, ventilating, and air

conditioning equipment should be provided with ON-OFF-AUTO
controls. In the ON mode the ventilating fans operate continuously
and heating and cooling equipment remain de-energized. In the
AUTO mode the fan operates continuously but the heating and
cooling equipment are automatically controlled by temperature
sensors. Typical control equipment includes temperature sensors for:
low limit (outside air freeze protection), supply air, mixed air, room
air, and high limit (electric heating coil discharge air) temperatures;
temperature averaging sensors; humidity sensors; dry bulb and
enthalpy economizer controls; control dampers and operators; control
valves and operators; and smoke detectors.
HVAC equipment used in Reclamation plants is usually basic and

does not require sophisticated control equipment. The following
should be considered when designing or specifying a control system:
a. Simplicity.—Reclamation plants are located in remote areas

where a high degree of technical service may not be available.
Keep the system as simple as possible to ensure reliability and
facilitate repairs. Tight control schemes are not necessary except
in computer rooms. Offices should be maintained at normal
comfort levels. Plant temperatures are usually allowed to
fluctuate between the normal low and high temperature range.
b. Energy Recovery.—Most Reclamation plants are designed for

unmanned operation, therefore, the primary HVAC objective is
equipment protection. Since wide temperature fluctuations are
permitted in Reclamation plants, energy recovery systems and
equipment are seldom economically justifiable. However, every
design should be evaluated for opportunities to save or recover
energy.
117
c. Free Cooling.—Where outdoor winter design temperatures are

below 35 ºF (based on the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
97.5 percent criteria) an economizer can provide significant
energy savings. Economizers can be controlled by dry bulb
sensors or enthalpy controllers.
(1) Dry bulb controller.—A dry bulb temperature controller

measures and compares return air and outdoor air
temperature. The outside air (OA) and return air (RA)
dampers modulate between minimum position and
100 percent OA whenever the OA temperature is below a
predetermined high-limit set point, typically 65 to
75 degrees. Once the OA temperature exceeds the high-
limit, the economizer reverts to the minimum OA
ventilation and maximum RA positions. A psychrometric
chart is used to determine the high-limit set point as
follows: Assume return conditions of 80 degree db and
40 percent relative humidity, and an average outdoor
relative humidity of 70 percent. Locate the RA point on a
psychrometric chart. The enthalpy at this point is 29 Btu/lb
of dry air. Follow the constant enthalpy line to its
intersection with 70 percent outdoor air relative humidity
line. Read the high-limit dry bulb temperature of
70 degrees. The actual high-limit should be slightly lower
than 70 degrees to account for higher morning relative
humidity and sensor drift. Typically, the high-limit set
point ranges from 60 to 70 ºF in areas with 60 to 80 percent
relative humidity. Since most plants are located in dry
climates, dry bulb economizer controls will usually provide
satisfactory temperature control.
(2) Enthalpy controller.— Enthalpy controllers require four

sensors: a dry bulb sensor and humidity or dew point
sensor to measure the enthalpy of each (OA and RA) air
stream. The controller selects the airstream with the lowest
enthalpy (energy level) to control the economizer. When
the outdoor air enthalpy is lower than the indoor enthalpy,
the controller maximizes use of outdoor air for free
cooling. When the indoor enthalpy is lower, the controller
reduces the outdoor air to the minimum ventilation
requirements.
118
Because enthalpy controllers actually measure the total

energy level of the two airstreams, better economizer
control is achieved, especially in humid climates.
d. Average Temperature.—Plants normally have large rooms with

high localized heat loads. Random operation of equipment
causes wide ambient temperature variations that cannot be
properly sensed or controlled with one room or return air
temperature sensor. A general rule is to use one sensor for every
5,000 ft2 of floor space. Usually three or four temperature
sensors should be located throughout the room. The average
temperature signal from the sensors should be used for control
purposes.
e. Freeze Protection.—Provide freeze-protection low-limit

thermostats or sensors on outside air intake openings or adjacent
to water bearing equipment. If necessary the thermostat should
open an automatically controlled drain valve to drain water from
the system.
f. High-Limit Thermostats.—Provide high-limit thermostat or

