Compiled from the knowledge and experience

of the entire Marley staff.

Edited by
John C. Hensley

Published by
THE MARLEY Cool-ING TOWER COMPANY
Mission, Kansas (Kansas City, Mo.) 66202
 Copyright 01967, 1969, 1982, 1983

The Marley Cooling Tower Company

All Rights Reserved

This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced

in any form without written permission of the publisher.

PRICE PER COPY, $100.00

PRINTED I N THE U U T E a STATES OF W E R l C A
Foreword
Although the world's total fresh water supply is abun-
dant, some areas have water usage demands that are
heavily out of balance with natural replenishment. Con-
servation and efficient re-use of this precious and versa-
tile resource are mandatory if such areas are to achieve
proper development. And, the need for water conserva-
tion does not limit itself only to arid regions. Recogni-
tion of the detrimental environmental impact of high
temperature water discharge into an estuary, whose in-
habitants are accustomed to more moderate tempera-
ture levels, makes one realize that the re-cooling and re-
use of water, however abundant, conserves not just that
important natural resource - it conserves nature as
well. One helpful means to that end is the water cooling
tower.
Those responsible for the specifications, purchasing
and operation of plant, station, or building cooling sys-
tems must consider many aspects beyond the primary
requirement of dissipating unwanted heat. The follow-
ing text is devoted to identifying the primary and periph-
eral considerations and offering approaches refined by
some sixty years of experience in the cooling tower in-
dustry. The goal is to assure the implementation of
water cooling systems which will satisfy all design and
environmental requirements with sound engineering
and responsible cost.
This manual is not intended to be all-encompassing
and thoroughly definitive. The entire scope of cooling
towers is too broad, and the technology far too ad-
vanced, to permit complete coverage in a single publi-
cation. Separate brochures by The Marley Cooling
Tower Company, either existing or planned, cover indi-
vidual topics in depth. The intent herein is to provide a
level of basic knowledge which will facilitate dialogue,
and understanding, between user and manufacturer.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

FOREWORD ..................................................................................... 3

SECTION I COOLING TOWER BASICS

A . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. TypesofTowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
C. Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
D. The Psychrometrics of Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
E. Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
F. Materials of Construction ........................................................... 29
G. Maintaining Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
H. Operation in Freezing Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

SECTION I1 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

A . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B. ColdWaterBasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
C. Tower Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
I
D. WaterDistribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
E. FanDeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F. Fancylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
G. Mechanical Equipment Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
H. Fill (heat transfer surface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
I. Drift Eliminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
J . Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
K. Louvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
L. Access and Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

SECTION 111 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

A . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B. Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
C. SpeedReducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
. . D. Driveshafts ..................................................................... 58
E. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
F. Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

SECTION IV ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

'

A . Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 d
B. Motorcontrols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
C. WiringSystemDesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
D. CyclingofMotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

SECTION v SPECIALIZED TOWER USAGE AND MODIFICATIONS

A . General .......................................................................... 65
B. Water Conservation ......... : ..................................................... 65
C. Visual Impact and Plume Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
D. Adiabatic Air Precooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
E. Energy Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :"7'2
F. Energy Management and Temperature Control . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
;

G. Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
H. DriftReduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
I. Abnormal Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
. J . Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81'
K. Freecooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
L. HelperTowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
 Table of Contents (continued) Page

SECTION V I AUXILIARY COMPONENTS

A . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
B. Extended Oil Fill and Gauge ~ i n e.g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
C. Mechanical Equipment Removal Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
D. Prevention of Basin Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ':. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
E. FilteringSystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
F. FanBrakesandBackstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
G. AirlnletScreens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
H. Distribution Basin Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
I. Vibration Limit Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
J . Fire Protection, Prevention and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

SECTION V I I THERMAL PERFORMANCE TESTING

A . General ......................................................................... 97
B. Tower Preparation for Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8 C. Instrumentation for Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
D. Operating Conditions During Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
E. ConductingtheTest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
F. EvaluationofTestData ............................................................ 99

SECTION V I I I OWNER RESPONSIBILITIES

A. General ......................................................................... 103
B. CoveringSpecifications ........................................................... 103
C. Tower Orientation and Site Services ................................................. 104
D. Economic Evaluation Parameters ................................................... 104
E. Contractual Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
F. Comparing Capability of Proposed Towers ............................................ 106

SECTIONIX TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

SECTIONX INDEX ............................................................................. 114

 SECTION I

COOLING TOWER BASICS

A. BACKGROUND
The machines and processes of industry, as,well area and their total dependence upon random winds.
as those devoted to human comfort and well-b,dng, Although the happy man depicted in Figure 1 may
generate tremendous amounts of heat which must not completely understand the principle of evapora-
be continuously dissipated if those machines and tion, he is intuitively making 'irse of this most ancient
processes are to continue to operate efficiently. Al- form of natural cooling. Primeyal, perspiring man-
though this heat is usually transferred to a cool, kind depended upon natural breezes to accelerate
flowing volume of water, final rejection is always to this evaporative cooling process, and was grateful
the atmosphere and, invariably, is accomplished by when they came. At some point in that distant past,
some form of heat exchanger. Many of those termin- however, hands began to manipulate broad leaves to
al heat exchangers are not easily recognized as such create an artificial breeze - and the basic concept
because they are better known as "creeks", "rivers", of a cooling tower was unknowingly founded. Eons
"lakes", etc. later, the advanced technology which allows Mr. Fig-
The natural process of evaporation makes them ure 1 to revel in a mechanically-produced flow of air
very effective heat transfer mediums, although made finite development of the cooling tower prac-
somewhat inefficient due to their limited surface ticable.

.-----J
Figure 1 - The principle of cooling by evaporation.
 SECTION I

B. TYPES OF TOWERS Air

Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in T Out T
several types, with numerous sizes (models) avail-
able in each type. Not all types are suitable for appli-
cation t o every heat load configuration. Understand-
ing the various types, along with their advantages
and limitations, can be of vital importance t o the pro-
spective user, and is essential to the full understand-
ing uf this text.
1. Atmospheric towers utilize no mechanical device
(fan) to create air flow through the tower. The
small atmospheric tower depicted in Figure 2 de-
rives its air flow from the natural induction (aspir-
ation) provided by a pressure-spray type water
distribution system. Although relatively inexpen-
sive, they are usually applied only in very small
sizes, and are far more affected by adverse wind
conditions than are other types. Their use on pro-
cesses requiring accurate, dependable cold water
temperatures is not recommended. Figure 3a - Counterflow natural draft tower.

Water
In
- Air
d l J ,
Air
T Out T .

Air
Out In

Figure 2 - Atmospheric spray tower.

Figure 3b - Crossflow natural draft tower.
conversely, the atmospheric type known as the
hyperbolic natural draft tower (Figs. 3a & 3b) is ex- tion of the use of hyperbolic towers. However, be-
tremely dependable and predictable in its thermal cause natural draft towers operate most effec-
performance. Air flow through this tower is pro- tively in areas of higher relative humidity, many
duced by the density differential that exists be- such plants located in arid andlor higher altitude
tween the heated (less dense) air inside the stack regions find mechanical draft towers more applic-_
and the relatively cool (more dense) ambient air able.
outside the tower. Typically, these towers tend to 2. Mechanical draft towers use either single or mul-
be quite large (250,000 gpm and greater), and oc- tiple fans to provide flow of a known volume of air
casionally in excess of 500 feet in height. Their through the tower. Thus their thermal perfor-
name, of course, derives from the geometric mance tends toward greater stability, and is af-
shape of the shell. fected by fewer psychrometric variables, than
Although hyperbolic towers are more expensive that of the atmospheric towers. The presence of
i than other normal tower types, they are used ex- fans also provides a means of regulating air flow,
tensively in the field of electric power generation, t o compensate for. changing atmospheric and
w
where large unified heat loads exist, and where load conditions, by fan capacity manipulation
long amortization periods allow sufficient time andlor cycling. (Sect. V-F)
for the absence of fan power (and mechanical Mechanical draft towers are categorized as
equipment maintenance costs) to recoup the dif- either forced draft (Fig. 4), on which the fan is lo-
ferential cost of the tower. The synfuels industry cated in the ambient air stream entering the
also generates heat loads warranting considera- tower, and the air is blown through; or induced
 SECTION I