sensor downstream of electric heating coils to de-energize the
coils if discharge temperature is too high (135 to 165 ºF).
g. Step and Proportional Controllers.—The output of electric

heating coils should be controlled through multistage step
controllers or proportional controllers. Provide a differential
pressure switch or an airflow switch to prevent energizing the
coil if airflow is not verified or to de-energize the coil if the
airflow fails to maintain the minimum velocity through the coil.
h. Integral Controls.—In some cases decisions will be required

concerning use of factory furnished integral controls or
independent external controls furnished by a control system
supplier. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Many
packaged AHUs and AC units are now available with factory
installed, programmable, microprocessor based unitary
controllers that contain the algorithms necessary for controlling
and monitoring the equipment. Factory assembled controllers
can reduce design time and facilitate installation of the HVAC
equipment. These controllers are especially advantageous when
installing a single HVAC unit or multiple identical HVAC units
by the same manufacturer.
119
i. Independent Controls.—When HVAC equipment is furnished

by several manufacturers, the controllers will probably be
different. If the HVAC units are not integrated into an energy
management system, compatibility is not a significant issue.
However, if these HVAC units are to be integrated with an
energy management system, incompatibility problems may
appear despite the trend towards open protocols. Under these
conditions the use of external unitary controllers produced by
one control manufacturer may be advantageous since the risk
for incompatibility is virtually eliminated. Maintenance and
adjustment is also simplified since a single protocol is used.
j. Indicating Panels.—An indicating panel should be provided to

monitor the operating status of the main HVAC system and
equipment. The indicating panel should be independent of the
Main HVAC system control panel to enable remote location if
necessary. The panel should include sufficient indicating lights
to identify specific equipment failures, warn maintenance
personnel when equipment servicing is required, an assist
maintenance personnel in isolating problems. A contact should
also be provided to energize a warning light on the Plant Control
Room display panel to warn operators of an HVAC system
failure. Where the Plant is monitored from a remote control
center, the indicating panel contact should be interfaced with the
Remote Terminal Unit panel or Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition system. Figure 36 shows a typical indicating panel
layout and identifies the equipment to be monitored.
Auxiliary equipment such as air transfer and exhaust fans should

be monitored locally by installing indicating lights on their motor
starter panels as discussed under the specific system
requirements elsewhere in this manual.
k. Thermostat.—The hearing, ventilating, and cooling states of a

main air conditioning unit should be controlled by one sensor
(thermostat) so that overlapping of the stages cannot be caused
by manual adjustments of separate sensors.
2. Heating.—The electric heater in each main air conditioning unit

should be sized to handle the space loads and heating of the minimum
quantity of outdoor air. The heater elements should be the finned
sheath tube type made of Monel, ceramic-coated steel, or
copper-plated steel to resist corrosion due to moisture in the air. The
capacity of the heater should be divided into stages such that each
120
stage will heat the volume of air between 3 ºF and 8 ºF. The heater
should be automatically controlled through a step controller or
proportional controller to stage the heater from no load to full load.
The actual number of steps depends on the occupancy and equipment
available. More steps should be used if the space being heated is for
human comfort, and fewer steps should be used for equipment
protection. In many applications a multistage heater may combine
step and proportional control.
When heating is no longer required the outdoor air damper and return
air damper should be controlled to maintain the supply air temperature
above the minimum required space temperature. A sensor located in
the mixed air section of each main air conditioning unit, and a sensor
in the outdoor air intake, are required to control the supply air
temperature. The mixed air sensor modulates the outdoor air damper
and the return air damper to maintain the temperature setting. As the
mixed air temperature rises, the outdoor air damper should be
modulated from the minimum opening position towards the full open
position and the return damper should be modulated from the full open
position towards the full closed position. The exhaust dampers and
associated fans should be controlled to operate as the outdoor air
damper opens.
The exhaust damper should be modulated from the full closed

position to full open position as the mixed air temperature rises,
outdoor air damper opens. The exhaust fans should be energized
as the pressurization of the structure increases or at set points in
the exhaust damper operation.
3. Cooling.—When the free cooling cannot maintain the space

temperature below the high temperature limit, the cooling system
should be energized and the outdoor air damper returned to the
minimum position. If provided, roof exhausters and dampers should
de-energize or close once the refrigeration system is energized. When
refrigerated cooling is required for each main air conditioning unit, a
water chiller is normally used. The chilled water supply should be
modulated through the cooling coil by use of a three way mixing
valve. This allows the chilled water flow to bypass the cooling coil
and allows the circulating pumps to maintain a constant volume and
head. As the space sensor senses a rise in temperature the flow of
water through the cooling coil should increase from no flow to full
flow.
121
When the cooling system is energized, the chilled water pumps and
condenser water pumps should be started before energizing the water
chiller. After water flow is established by the pumps, the water chiller
should be capable of being staged from no load to full load in a
minimum of four steps using a reciprocating type water chiller or
modulated from 10 percent load to full load using a centrifugal type
water chiller.
4. Roof Exhaust Systems.—Many plants are provided with

superstructure ventilation systems consisting of multiple-wall mounted
air-intake louver and control-damper assemblies and exhaust-damper
and fan assemblies. These systems are automatically controlled by
remote bulb controllers. In plants that are air conditioned by
refrigeration equipment, the controls should enable the roof exhaust
fan to de-energize and the intake and exhaust dampers close when the
plant indoor temperature rises to the set point calling for refrigeration
cooling. This will allow stratification to take place and reduce the
cooling load.
H. CONFINED SPACE HEATING AND VENTILATION – GATE CHAMBERS,

TUNNELS, SHAFTS, AND VAULTS
1. General.—Continuous mechanical ventilating systems must be

provide for confined space such as gate chambers of reservoir outlet
works; outlet-pipe tunnels or access shafts; valve vaults and penstock
tunnels and connecting adits, when these spaces are occupied. Spaces
with explosive gases must be continuously ventilated at all times
whether or not the spaces are occupied. The ventilating system may
be either a supply or exhaust type. Ventilating systems may be fixed
or temporary. Fixed systems are permanently installed and are
designed for inspection activities only. These systems are relatively
small and fairly easily accommodated in the limited space available.
Because of the significantly greater airflow requirements to cope with
gases, vapors, fumes, and dust, temporary systems should be used as-
needed for maintenance and constructions activities.
2. Supply Systems.—Supply systems provide positive ventilation, create

turbulence and tend to the agitate air and gases in a confined space.
Supply systems are most appropriate where contaminant levels are
relatively low and the air displaced from the space will not pose a
health hazard to others. These conditions are fairly typical in
Reclamation applications where the atmospheric hazards are oxygen
deficiency, hydrogen sulfide and methane. Supply systems are also
used when the outdoor air must be tempered to prevent freezing of
122
small pipes in the gate chambers. In supply air systems, the fan
draws/forces fresh outdoor air through an air intake louver or pipe
assembly and supplies it to a duct heater where it is tempered to a
minimum temperature of 45 ºF. The fan forces air through a duct into
the gate chamber. Stale or contaminated air from the gate chamber
and tunnel is displaced by the fresh incoming air and moved
downstream in the tunnel until it finds its way outdoors through
suitably placed vents located at the downstream end of the tunnel.
When possible, the ventilating system should be designed with fresh
air flowing into the face of personnel exiting the tunnel or adit.
3. Exhaust Systems.—Exhaust systems are most appropriate where