Air
Water
sprays, T Out T
become subject to severe icing (with resultant im-
balance) when moving air laden with either natur-
al or recirculated moisture.
Usually, forced draft towers are equipped with
Air centrifugal blower type fans which, although re-
In quiring considerably more horsepower than pro-
peller type fans, have the advantage of being able
to operate against the high static pressures asso-
ciated with ductwork. Therefore, they can either
be installed indoors (space permitting), or within
a specially designed enclosure that provides sig-
nificant separation between intake and discharge
locations to minimize recirculation.
lnduced draft towers have an air discharge
velocity of from 3 to 4 times higher than their air
entrance velocity, with the entrance velocity ap-
Water proximating that of a 5 mph wind. Therefore, there
Out is little or no tendency for a reduced pressure
zone to be created at the air inlets by the action of
Figure 4 - Forced draft, counterflow, blower fan tower. the fan alone. The potential for recirculation on
an induced draft tower is not self-initiating and,
draft (Fig. 5) wherein a fan located in the exiting therefore, can be more easily quantified purely on
air stream draws air through the tower. the basis of ambient wind conditions. Location of
Forced draft towers are characterized by high the fan within the warm air stream (movement of
air entrance velocities and low exit velocities. Ac- which continues even with the fan off) provides
cordingly, they are extremely susceptible to recir- excellent protection against the formation of ice .
culation (Sect. I-E-6-(c))and are therefore consid- on the mechanical components. Widespread ac-
ered to have less performance stability than the ceptance of induced draft towers is evidenced by
induced draft. Furthermore, located in the cold their existence on installations as small as 15
entering ambient air stream, forced draft fans can gpm and as large as 700,000 gpm.

Water
In T Air Out
T Water
In'

Air Air
In In

Figure 5 - lnduced draft, crossflow, propeller fan tower.

I-
SECTION I

Air Out

i ,T

Figure 7 - Cut-away of tower in Figure 6.

Figure 6 - Fan-assisted natural draft tower.

3. Hybrid draft towers (Fig. 6) can give the outward Air
appearance of being natural draft towers with rel-
atively short stacks. Internal inspection, however
(Fig. 7), reveals that they are also equipped with
1 Out T
mechanical draft fans to augment air flow. Conse-
quently, they are also referred to as fan-assisted
natural draft towers. The intent of their design is
to minimize the horsepower required for air move-
ment, but to do so with the least possible stack
cost impact. Properly designed, the fans may
need to be operated only during periods of high
ambient and peak loads. In localities where a low
level discharge of the tower plume may prove to
be unacceptable, the elevated discharge of a fan-
assisted natural draft tower can become suffi-
cient iustification for its use.
4. characterization by Air Flow:
Cooling towers are also "typed" by the relative
flow relationship of air and water within the
tower, as follows: Figure 8 - Induced draft counterflo w tower.
In counterflow towers (Fig. 8), air moves verti-
cally upward through the fill, counter to the down- Air .
ward fall of water. Because of the need for ex-
tended intake and discharge plenums; the use of T Out T
high-pressure spray systems; and the typically
higher air pressure losses, some of the smaller
counterflow towers are physically higher; require
more pump head; and utilize more fan power than
their crossflow counterparts. In larger counter-
flow towers, however, the use of low-pressure,
gravity-related distribution systems, plus the
availability of generous intake areas and plenum
spaces for air management, is tending to equal- -P Air
\

L
ize, or even reverse, this situation. The enclosed
nature of a counterflow tower also restricts ex-
posure of the water to direct sunlight, thereby
retarding the growth of algae. (Sect. I-G-4)
., .
Crossflow towers (Fig. 9) have a fill configura-
I.
waty
i

tion through which the air flows horizontally, Out

across the downward fall of water. Water to be
cooled is delivered to hot water inlet basins loca- Figure 9 -
. Double-flow, crossflow tower.
 SECTION I

ted atop the fill areas, and is distributed to the fill 6. Characterization by Construction
by gravity through metering orifices in the floor of Field-erected towers are those on which the pri-
those basins. This obviates the need for a pres- mary construction activity takes place at the site
sure-spray distribution system, and places the re- of ultimate use. All large towers, and many of the
sultant gravity system in full view for ease of smaller towers, are prefabricated, piece-marked,
maintenance. By the proper utilization of flow- and shipped to the site for final assembly, Labor
control valves (Sect. III-E-2), routine cleaning and andlor supervision for final assembly is usually
maintenance of a crossflow tower's distribution provided by the cooling tower manufacturer.
system can be accomplished sectionally, wHile Factory-assembled towers undergo virtually
the tower continues to operate. complete assembly at their point of manufacture,
whereupon they are shipped to the site in as few
sections as the mode of transportation will per-
mit. The relatively small tower indicated in Figure
11 would ship essentially intact. Larger, multi-cell
towers (Fig. 12) are assembled as "cells" or "mod-
ules" (See Nomenclajure) at the factory, and are
shipped with appropriate hardware for ultimate
Water -
joining by the user. Factory-assembled towers are
In also known as "packaged" or "unitary" towers.

Air
In
9
\

Figure 10 - Single-flow tower.

Crossflow towers are also sub-classified by the

number of fill "banks" and air inlets that are
served by each fan. The tower indicated in Figure
9 is a do;ble-flow tower because the fan is induc-
ina air throuah two inlets and across two banks of
fil; Figure 6depicts a single-flow tower having
only one air inlet and one fill bank, the remaining
three sides of the tower being cased. Single-flow
towers are customarily used in locations where Figure - Small factory-assembled tower.
an unrestricted air path to the tower is available
from only one direction. They are also useful in
areas having a dependable prevailing wind direc-
tion, where consistent process temperatures are
critical. The tower can be sited with the air inlet
facing the prev,ailing wind, and any potential for
recirculation (Sect. I-E-7-(b)) is negated by the
downwind side of the tower being a cased face.
5. Spray-filled towers have no heat transfer (fill) sur-
face, depending only upon the water break-up af-
forded by the distribution system to promote max-
imum water-to-air contact. The atmospheric
tower seen in Figure 2 is a spray-filled tower, as is
the tower shown in Figure 16. Removing the fill
from the tower in Figure 8 would also make it
"spray-filled". The use of such towers is normally
limited to those processes where higher water
temperatures are permissible. They are also util-
ized in those situations where excessive contami-
nants or solids in the circulating water would
jeopardize a normal heat transfer surface. (Sect.
V-1-2) Figure 12 - Multi-cell factory assembled tower.
I-

SECTION I

Figure 13 - Multi-cell, field-erected, cross-

flow cooling tower with en-
closed stairway and extended
fan deck to enclose piping and
hot water basins.

7. Characterization by Shape the tower. Multi-faceted towers, such as the Octa-

Rectilinear towers (Fig. 13) are constructed in gonal Mechanical Draft ("OMD") depicted in Fig-
cellular fashion, increasing linearly to the length ure 15, also fall into the general classification of
and number of cells necessary to accomplish a "round" towers. Such towers can handle enor-
specified thermal performance. mous heat loads with considerably less site area
Round Mechanical Draft ("RMD") towers (Figs. impact than that required by multiple rectilinear
14 & 32), as the name implies, are essentially towers (Sect. I-E-7-(d), Fig. 39) In addition to
round in plan configuration, with fans clustered which, they are significantly less affected by re-
as close as practicable around the centerpoint of circulation. (Sect. I-E-6-(a), Fig. 32)

Water
Distribution

Figure 14 - Round Mechanical Draft (RMD), crossflow cooling tower.