hazardous fumes and vapors can and should be captured at the point of
occurrence to prevent diffusion into the surrounding area. Exhaust
systems are also typically used for gate chambers located at the
upstream ends of outlet tunnels and for penstock tunnels including
connecting adits. Where exhaust systems are used, the fan exhausts
the stale or contaminated air from the gate chamber or from the section
of the tunnel to be ventilated and discharges it to the outside through
suitable ducts. The quantity of air to be changed per hour for an
exhaust system will vary according to the length and diameter of the
tunnel, and the presence of contaminants such as gasses, vapors, or
fumes. The cross-sectional area occupied by the penstock or outlet
pipe located in the tunnel should be deducted from the gross area of
the tunnel when computing the net area. However, if a penstock or
outlet pipe is provided with an access door in the tunnel, the entire
cross-sectional area of the tunnel should be used. Some penstock
tunnels are sectionalized, and are provided with branch ducts located
at appropriate points in each section of the tunnel. These branch ducts
exhaust air directly from the areas to be ventilated. When branch
ducts are used, the outdoor airflow may have to be increased, relative
to the same tunnel with a single exhaust opening, to ensure that the
minimum airflow velocity of 35 ft/min is maintained throughout all
sections of the tunnel. Each branch must be provided with a balancing
damper to adjust air flows for that.
4. Air Quality Standards.—Acceptable air quality must be maintained

in tunnels and gate chambers at all times when the spaces are
occupied. Adherence to the following criteria is absolutely essential:
(1) Oxygen concentration – maintain in the range of 19.5 to

23.5 percent. Concentrations above and below these levels are
hazardous. Physiological effects of various oxygen
concentrations are shown in table 19.
123
Table 19.—Physiological effects of oxygen at different levels
% O2 Symptoms
23.5 Oxygen enriched atmosphere
21.0 Normal oxygen level
19.5 Minimum safe entry level
12–16 Disturbed respiration, emotional upset, abnormal fatigue on exertion,
flames are extinguished
10–11 Increased respiration, and heart coordination may be disturbed, some
euphoria, possible headache
6–10 Nausea and vomiting, inability to move freely, possible unconsciousness,
possible collapse while remaining conscious but helpless
below 6 Gasping respiration: respiration stops, followed by cardiac arrest, death
in minutes
Complete Confined Space Handbook, John F. Rekus, Lewis Publishers, 1994
(2) Carbon monoxide concentration – not to exceed 25 ppm

(0.0025 percent). The physiological effects of exposure to
CO are shown in table 20.
(3) Carbon dioxide concentration – not to exceed 5,000 ppm

(0.5 percent)
(4) Nitrogen dioxide concentration – not to exceed 3 ppm

(0.0003 percent)
(5) Hydrogen sulfide – concentration not to exceed 10 ppm

(0.001 percent). Test air every 4 hours when concentration
exceeds 5 ppm (0.0005 percent). Provide continuous
sampling and alarm when concentration exceeds 10 ppm
(0.001 percent). Increase ventilation to reduce
concentrations exceeding 10 ppm (0.001 percent) (time
weighted average [TWA] – A workers average exposure to
a contaminant over the work period or shift) for an 8-hour
period. The physiological effects of exposure to H2S are
shown in table 21.
124
Table 20.—Signs and symptoms of exposure to carbon monoxide
CO2 Level –ppm Exposure Time Signs and Symptoms

50 8 hrs. OSHA PEL
20 8 hrs. ACGIH TLV-TWA
200 2 to 3 hrs. Possible mild frontal headache
400 1 to 2 hrs. Frontal headache and nausea
400 2.5 to 3.5 hrs. Occipital headache
800 20 min. Headache, dizziness and nausea
800 2 hrs. Collapse, possible death
1,600 20 min. Headache, dizziness and nausea
1,600 2 hrs. Collapse, possible death
3,200 5 to 10 min. Headache and dizziness
3,200 10 to 15 min. Unconsciousness, danger
128,000 1 to 3 min. Immediate effect, Unconsciousness, danger
of death
Complete Confined Space Handbook, John F. Rekus, Lewis Publishers, 1994
Table 21.—Signs and symptoms of exposure to hydrogen sulfide
H2S Level–
ppm Exposure Time Signs and Symptoms of Exposure
0.1 – Odor threshold
5.0 – Moderate odor
20 8 hrs. OSHA PEL
10 8 hrs. ACGIH TLV
15 15 min.
25 – Tolerable, but strong, unpleasant odor
100 2 to 5 min. Eye irritation, coughing, loss of sense of smell
200–300 1 hr. Marked eye irritation and respiratory tract
500–700 30 to 60 min irritation
700–1,000 minutes Loss of consciousness and possible death
1,000–2,000 – Rapid unconsciousness, respiratory distress,
death
Unconsciousness almost immediately.
Respiration stops, death in a few minutes.
Death may occur even if the victim is removed
to fresh air.
Complete Confined Space Handbook, John F. Rekus, Lewis Publishers, 1994.
(6) Methane gas – concentration not to exceed 20 percent of

the (lower explosive limit [LEL] – The lower limit of
flammability or explosiveness of a gas or vapor at ordinary
ambient temperatures expressed in percent of the gas or
vapor in air by volume. This limit is assumed constant for
temperatures up to 250 ºF. Above this temperature it
125
should be decreased by a factor 0.7 since explosiveness

increases with higher temperatures (see ACGIH). Increase
ventilation whenever the concentration of methane or other
flammable gas is 5 percent or more of the LEL.
(7) Other flammable gases or vapors – concentration not to

exceed 20 percent of LEL.
(8) Airborne contaminants – Comply with the most stringent

requirement of OSHA personnel exposure limits (PEL);
ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV) which are the values
for airborne toxic materials which are used as guides in the
control of health hazards and represent time-weighted
concentrations to which nearly all workers may be exposed
8 hours per day over extended periods of time without
adverse affects; State or local standards; or the industrial
hygienist overseeing the job. Control programs are
required when airborne contaminants equal or exceed the
action levels established in specific occupational health
standards. In the absence of specific action levels,
50 percent of the appropriate PEL/TLV shall be used as the
action level.
5. Airflow Requirements.—The quantity of air to be supplied or

exhausted will vary according to the size of the gate chamber, the
length and size of the tunnel or access shaft, and the level of oxygen or
presence of harmful gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulfide, or explosive gases such as methane. The
following criteria are provided to assist in determining the minimum
ventilating system airflow requirements. The actual design airflow
must satisfy all the criteria; therefore, the criteria that yields the
highest airflow should be used to size the fan and other ventilating
system equipment.
a. Fixed Ventilating System Airflow Design Criteria.—Fixed

ventilating systems are normally designed, by Reclamation
personnel, for permanent installation and are intended for
intermittent operation during inspection of tunnels, gate
chambers, gates, gate controls, and other equipment contained in
these areas. These systems are not designed or intended to
provide adequate ventilation during maintenance or construction
activities. Refer to heading Temporary Ventilating Systems for
operating criteria for ventilating systems intended for
maintenance and construction activities.
126
Various methods for determining confined space ventilation

requirements are available. Unfortunately, these methods do not
yield the same results. These methods are presented for
reference only. In the absence of more stringent criteria,
confined space ventilating systems for Reclamation projects
should be designed to comply with Reclamation Safety and
Health Standards (RSHS) or OSHA requirements, whichever is
more stringent. Designers should avoid using of rules-of-thumb
except for quick estimates and only when the basis of the rule-of-
thumb and its applicability to the job is known. Reclamation
drawings and documents such as Design Summary and
Designer s Operating Criteria should cautions field personnel to
measure gas levels with calibrated direct reading instruments
when entering and while occupying confined spaces.
(1) OSHA minimum per person.—The absolute minimum

volume of air to be supplied to the gate chamber or
confined space should be 200 cfm per person (see OSHA
29CFR, CH XVII, 1926.800). A minimum of three persons,
600 cfm should be assumed to occupy the space
simultaneously.
(2) OSHA tunnel ventilation.—Maintain a minimum airflow

velocity of 30 ft/min in the tunnel or shaft (see OSHA
29CFR Chapter XVII , 1926.800)
(3) National safety council.—The Complete Confined Space

Handbook recommends a minimum airflow based on the
following equation:
Q = 7.5 V/t
Where: Q = fan airflow capacity, cfm

V = total volume of the confined space, ft3
t = desired purge time, minutes
(4) Reclamation Safety and Health Standards (RSHS).—