.. .
 SECTION I

Figure 15 - Octagonal Mechanical Draft (OMD), counterflow cooling tower.

8. Characterization by Method of Heat Transfer In between these extremes are the Plume
All of the cooling towers heretofore described Abatement (Sect.V-C, Fig. 103) and Water Conser-
are evaporative type towers, in that they derive vation (Sect. V-B, Figs. 96 & 97) towers, wherein
their primary cooling effect from the evaporation progressively greater portions of dry surface coil
that takes place when air and water are brought sections are introduced into the overall heat
into direct contact. At the other end of the spec- transfer system to alleviate specific problems, or
trum is the Dry tower (Sect. V-B, Figs. 98 & 99) to accomplish specific requirements. Dry towers,
where, by full utilization of dry surface coil sec- Plume Abatement, and Water Conservation towers
tions, no direct contact (and no evaporation) oc- will be discussed in greater depth in Section V of
curs between air and water.. Hence the water is this manual.
cooled totally by sensible heat transfer.
 SECTION I

C. NOMENCLATURE Btu (British Thermal Unit) - The amount of heat gain (or
The following terms are commonly used in cooling loss) required to raise (or lower) the temperature of
tower science, many of which are unique to the cool- one pound of water 1OF.
ing tower industry: Capacity - The amount of water (gpm) that a cooling
Acfm - The actual volumetric flow rate of air-vapor tower will cool through a specified range, at a speci-
mixture. Unit: cu ft per min. fied approach and wet-bulb temperature. Unit: gpm
Air Horsepower - The power output developed by a fan Casing - Exterior enclosing wall of a tower, exclusive
in moving a given air rate against a given resistance. of the louvers.
Unit: hp. Symbol: ahp. Cell - Smallest tower subdivision which can function
Air Inlet - Opening in a cooling tower through which air as an independent unit with regard to air and water
enters. Sometimes referred to as the louvered face flow; it is bounded by either exterior walls or parti-
on induced draft towers. tion walls. Each cell may have one or more fans and
Air'Rate - Mass flow of dry air per square foot of cross- one or more distribution systems.
sectional area in the tower's heat transfer region per Chimney - See "Shell".
hour. Unit: Ib per sq ft per hr. Symbol: G'. (See Total Circulating Water Rate - Quantity of hot water enter-
Air Rate). ing the cooling tower. Unit: gpm.
Air Travel - Distance which air travels in its passage Cold Water Temperature - Temperature of the water
through the fill. Measured vertically on counterflow leaving the collection basin, exclusive of any temper-
towers and horizontally on crossflow towers. Unit: ft. ature effects incurred by the addition of make-up
Air Velocity - Velocity of air-vapor mixture through a andlor the removal of blowdown. Unit: OF. Symbol:
specific region of the tower (i.e. the fan). Unit: ft per CW.
min. Symbol: V. Collection Basin - Vessel below and integral with the
Ambient Wet-Bulb Temperature - The wet-bulb temper- tower where water is transiently collected and di-
ature of the air encompassing a cooling tower, not rected to the sump or pump suction line.
including any temperature contribution by the tower Counterflow - Air flow direction through the fill is
itself. Generally measured upwind of a tower, in a countercurrent to that of the falling water.
number of locations sufficient to account for all ex- Crossflow - Air flow direction through the f ~ lis l essen-
traneous sources of heat. Unit: OF. Symbol: AWB. tially perpendicular to that of the falling water. .
Approach - Difference between the cold water temper- Distribution Basin - Shallow pan-type elevated basin
ature and either the ambient or entering wet-bulb used to distribute hot water over the tower fill by
temperature. Unit: OF. means of orifices in the basin floor. Application is
Atmospheric - Refers to the movement of air through a normally limited to crossflow towers.
cooling tower purely by natural means, or by the as- Distribution System - Those parts of a tower, begin-
pirating effect of water flow. ning with the inlet connection, which distribute the
Automatic Variable-Pitch Fan - A propeller type fan hot circulating water within the tower to the points
whose hub incorporates a mechanism which en- where it contacts the air for effective cooling. May
ables the fan blades to be re-pitched simultaneously include headers, laterals, branch arms, nozzles, dis-
and automatically. They are used on cooling towers tribution basins, and flow-regulating devices.
and air-cooled heat exchangers to trim capacity Double-Flow - A crossflow cooling tower where two op-
andlor conserve energy. posed fill banks are served by a common air plenum.
Basin - See "Collection Basin" and "Distribution Drift - Circulating water lost from the tower as liquid
Basin". droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream. Units:
Basin Curb - Top level of the cold water basin retain- OO
/ of circulating water rate or gpm. (For more precise
ing wall; usually the datum from which pumping work, an UG parameter is used, and drift becomes
head and various elevations of the tower are mea- pounds of water per million pounds of exhaust air.
sured. Unit: ppm.)
Bay - The area between adjacent transverse and longi- Drift Eliminators - An assembly of baffles or labyrinth
- tudinal framing bents. passages through which the air passes prior to its
Bent - A transverse or longitudinal line of structural exit from the tower, for the purpose of removing en-
framework composed of columns, girts, ties, and di- trained water droplets from the exhaust air.
agonal bracing members. Driver - Primary drive for the fan drive assembly. Al-
Bleed-Off - See "Blowdown". though electric motors predominate, it may also bea
Blowdown - Water discharged from the system to con- gas engine, steam turbine, hydraulic motor or other
trol concentrations of salts or other impurities in the power source.
circulating water. Units OO/ of circulating water rate Dry-Bulb Temperature - The temperature of the enter-
or gpm. ing or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as
Blower - A squirrel-cage (centrifugal) type fan; usually measured with a dry-bulb thermometer. Unit: OF.
jb
applied for operation at higher-than-normal static Symbol: DB.
- . pressures. Entering Wet-Bulb Temperature - The wet-bulb tem-
Blowout - See "Windage". perature of the air actually entering the tower, in-
Brake Horsepower - The actual power output of a mo- cluding any effects of recirculation. In testing, the
tor, turbine, or engine. Unit: hp. Symbol: bhp. average of multiple readings taken at the air inletsto
 SECTION I