Ventilating systems for adits, tunnels, gate chambers, and
water conveyance structures should be designed to provide
35 ft/min airflow velocity over the cross sectional area if no
atmospheric contaminants are anticipated. If atmospheric
contaminants are anticipated, the airflow should be
increased to provide a velocity of 100 ft/min. Entry to the
space should be permitted only after 2 complete air changes
127
of the entire volume are completed. A system designed for

these minimum requirements will usually result in long
purge times. When possible, Reclamation ventilating
systems should be designed to produce the maximum
airflow consistent with the available power supply, space
requirements and the desire to reduce the purge time for
inspection personnel. Usually the power and space
available are sufficient for a ventilating system sized to
complete the purge requirements in 30 to 60 minutes.
b. Temporary Ventilating Systems Airflow Design Criteria.—

Temporary ventilating systems are used for maintenance and
construction activities in tunnels and gate chambers. Unless the
work is to be accomplished by government personnel, these
systems are rarely designed by Reclamation engineers.
However, contract/specifications will require that the contractor
performing work in a confined space submit their proposed
design to the Reclamation for approval before commencing
work. Reclamation engineers should design, when necessary, or
verify that any contractor proposed ventilating system complies
with the greater of the following criteria from RSHS:
(1) The cfm required to maintain a minimum airflow velocity

of 100 ft/min over the gross bore area of all sections of the
tunnel.
(2) The cfm required to control airborne contaminants or toxic

and flammable gas/vapor within prescribed limits and/or
values identified under the required air quality standards
referenced above.
(3) When diesel or internal combustion engines are used, refer

to RSHS for ventilation requirements. In no case shall the
ventilation system be less than 150 cfm times the sum of
the manufacturers rated horsepower for all engines when
operating at the maximum fuel/air ratio.
Once the design airflow rate is determined, the duct and fan required
to deliver the air may be too large for the available space. These
criteria may have to be re-evaluated to find a compromise between the
airflow rate, acceptable lead times before entering the gate chamber,
tunnel or shaft, and the size of the equipment. In some circumstances,
workers may have to use special breathing equipment to ensure
personnel safety.
128
The volume occupied by the equipment located in the gate chamber

and outlet pipes located in the tunnel should be deducted from the
gross volume of the gate chamber and tunnel when computing the net
volume of air required. Figure 37 shows a typical Reclamation gate
chamber ventilation system.
6. Ductwork.
a. Design Criteria.
(1) Fixed systems.—The quantity of air passing through the

ducts is equal to the total quantity of air required at the
points of discharge. Once the required cfm is known, the
static pressure, or resistance of the duct system to the flow
of the air, is calculated and a fan capable of providing the
required flow at the design pressure is selected. Static
pressures are expressed in inches of water.
(a) Duct sizing.—Ducts for gate chamber ventilating

should be sized for an airflow resistance of 0.3 to
0.35-inch w.g./100 ft of duct. The main duct in the
penstock tunnels should be sized for an air velocity of
1,300 to 2,000 ft/min, and branch ducts in the
penstock tunnels should be sized for an air velocity of
800 to 1,000 ft/min.
For a given volume of air, the resistance depends on

the size and length of ducts, and the type and number
of fittings (elbows, tees, transitions), obstructions
(dampers, heating coils, screens), and louvers.
Elbows should be made with an inside radius not less
than the diameter of the duct and is commonly
referred to as an R/D = 1. Such elbows (90º turns)
offer approximately the same resistance to flow as a
straight duct having a length in feet equal to the
diameter of the duct in inches. If space permits, an
R/D of 1.5 should be used.
(b) Exhaust air intakes/supply hood.—The location of

exhaust air intake openings is dictated by the hazard
present in the vault or gate chamber. If gases heavier
than air (hydrogen sulfide and propane) are expected,
and no floor recesses are provided for gates, the
exhaust air intake must be located close to floor level.
129
Where floor recesses are provided, exhaust air intakes

must be installed near the floor level of each separate
recess. The intake or air supply is usually a round
expansion cone, but may be a rectangular transition
without grilles. The total angle of divergence for
hoods should be no greater than 30 degrees, i.e.
15 degrees per side. The clearance between the floor
and the face of the hood should be neither less than
0.5 equivalent diameters, nor greater than 1.0
equivalent diameter. When gases lighter than air
(carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane) are
anticipated, the air exhaust opening should be located
as close to the ceiling as possible. The air intake
opening on supply or exhaust ducts in tunnels or gate
chambers should be provided with a 2x2 galvanized
or stainless steel wire mesh bird screen. Insect
screens should not be used except at the outdoor air
intake louver or pipe opening. Air discharge or
exhaust openings should not be oriented up towards
the ceiling. After prolonged exposure to wet
environments insect screens oriented towards the
ceiling can be completely clogged with calcium
deposits and dirt. Screen orientation should be
approximately 30 degrees from vertical.
(2) Temporary systems.—Air flows must be mechanically

induced. Passive ventilation is not acceptable. Electric
motors, fans, drives, and auxiliary equipment, including
wiring, starters, and controls, must comply with NEC
class 1, division 1, explosion proof requirements. Size duct
for a pressure loss of 0.30 to 0.35-inch w.g./100 feet of
duct. Noise from the fan must not exceed 85 dBA
measured at the closest point of worker exposure. The
airflow must be reversible from a surface location without
rewiring the fan controls. The system must be designed to
operate in the exhausting mode. The primary duct system
inlets must be maintained within 3 duct diameters of the
tunnel face or shaft bottom when operating in the exhaust
mode and within 10 duct diameters of the tunnel face when
operating in the supply mode.
130
With the above information established, it is possible to

determine the frictional resistance and the size of the duct,
and to consider the size and speed of the fan required for
the system. The friction loss charts shown in SMACNA
HVAC Systems Duct Design are useful in determining the
static pressure in inches of water required to overcome the
friction due to the passage of air in the ducts.
b. Duct Construction.
(1) Galvanized ductwork.—Galvanized duct is very common

in tunnel and gate chamber applications. Steel sheet should
be G-90 coated (or better) galvanized steel of lock forming
grade conforming to ASTM A653 and A924 standards.
Air ducts should be outside diameter slip-joint duct or

spiral duct made from galvanized-steel sheets. The
longitudinal and circumferential duct seams (joints) of
slip-joint duct should be of the grooved- or double-seam
type with the seam formed on the outside of the duct, the
ends of the longitudinal seams riveted, and all seams
soldered on the outside. Longitudinal joints of rectangular
ducts should be formed on a corner of the duct and be
riveted on the ends and soldered on the outside. Laying
lengths of ducts should not exceed 14 feet 7-1/2 inches.
Slip joints should be of the crimped type with bead that
should be located on laying length ends of duct, and each
joint should be complete with wiring lugs riveted and
soldered to the duct. For slip-joint duct and spiral duct, all
support bars, frame angles, wiring lugs, and flanges
attached in the shop to the duct, should be riveted and
soldered to the duct.
To prevent transmission of vibration, the ventilating fan

must be isolated from all ductwork or the concrete
structure. Flexible connectors should be provided between
the fan exhaust and intake openings and other ventilating
system components or the concrete structure. Galvanized
steel transitions should be provided where required.
Sudden enlargements or contractions in the duct system
should be avoided by allowing a maximum angle of 15º in
the transition when possible. Hangers and supports should
be made from hot-rolled galvanized steel strip. Branch
ducts should be provided with balancing dampers of the
131
butterfly type. Shutoff gates of the blast type should be

avoided. In tunnels, the ducts should be located to clear
overhead lights, conduits, and piping. Duct bends should
be designed for smooth airflow. When elbows must be
provided near the fan intake or discharge openings, allow at
least 2.5 equivalent duct diameters between the elbow and
the fan supply or connections. There are many ways to lay
out ductwork for a given application. There are also many
precautions, which should be observed to prevent
unnecessary pressure losses, noise, and vibrations which
are frequently present in poorly designed systems. For
additional precautions and procedures related to duct
design refer to SMACNA HVAC System Duct Design. The
metal thickness gauge, reinforcement and hanger
requirements, and weight estimates for a given pressure can
be determined from the tables in the SMACNA Duct
Construction Standards.
(2) FRP duct.—Although very common in the mining