establish a true entering wet-bulb temperature. Unit effluent air stream after having exited the cooling
OF. Symbol: EWB. tower. If visible and close to the ground, it is referred
Evaluation - A determination of the total cost of own- to as "fog". If elevated, it is normally called the
ing a cooling tower for a specific period of time. In- "plume".
cludes first cost of tower and attendant devices, Forced Draft - Refers to the movement of air, under
cost of operation, cost of maintenance andlor repair, pressure through a cooling tower. Fans of forced
cost of land use, cost of financing, etc., all normal- draft towers are located at the air inlets to "force"
, +' air through the tower.
ized to a specific point in time.
Evaporation Loss - Water evaporated from the circu- GeareduceP - See "Speed Reducer".
lating water into the air stream in the cooling pro- Heat Load -Total heat to be removed from the circula-
cess. Units: % of circulating water rate or gpm. ting water by the cooling tower per unit time. Units:
Exhaust (Exit) Wet-Bulb Temperature - See "Leaving Btu per min. or Btu per hr.
Wet-Bulb Temperature". Height - On cooling towers erected over a concrete
Fan Cylinder - Cylindrical or venturi-shaped structure basin, height is measured from the elevation of the
in which a propeller fan operates. Sometimes re- basin curb. "Nominal" heights are usually measured
ferred to as a fan "stack" on larger towers. to the fan deck elevation, not including the height of
Fan Deck - Surface enclosing the top structure of an the fan cylinder. Heights for towers on which a
induced draft cooling tower, exclusive of the distri- wood, steel, or plastic basin is included within the
bution basins on a crossflow tower. manufacturer's scope of supply are generally mea-
Fan Pitch - The angle which the blades of a propeller sured from the lowermost point of the basin, and are
r" fan make with the plane of rotation, measured at a usually overall of the tower. Unit: ft.
prescribed point on each blade. Unit: degrees. Hot Water Temperature - Temperature of circulating
Fan Scroll - Convolute housing in which a centrifugal water entering the cooling tower's distribution sys-
(blower) fan operates. tem. Unit: OF. Symbol: HW.
Fill - That portion of a cooling tower which constitutes Hydrogen Ion Concentration - See "pH".
its primary heat transfer surface. Sometimes re- Induced Draft - Refers to the movement of air through
ferred to as "packing". a cooling tower by means of an induced partial vac-
Fill Cube - (1) Counterflow: The amount of fill required uum. Fans of induced draft towers are located at the
in a volume one bay long by one bay wide by an air air discharges to "draw" air through the tower.
travel high. Unit: cu ft. Inlet Wet-Bulb Temperature - See "Entering Wet-Bulb
(2) Crossflow: The amount of fill required in a volume Temperature".
one bay long by an air travel wide by one story high. Interference - The thermal contamination of a tower's
Unit: cu ft. inlet air by an external heat source. (i.e. the dis-
Fill Deck - One of a succession of horizontal layers of charge plume of another cooling tower.)
splash bars utilized in a splash-filled cooling tower. Leaving Wet-Bulb Temperature - Wet-bulb tempera-
The number of fill decks constituting overall fill ture of the air discharged from a cooling tower. Unit:
height, as well as the number of splash bars incor- OF. Symbol: LWB.
porated within each fill deck, establishes the effec- Length - For crossflow towers, length is always per-
tive primary heat transfer surface. pendicular to the direction of air flow through the fill
Fill Sheet - One of a succession of vertically-arranged, (air travel), or from casing to casing. For counterflow
closely-spaced panels over which flowing water towers, length is always parallel to the long dimen-
45-
spreads to offer maximum surface exposure to the sion of a multi-cell tower, and parallel to the in-
air in a film-filled cooling tower. Sheets may be flat, tended direction of cellular extension on single-cell
requiring spacers for consistent separation; or they towers. Unit: ft.
may be formed into corrugated, chevron, and other Liquid-to-Gas Ratio - A ratio of the total mass flows of
patterns whose protrusions provide proper spacing, water and dry air in a cooling towei. (See Total Air
and whose convolutions provide increased heat- Rate & Total Water Rate) Unit: Ib per Ib. Symbol: UG.
transfer capability. Longitudinal - Pertaining to occurrances in the direc-
Film-Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower in which tion of tower length.
film-type fill is utilized for the primary heat-transfer Louvers - Blade or passage type assemblies installed
surface. at the air inlet face of a cooling tower to control
Float Valve - A valve which is mechanically actuated . water splashout andlor promote uniform air flow
by a float. Utilized on many cooling towers to control through the fill. In the case of film-type crossflow fill,
make-up water supply. they may be integrally molded to the fill sheets.
Flow-Control Valves - Manually controlled valves Make-Up - Water added to the circulating water sys-
which are used to balance flow of incoming water t o tem to replace water lost by evaporation, drift, wind-
. all sections of the tower. age, blowdown, and leakage. Units: O/O of circulating
Flume - A trough which may be either totally enclosed, water rate or gpm.
or open at the top. Flumes are sometimes used in Mechanical Draft - Refers to the movement of air
/
cooling towers for primary supply of water to various through a cooling tower by means of a fan or other
sections of the distribution system. mechanical device.
Fogging - A reference to the visibility and path of the
 SECTION I

Module - A preassembled portion or section of a cool- Splash Bar - One of a succession of equally-spaced
ing tower cell. On larger factory-assembled towers, horizontal bars comprising the splash surface of a
two or more shipped modules may require joining to fill deck in a splash-filled cooling tower. Splash bars
make a cell. may be flat, or may be formed into a shaped cross-
Natural Draft - Refers to the movement of air through a section for improved structural rigidity andlor im-
cooling tower purely by natural means. Typically, by proved heat transfer capability. When flat, they are
the driving force of a density differential. sometimes referred to as "slats" or "lath".
Net Effective Volume - That portion of the total struc- Splash-Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower in which
tural volume within which the circulating water is in splash-type fill is used for the primary heat transfer
intimate contact with the flowing air. Unit: cu ft. surface.
Nozzle - A device used for controlled distribution of Spray-Filled - Descriptive of a cooling tower which has
water in a cooling tower. Nozzles are designed to de- no fill, with water-to-air contact depending entirely
liver water in a spray pattern either by pressure or by upon the water break-up and pattern afforded by
gravity flow. pressure spray nozzles.
' Packing - See "Fill". Stack - An extended fan cylinder whose primary pur-
Partition - An interior wall subdividing the tower into pose is to achieve elevation of the discharge plume.
cells or into separate fan plenum chambers. Parti- Also see "Fan Cylinder" and "Shell".
tions may also be selectively installed to reduce Stack Effect - Descriptive of the capability of a tower
windage water loss. shell or extended fan cylinder to induce air (or aid in
Performance - See "Capacity". its induction) through a cooling tower.
pH - A scale for expressing acidity or alkalinity of the Standard Air - Air having a density of 0.075 Ib per cu ft.
circulating or make-up water. A pH below 7.0 indi- Essentially equivalent to 70°F dry air at 29.92 in Hg
cates acidity and above 7.0 indicates alkalinity. A pH barometric pressure.
of 7.0 indicates neutral water. Story - The vertical dimension between successive
Pitot Tube - An instrument that operates on the princi- levels of horizontal framework ties, girts, joists, or
ple of differential pressures. Its primary use on a beams. Story dimensions vary depending upon the
cooling tower is in the measurement of circulating size and strength characteristics of the framework
water flow. material used. Unit: ft.
Plenum Chamber - The enclosed space between the Sump - A depressed chamber either below or along-
drift eliminators and the fan in induced draft towers, side (but contiguous to) the collection basin, into
or the enclosed space between the fan and the fill in which the water flows to facilitate pump suction.
forced draft towers. Sumps may also be designed as collection points for
Plume - The effluent mixture of heated air and water silt and sludge to aid in cleaning.
vapor (usually visible) discharged from a cooling Total Air Rate - Total mass flow of dry air per hour
tower. through the tower. Unit: Ib per hr. Symbol: G.
Psychrometer - An instrument incorporating both a Total Water Rate - Total mass flow of water per hour
dry-bulb and a wet-bulb thermometer, by which si- through the tower. Unit: Ib per hr. Symbol: L.
multaneous dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature read- Tower Pumping Head - The static lift from the eleva-
ings can be taken. tion of the basin curb to the centerline elevation of
Pump Head - See "Tower Pumping Head". the distribution system inlet; plus the total pressure
Range - Difference between the hot water temperature (converted to ft of water) necessary at that point to
and the cold water temperature (HW - CW) Unit: OF. effect proper distribution of the water to its point of
Recirculation - Describes a condition in which a por- contact with the air. Unit: ft of water.
tion of the tower's discharge air re-enters the air in- Transverse - Pertaining to occurrances in the direction
lets along with the fresh air. Its effect is an elevation of tower width.
of the average entering wet-bulb temperature com- Velocity Recovery Fan Cylinder - A fan cylinder on
pared to the ambient. which the discharge portion is extended in height
Riser - Piping which connects the circulating water and outwardly flared. Its effect is to decrease the to-
supply line, from the level of the base of the tower or tal head, differential across the fan, resulting in
the supply header, to the tower's distribution system. either an increase in air rate at constant horsepower,
Shell - The chimney-like structure, usually hyperbolic or a decrease in horsepower at constant air rate.
in cross-section, utilized to induce air flow through a Water Loading - Circulating water rate per horizontal
natural draft tower. Sometimes referred to as a square foot of fill plan area of the cooling tower.
"stack" or "veil". Unit: gpm per sq ft.
Speed Reducer - A mechanical device, incorporated Water Rate - Mass flow of water per square foot of fill
between the driver and the fan of a mechanical draft plan area of the cooling tower per hour. Unit: Ib per
tower, designed to reduce the speed of the driver to sq ft per hr. Symbol: L'.
an optimum speed for the fan. The use of geared re- Wet-Bulb Temperature - The temperature of the enter-
duction units predominates in the cooling tower in- ing or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as
dustry, although smaller towers will utilize differen- measured with a wet-bulb thermometer. Unit: OF.
tail pulleys and V-belts for the transmission of rela- Symbol: WB.
tively low power. Wet-Bulb Thermometer - A thermometer whose bulb is
 encased within a wetted wick.
Windage - Water lost from the tower because of the ef-
fects of wind. Sometimes called "blowout".
Wind Load - The load imposed upon a structure by a
wind blowing against its surface. Unit: Ib per sq ft.