industry, until recent years FRP has not been used
extensively in Reclamation projects. FRP duct is formed
over a mandrel from filament wound fiberglass coated with
polyester resins. FRP duct is manufactured to comply with
MSHA (Mine Safety and Health Administration)
regulations. The interior surface is very smooth and the
duct is light, and available in round sizes from 8 to
30-inches in 2-inch increments, and from 30 to 78-inches in
6-inch increments. Many standard fittings are available.
Oval sizes are also available. For Reclamation applications,
the greatest advantage of FRP duct over galvanized duct is
the lack of corrosion. The greatest disadvantage is higher
cost compared to metal duct. When standard fittings
cannot be used, the cost rises significantly. Because of the
lack of corrosion, FRP is becoming the preferred choice for
wet and high humidity installations that tend to corrode
metal duct. The cost associated with maintenance in a
confined space environment can be offset by using FRP
duct. See figures 38 and 39 for additional information.
132
Figure 38.—FRP duct – sizes and specifications.
133
Figure 39.—FRP duct – selection data.
134

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Design Guide for Heating,

Ventilating, and Air Conditioning

U.S. Department of the Interior

The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, develop, and

U.S. Department of the Interior

C. Enclosed Stairwells and Elevator Shafts. ................................................ 69

6. Ventilation Requirements ................................................................... 98

6. Commissioning ................................................................................. 143

1 Standard duct sealing requirements ...........................................................13

17 Heat losses from insulated metal pipes....................................................114

1 Duct layout – original design.....................................................................10

19 Actual versus desired point of operation ...................................................77

Design Guide for Heating, Ventilating,

Most HVAC system designers should be familiar with the design

Heating and cooling load calculations and procedures for Reclamation

B. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.—Plant air conditioning systems may include:

1. Load Calculations and Weather Conditions.—Heating and cooling

The outdoor air design temperature for heating calculations should be

HVAC calculations rely on lengthy, iterative procedures that are very

2. Plant Design and Construction.—Small plants are generally

single HVAC unit. Some rooms such as uninterrupted power supply

Central systems will generally maintain the most uniform temperature

Reclamation practice has generally been to provide indoor mechanical

require an equipment room ranging from 6 to 9 percent of the gross

Depending on the type of control desired, the dedicated HVAC

Air conditioning systems for bays containing service areas, office

3. Special Environmental Conditions.—Some plant rooms such as

the HVAC systems and controls should be completely independent of

4. Redundant Systems or Equipment.—When inadvertent temperature

Frequently, redundant equipment is sized for 50 to 75 percent of the

The controls for redundant systems or equipment should include

Although redundant systems can be very expensive, their use may be

5. Basic HVAC Scheme for Plants

a. Location of Air Intakes and Exhaust Openings.—When

In areas where noise generated by the plant is limited by locally

b. Airflow.—The substructure levels of Reclamation plants are

c. Substructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation.—The

d. Superstructure Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation.—In

Superstructure ventilation system should be independent of the

Where: h = the room height in feet above the breathing

Tb = the breathing line temperature. The breathing

Tavg = [1.00 + 0.02(H/2 – 5)] Tb

Note: Tavg = (Tc + Tf)/2,

Where: Tf = Floor temperature at h = -5

When the roof fans are operating, stratification is not possible,

(3) Average temperature (Tavg) for a ceiling height (H) less

Tavg = [1.00 + 0.01(H – 5)] Tb

(4) Average temperature (Tavg) for a ceiling height (H) greater

Tavg = (1.1) Tb + 0.1(H-15)

During the winter, stratification is not desirable because the heat

associated controls or may be assembled from components as required.

6. Ductwork.—Ductwork should be designed in accordance with the

(1) Minimize the number of fittings.—Fittings are expensive

(2) Use semi-extended plenums.—Plenums reduce the number

(3) Seal ductwork.—Standard duct sealing requirements are

Table 2 shows air leakage from the longitudinal seams of

Figure 1.—Duct layout – original design.

Figure 2.—Duct layout – redesign.

Figure 3.—Duct layout – extended plenum design.

Table 1.—Standard duct sealing requirements