Air

T Out T
Water
In
-
Figure 17 - Typical splash-type fill.
4 t-
Air In Air In duced, upward-moving stream of air.
4 b
It is rather obvious that the overall cooling effect
would be improved by increasing the height of the
tower, thereby increasing the distance of water fall
and maximizing the total time of contact between air
and water. In utilizing that method, however, struc-
tural and economic limitations would soon be
Figure 16 - Spray-filled, counterflow cooling tower.
reached.
A significantly better way to increase contact time
D. THE PSYCHROMETRICS OF EVAPORATION is by the installation of "fill" within the tower to im-
Evaporation as a means of cooling water is util- pede the progress of the falling water. Although the
ized to its fullest extent in cooling towers, which are various types of fills, and their configurations, will
designed t o expose the maximum transient water be discussed in Section 11, the basic purpose and ac-
surface to the maximum flow of air - for the longest tion of a splash-type fill is depicted in Figure 17.
possible period of time. Placed in the horizontal area of the tower below the
The spray-filled, counterflow tower shown in Fig- sprays - and above the air inlet level, in staggered
ure 16 attempts to accomplish this basic function by rows, these splash bars retard the falling water and
spraying the water into fine droplets, and in contain- increase the surface area exposed to the air, thereby
ing those droplets to fall through a mechanically-in- promoting the process of evaporation.
SECTION I

alnlrlovl palooorso puo > D OAlp 10 q) lad "18- AdlvHIN3

Figure 18 - Psychrometric chart with air-water temperature pursuit curve superimposed.

,-' --
SECTION I

Primary knowledge of how to achieve effective air nearby atmosphere, with the fervent intention that
and water contact notwithstanding, given the prob- atmospheric winds will not find a way to reintroduce
lem of cooling water from 85°F to 70°F, how can one it back into the tower.
hope to do so when the ambient air temperature i s Meanwhile, the water droplets produced by the
78°F at a 50 percent relative humidity? tower's distribution system are competing with the
Utilizing only sensible heat transfer (as in an air- air for the same space and, through natural affinity,
cooled heat exchanger) the problem would be impos- are attempting to coalesce into a common flowing
sible because the entering air dry-bulb temperature stream having minimum surface area to expose t o
(78°F) is higher than the desired cold water tempera- the air.
ture (70" F). However, the process of evaporation that Obviously, the factors which affect cooling tower
occurs i n a cooling tower makes the solution an performance are myriad. Those factors whose ef-
easy one. fects predominate are identified and discussed in
Understanding the evaporative cooling process this section. Additional performance-influencing
can be enhanced by tracing on a psychrometric factors will be discussed in succeeding sections.
chart (Fig. 18) the change in condition of a pound of 1. Wet-Bulb Temperature
air (dry wt.) as it moves through the tower and con- Important to note in the foregoing example(Art.
tacts a pound of water (UG = I), as denoted by the C: Fig. 18) is the fact that precisely the same
solid line. Air enters the tower at condition 1 (78°F amount of enthalpy exchange (cooling effect)
dry-bulb & 50% R.H.), whereupon it begins t o gain would have taken place had the air entered the
moisture content and enthalpy (total heat) i n an ef- tower at a temperature of 65°F and 100% relative
fort t o reach equilibrium with the water, and contin- humidity (condition 1') which, by definition, is a
ues this pursuit of equilibrium until it exits the tower 65°F "wet-bulb" temperature. For this reason, the
at condition 2. basis for thermal design of any evaporative type
During the transit of this pound of air through the cooling tower is the wet-bulb temperature of the
tower, several notable changes occurred which are air entering the tower.
pertinent to the study of cooling towers:
1. Total heat content increased from 30.1 Btu to 45.1
Btu. This enthalpy increase of 15 Btu was gained
from the water. Since, by definition, a Btu is equal
to the heat gain or loss required to change the
temperature of one pound of water by I 0 F , this
means that the temperature of one pound of
water was reduced by the specified amount of
15" F (85-70).
2. The moisture content of the pound of air in-
creased from 72 grains to 163 grains. (7000 grains
= 1 Ib.) This increase of 91 grains (0.013 Ibs.) rep-
resents total evaporation from the water. There-
fore, since the latent heat of vaporization of water Fan
(at 85°F) is approximately 1045 Btullb, this means
that 13.6 (0.013 x 1045) of the 15 Btu removed
from the water (91% of the total) happened by
virtue of evaporation.
3. Although the temperature of the water was re- + 1'o Remote
duced 15"F, the net sensible(dry-bulb) air temper- Readout
ature increase was only 3.3"F, from 78°F to
81.3"F. (Indeed, at a somewhat lower UG ratio,
the dry-bulb temperature of the leaving air would
actually have been less than its entering value.)

FACTORS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFOR-

MANCE
The atmosphere from which a cooling tower draws - Distilled
its supply of air incorporates infinitely variable psy- Water
chrometric properties, and the tower reacts thermal-
ly or physically to each of those properties. The
tower accelerates that air; passes it through a maze
of structure and fill; heats it; expands it; saturates it
with moisture; scrubs it; compresses it; and re-
sponds to all of the thermal and aerodynamic effects
that such treatment can produce. Finally, the cool-
ing tower returns that "used up" stream of air to the Figure 19 - Mechanically aspirated psychrometer.
 - -.. SECTION I

that an upwind heat source beyond those limita-

tions could cause a cooling tower to experience
wet-bulb temperatures somewhat higher than
would be anticipated from published data.
Before making a final decision concerning the
proper design wet-bulb temperature, it is good
practice to take simultaneous wet-bulb readings
at the proposed tower site, as well as at other
open, unaffected locations at the same plant.
These readings should be compared to one re-
corded at the same time at the nearest source of
weather data (airport, weather bureau, etc.), and
12 Max. 4 8 12 4 8 12 the apparent design wet-bulb temperature ad-
Noon justed accordingly.
Finally, and most importantly, once having de-
Figure 22 - Daily variation of wet bulb temperatures cided the correct design, wet-bulb temperature,
the specifier must be clear'as to whether the cool-
ing tower manufacturer is to treat it as an ambient
wet-bulb or an entering wet-bulb in the actual de-
.sign of the tower. As indicated earlier, the basis
for thermal design of any evaporative type cool-
ing tower is the wet-bulb temperature of the air
actually entering the tower. If the design wet-bulb
is specified to be ambient, then reputable cooling
tower manufacturers will adjust that temperature
J F M A M J J A S O N D upward, in varying degrees, to compensate for
any potential recirculation. (Sect. I-E-6)
Figure 23 - Annual variation of wet bulb temperatures Conversely, if the design wet-bulb temperature
is specified to be entering, then the cooling tower
manufacturer will make no adjustment of that
temperature in his design, and the wet-bulb tem-
perature at the time of test will be the average of
multiple readings taken at the tower air inlets.
Currently, cooling tower test codes provide pro-
cedures for measuring performance in the case of
either entering or ambient wet-bulb temperature
specifications, with the general recommendation
trending toward entering wet-bulb as being the
specification which produces not only equal com-
petition at the time of bidding, but also provides
the least room for doubt at the time that the tower
is tested.

HOURS
~ i g u r e24 - Typical wet bulb temperature duration curve
similar sources, pertinent to the utilization of cool-
ing towers, are also compiled in a publication avail-
able from The Marley Cooling Tower Company.
The wet-bulb temperature determined from the
aforementioned publications represents the am-
bient for a geographic area, and does not take in-
to account localized heat sources which may arti-
ficially elevate that temperature at a specific site.
The codes which govern the sizing and testing of
cooling towers define ambient wet-bulb tempera-
ture as that which i s measured at a distance of 50
to 100 feet upwind of the tower, at an elevation Wet-Bulb Temperature - OF
approximately 5 feet above its base, without inter-
vening heat sources. Accordingly, one can see Figure 25 - Typical performance curve
 SECTION I

Figure 29 - Interference.

APPROACH-" F
5. Interference
As previously indicated, local heat sources up-
wind of the cooling tower can elevate the wet-
Figure 27 - Effect of chosen approach on tower size at bulb temperature of the air entering the tower,
fixed heat load, gpm, and wet-bulb temper- thereby affecting its performance. One such heat
ature. source might be a previously installed cooling
tower on site, or in the immediate vicinity. Figure
produced a 25"F approach (10" F warmer water) at 29 depicts a phenomenon called "interference",
only 60% of its size. wherein a portion of the saturated effluent of an
Note also that the deceasing approach curve is upwind tower contaminates the ambient of a
beginning its asymptotic movement toward zero downwind tower. Although proper cooling tower
approach. For this reason, it is not customary in placement and orientation (Sect. I-E-7-(c)) can
the cooling tower industry to guarantee any ap- minimize the effect of interference, many existing
proach of less than 5°F. installations reflect some lack of long range plan-
As can be seen from an analysis of Formula (I), ning, requiring that design adjustments be made
heat load dissipation can be accomplished with in preparation for the installation of a new tower.
almost infinite combinations of flow "rates and
ranges. Usually, however, a relatively narrow
band of possible combinations is dictated by hy-
draulic limitations andlor temperature-efficient DDwllwlnd Wet-Bulb T e r n p r a t u r e
Co Cradc Lcvel
levels of the process being served. Where some
latitude of choice is given by the process, a smal-
ler, less costly tower will be required when the
-
", a "
-
, a B j;
+Sh. 122 + + + + + + +
range is increased and the GPM decreased, as
shown in Figure 28. Although prudent design re-
sponsibility places flow and temperature restric-
tions on cooling towers as well, their latitude downwind wel-bulb irwrcase o v e r ambient wet-bulb.
P ~ p n u t e sw e l - b u ~ bt e r n p r a t u r e 5 t a l l O N (A t h r u I)
usually exceeds that of the typical processes
they are designed to serve.

Cmllng Tover

RANGE VARIANCE-'10

Figure 28 - Effect of varying range on tower size when

+?Su. 115 +

+
\

1 1 4 1" = 100'
+spa.scale:
+

+ A/-': Arnblenl Wet-Bulb Shlron

gWlnd - =;a lo mph:

heat load, wet-bulb temperature and cold Figure 30 - Downwind wet-bulb contour of large exist-
water temperature are constant ing cooling tower.
 SECTION I

c. Air Discharge Velocity: At any given atmos-

pheric condition, the velocity at which the dis-
charge plume from a tower will rise depends
upon the kinetic energy imparted by the fan,
and the buoyant energy (decrease in density)
imparted to the effluent plume by the tower
heat load, both of which are changed to poten-
tial energy by virtue of ultimate elevation of the
plume.
The direction that a plume will travel de-
pends upon the speed, direction, and psychro-
metric characteristics of the wind it encoun-
ters upon leaving the fan cylinder. Low wind
velocities (Va, Fig. 34) will permit an almost
vertical plume rise, barring retardation of that
rise by unusual atmospheric conditions. (For
an induced draft tower operating under calm
conditions, with a vertically rising plume, en-
Figure 33 - Longitudinal wind direction concentrates
separate stack plumes into one of high tering and ambient wet-bulb temperatures can
buoyancy. be considered to be equal.).H.igher wind veloci-
ties will bend the plume toward the horizontal,
where a portion of it can become entrapped in
b. Orientation with Prevailing Wind: If the wind the aforementioned lee-side low pressure zone
indicated in Figure 30 is blowing in its prevail- for re-entry into the tower. (Figs. 31 & 36)
ing direction, the Owner would have been well The velocity ratio indicated in Figure 35 is
advised to turn the tower 90 degrees from its the result of dividing the plume discharge ve-
indicated orientation, as has been done in Fig- locity (Vj) by the velocity of the ambient wind
ure 33. With this orientation, the wind first en- (Va) For all intents and purposes, the recircu-
counters the relatively high, narrow end of the lation ratio is the percent of total effluent air
tower, and the small negative pressure zone at that is reintroduced into the tower air inlets by
the far end is easily filled by wind flowing virtue of recirculation. As can be seen, lower
around the vertical sides. Furthermore, wind velocity ratios (higher wind velocities) result in
moving parallel to the line of fans causes the greater recirculation. The values for the rec-
separate effluents from each fan cylinder to tangular tower represent those anticipated for
"stack up" one on another, forming a concen- an industrial tower of moderate size operating
trated plume of greater buoyancy. broadside t o the prevailing wind. The recircula-
The Round Mechanical Draft tower (Fig. 32) tion ratio for that tower would reach minimum
is, of course, unaffected by wind direction, and value with a 90 degree directional change.
the centralized clustering of the fans produces Since the velocity ratio is also a function of
a concentrated, buoyant plume. plume discharge velocity, ambient wind force

VELOCITY RATIO (VjIVa)

Figure 34 - Effect of wind velocity and discharge veloc- Figure 35 - Comparative recirculation potential of
i t y on plume behavior. round and rectangular towers.
 - -1. Tower Length
Minimum
Tower Length

Minimum
1/2
SECTION I

Tower Length

Minimum

Sector of no lnterference

Figure 37 - Proper orientation of towers in a prevailing longitudinal wind. (Requires relatively minimal tower size
. adjustment to compensate for recirculation and interference effects.)

-t X0/0 of Tower Length

The % of tower length separation is primarily

a function of the tower's physical characteristics

Section of no lnterference

Figure 38 - Proper orientation of towers in a prevailing broadside wind. (Requires significantly greater tower size ad-
justment to compensate for recirculation and interference effects.)
 SECTION I

F. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 2. Metals (Hardware): Steel is utilized for many

Mention of typical materials utilized for specific components of the cooling tower where high
components is made throughout this text, as appro- strength is required. This would include fan hubs
priate. This portion, therefore, will be somewhat re- for larger diameter fans; unitized supports for sta-
iterative in its identification of "standard" construc- bilization of the mechanical equipment; many
tion materials; but will cover in greater depth why driveshafts (although stainless steels are normal-
those materials were chosen, and will indicate tip ly used for the larger shafts); fan guards and
primary alternatives utilized to satisfy unique re- driveshaft guards; as well as the tie rods, bolts,
quirements. The impact of water quality on material nuts and washers.
selection will be discussed in Article G following. In the overwhelming majd;ity of cases, circulat-
Other effects will be covered in Section V, "Special- ing water conditions will be considered normal,
ized Tower Usage and Modifications". and the coating of choice for steel items will be
1. Wood: Because of its availability, workability, rel- galvanization. For severe water service, those
ative low cost, and its durability under the very components whose requirements are not eco-
severe operating conditions encountered in cool- nomically met by alternative materials are usually
ing towers, wood is the predominant structural coated with epoxy-coal-tar.
material utilized. Cast iron and ductile iron are used for gear
Having met these requirements admirably, cases, anchor castings, flow-control valve bodies,
West Coast Douglas Fir is used extensively in the and fan hubs for intermediate sized fans. Al-
cooling tower industry. It began to replace Cali- though both cast iron and ductile iron enjoy good
fornia Redwood as the preferred material in the corrosion resistance, they are usually either gal-
early 19603s,and has since established an unpar- vanized or coated with a high grade enamel for
alleled record of success. Douglas Fir plywood, in cooling tower use. For severe water service, how-
exterior grades, is also widely used as decking, ever, they are usually sand-blasted and coated
partitions, and basin flooring materials. with epoxy-coal-tar. Valve bodies may even be
Various other wood species, both domestic and porcelainized to guard against erosion.
foreign, may be used in cooling towers, provided Bolts, nuts and washers, of course, do not lend
that they exhibit proven durability in severe expo- themselves to a pre-coat,other than galvanization
sures and meet the physical and structural re- or cadmium plating. Severe water conditions nor-
quirements of the installation. mally dictate a change in materials, and an appro-
Regardless of specie, however, any wood used priate grade of stainless steel is the popular
in cooling tower construction must be treated choice because of excellent corrosion resistance
with a reliable preservative to prevent decay. Al- in the aerated conditions existing in cooling
though Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) has towers.
6ompiled an enviable record beginning in 1954, its Copper alloys are sometimes used to resist
arsenic content has introduced recent environ- special conditions, such as salt or brackish water
mental concerns that inhibit its use. Currently, service. Silicon bronze fasteners are suitable for
the preferred treatment is Acid Copper Chromate service in salt water, but must be protected
(ACC), containing salts of chromium, chromic against erosion. The use of Naval brass is normal-
acid, and copper. Such preservatives are diffused ly discouraged because of its tendency toward
into the wood by total immersion in a pressure stress corrosion cracking. Utilization of more so-
vessel, with pressure being maintained either un- phisticated metals, such as monel and titaniun, is
til a prescribed amount of preservative is retained usually precluded by cost considerations.
by the wood, or until the wood refuses to accept Selection of aluminum alloys for use in cooling
further treatment: In either case, laboratory tests, towers is done with care. Only the more corrosion
as well as historical records, have proven the resistant allows are used, and they are utilized
treatment to be adequate. only for specific components of significant cross
Creosote treatment is used occasionally, al- section. Among these components are fan
though it adds considerbly to the tower cost due blades, fan hubs for smaller size fans, some lad-
to difficulties encountered in handling the treated der assemblies, and handrail fittings for steel
wood. Also, its greater tendency to leach out of framed cooling towers.
the wood can lead to heat transfer problems, and Most of the smaller towers designed for factory
may complicate maintenance of water quality. assembly are primarily of steel construction.
Although wood is relatively insensitive to chlor- Some local building andlor fire codes also dictate
ides, sulfates, and hydrogen sulfide, it can be that larger towers be of steel construction as
\
damaged by excessive levels of free chlorine, and well. In these cases, galvanized steel is used for
u is sensitive to prolonged exposure to excessively structures, basins, partitions, decking, fan cyl-
hot water. Design hot water temperatures should inders, and many other major components. In se-
be limited to 140°F, or should be controlled to lected applications of extreme severity, such
that level by the use of a cold water by-pass, as towers have been successfully manufactured of
described in Section V-1-1. stainless steel, although the cost impact was sig-
nificant as might be expected.
,-- SECTION I
I
3. Plastics: The use of selected plastics began to an effort to "neutralize" the water. Chemical
be investigated in the early 1950's and, since that treatment of the circulating water should be
time, has accelerated tremendously. Contributing aimed at maintaining a slightly positive Satura-
to this increased usage are their inherent resis- tion (Langelier) Index.(Formula (7), pg. 32)
tance to microbiological attack, corrosion and
erosion; their compatibility with other materials; G. MAINTAINING WATER QUALITY
their formability; their great strength-to-weight Although the air quality at any particular site can
ratio; and their acceptable cost level. be the cause of serious adverse effects upon both a
The capability of plastics to be molded into cooling tower's longevity of service, and its ability t o
single parts of complex shape and dimensions is function thermally, i t usually manifests itself i n an
a distinct advantage, particularly for such close- undesirable, perhaps unexpected, change in water
tolerance components as fan blades and fan cyl- quality. This i s because cooling towers are extreme-
inders. Their many desirable characteristics, ly effective air washers, and the technological ad-
combined with the advancements being made in vances which are intended to improve their thermal
both plastic materials and their production, performance also serve t o increase their air washing
assure that they will continue to be utilized for efficiency. Consequently, the quality of the water be-
cooling tower components, and the rate of usage ing circulated over a tower quickly reflects the qual-
is anticipated t o increase. ity of the air with which it is in intimate contact.
Plastics are currently used in such components Meanwhile, of course, the air exits a cooling tower
as structural connectors, fan blades, fan cylin- much cleaner than its entering state.
ders, fill, fill supports, drift eliminators, piping, This constant washing of the incoming air, plus
nozzles, casing, louvers, and louver supports. the base characteristics of the make-up water sup-
Most commonly used are fiber reinforced poly- ply, are the parameters which establish the ultimate
ester (FRP or GRP), fiber reinforced epoxy, poly- quality of the continuously recirculated water
vinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene, fiber rein- stream, complicated by the fact that the process of
forced nylon, and fiber reinforced polyphenylene evaporation has the ability to cause incoming con-
oxide. taminant levels t o concentrate tremendously. (See
General1y speaking, plastic components are of "Blowdown" following)
a dimension, location, or formulation that makes In order t o establish a basis for the utilization of
them least susceptible to abnormal water condi- standard construction materials, the following "nor-
tions. However, the relatively thin cross section mal" water conditions have become arbitrarily
utilized for PVC film fill sheets makes them some- defined:
what sensitive to temperature, requiring some- a. A circulating water with a pH between 6 and 8; a
thing more than routine thought in fill support de- chloride content (as NaCI) below 750 ppm; a sul-
sign. Some plastics, such as PVC, are inherently fate content (SO4) below 1200 ppm; a sodium bi-
fire resistant. Where required, others may be for- carbonate (NaHC03) content below 200 ppm; a
mulated for fire retardancy. The most common maximum temperature of 120°F; no significant
such formulation being fire retardant fiber rein- contamination with unusual chemicals or foreign
forced polyester, utilized for casing and louvers. substances; and adequate water treatment to
4. Concrete: Concrete has been used for many minimize corrosion and scaling.
years in Europe and other regions of the world, b. Chlorine, if used, added intermittently, with a free
and i t s use i s increasing i n the United States. Fol- residual not to exceed 1 ppm, maintained for
lowing the first concrete hyperbolic cooling tower short periods.
installed i n the USA in 1961, numerous others c. An atmosphere surrounding the tower no worse
have been installed, and the technology has been than "moderate industrial", where rainfall and fog
expanded t o large mechanical draft towers. In are only slightly acid, and they do not contain sig-
many cases, the higher first cost of concrete con- nificant chlorides or hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
struction is justified by decreased fire risk and, Water conditions falling outside these limits
for larger structures, higher load carrying capacity. would warrant an investigation of the combined ef-
Basically, design philosophies for concrete fect of all the constituents on each component ma-
cooling tower ~ 0 n ~ t r ~ ~coincidet i 0 n with those terial. In many cases, it w ~ l be
l found that very few
espoused by the American Concrete Institute components require a change i n materials. Wood
(ACI), except denser mixes and lower waterlce- and plastic components, for example, are very toler-
ment ratios are utilized than would be expected in ant of chemical excursions far beyond these limits.
more commercial construction. Typically, Type I Conversely, carbon steel items are relatively unfor-
cement is utilized, except where the presence of giving of all but the most limited variations.
above-normal sulfate concentrations dictate the 1. Blowdown: As indicated previously, the water of
L use of Type I1 in water-washed areas. evaporation exits the tower in a pure vapor state,
Circulating water in want of calcium (quantified leaving behind its burden of total dissolved solids
by a negative Saturation Index) can be corrosive (TDS) to concentrate in the recirculating mass of
t o concrete components, i n which case the con- water. Given no control, the TDS level in the circu-
crete gives up a portion of its calcium content in lating water will increase tremendously, jeopar-
 SECTION I

dizing not only the cooling tower, but the heat ex- tion, and the following transposition of Formula
changer and all other water circuit related compo- (2) is used:
nents as well. E - [(C- I ) x Dl
B =
The proper method for controlling TDS concen- (C- 1)
trations is called "blowdown", where a portion of For example, let us assume that a given cooling
the circulating water flow (along with its TDS bur- tower is designed to reduce the incoming temper-
den) is continuously wasted and replenished with ature of 10,000 gprn by 25°F (range). Let us further
relatively pure make-up water. . Y assume that the level of chlorides in the make-up
The approximate level to which contaminants water i s 250 ppm, and we do not want that level to
can concentrate in the circulating water is deter- go beyond 750 ppm in the. circulating water. Al-
mined by the following formula: lowable concentrations are 7501250 = 3. The ap-
proximate evaporation rate would be 10,000 x 25
x 0.0008 = 200 gpm. The approximate drift rate
would be 10,000 x 0.0002 = 2 gpm. Applying
Where: E = Rate of evaporation; gprn (If not ac- these values to Formula (5), blowdown would be:
curately known, evaporation can be
approximated by multiplying total
water flow rate in gprn times the
cooling range (" F) times 0.0008) (3) = 98 gpm.
D = Rate of drift loss; gprn (If not accur- Even if the assumed evaporation and drift rates
ately known, drift rate can be ap- were perfectly accurate, thecalculated blowdown
proximated by multiplying total wa- rate of 98 gprn might still not be quite enough be-
ter flow rate in gprn times 0.0002) (4) cause of the effects of the aforementioned air-
B = Rate of blowdown; gprn borne contaminants, which are usually incalcula-
However, because an acceptable level of con- ble. Once the approximate level of blowdown has
centration has usually been predetermined, the been determined, the circulating water quality
operator is more concerned with the amount of should be regularly monitored and appropriate
blowdown necessary to maintain that concentra- adjustments made.

zu 4
a
5
P
u
z
- 3
-J
0
0
0
LL
0
2
I
f ..
0

4S I
m

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . 1 1 . . 12 13 14 15 16
. . .
NUMBER OF CONCENTRATIONS

Figure 40 -Cooling tower blowdown versus number o f concentrations.

 SECTION I

Figure 40 is a plot of the percent of circulating tice, the indices are used to arrive at a calculated
water flow to be wasted in order to maintain vari- method of treatment. Removable lengths of pipe,
ous concentrations, based upon the approximate or metal coupons, should be inspected periodical-
evaporation and drift rates indicated by Formulas ly to confirm that the treatment is in balance. If
(3) and (4). objectionable scaling is occurring, an increase in
Despite the benefits of blowdown, however, acid feed may be required. If corrosion is evident,
chemical, electrostatic, or electronic treatment of a reduction of acid feed, or the introduction of a
the water is often required to prevent scale forma- lime or soda ash solution, may be needed. For a
tion, corrosion, or biological growth. When treat- system in which a considerable temperature
ment is required, or anticipated to be required* spread occurs, and treatment is set to control
services of a reliable water treatment company scale laydown, it is frequently necessary to use
should be obtained. an inhibitor t o prevent corrosion in the low tem-
2. Scale Prevention: The principle scale-forming in- perature areas. It is desirable to calculate both
gredient in cooling water is calcium carbonate, the Saturation lndex and the Stability lndex in
which has a solubility of about 15 ppm and is order to most accurately predict the scaling or
formed by the decomposition of calcium bicar- corrosive tendencies of a water.
bonate. The maximum amount of calcium bicar- The index values are calculated from the fol-
bonate that can be held in solution depends upon lowing equations, utilizing appropriate values ob-
the temperature and the free carbon dioxide con- tained from Table 2:
tent of the water. Raising the temperature or re- pHs=(9.3+A+B)-(C+D) (6)
ducing the free carbon dioxide, at the point of Where: pHs = pH value at which water is in equi-
equilibrium, will result in the deposition of scale. librium with solid CaC03
If agents (such as sulfuric acid) are added to A = Table 2 value reflecting total solids.
convert a portion of the calcium bicarbonate to B = Table 2 value reflecting tempera-
calcium sulfate, the resultant concentration of ture.
calcium sulfate should not be allowed to exceed C = Table 2 value reflecting calcium
1200 ppm (expressed as CaC03). Otherwise, sul- hardness.
fate scale may begin to form, which is very dense D = Table 2 value reflecting alkalinity.
and quite difficult to remove. Treatment com-
panies may also advise the use of selected com- Saturation Index = pH (actual) - pHs (7)
pounds designed to keep scale-forming solids in
solution. Stability lndex = (2 x pHs) - pH (actual) (8)
The Langelier equation can be used to deter-
mine the carbonate stability, or corrosive proper- 3. Corrosion Control: The metals utilized in a cool-
ties, of a cooling water for a specific temperature ing tower are susceptible to corrosion in varying
when dissolved solids, total calcium, total alkalin- degrees. This is often true of even the most so-
ity, and pH values are known. The Saturation In- phisticated metals, although they can usually
dex (See Formula (7) and Table 2), obtained from withstand deeper excursions into the realm of
these values, is the difference between the actual corrosion, and for longer periods of time, than
measured pH and the calculated pHs at satura- can the more "standard" metals. Circulating
tion with calcium carbonate. When the Saturation water having corrosion characteristics beyond
lndex iszero, the water is in equilibrium with solid those anticipated in the tower's design requires
CaC03 at that temperature; when it is positive, treatment. This may be due to high oxygen con-
the water is supersaturated with CaC03 and may tent, carbon dioxide, low pH, or the contact of dis-
deposit a coating or scale in the system; when it similar metals. Where correction of the source of
is negative, the water will dissolve CaC03 and trouble cannot readily be made, various treatment
may be corrosive. compounds may be used as inhibitors which act
The Ryznar equation was developed to provide to build and maintain a protective film on the
a closer correlation between the calculated pre- metal parts.
diction and the quantitative results actually ob- Since most water system corrosion occurs as a
tained in the field. The numerical value obtained result of electrolytic action, an increase in the dis-
from this equation is designated as the Stab~lity solved solids increases the,conductivity and the
Index. A value of 6 to 7 indicates a water which is corrosion potential. This is particularly true of the
the most balanced. Values less than 6 are in the chloride and sulfate ions. Therefore, blowdown is
area of scaling, while values above 8 indicate in- a very useful tool in the fight against corrosion.
creasing corrosion tendencies. 4. Control of Biological Growth: Slime (a gelatinous
It should be emphasized that these indices are organic growth) and algae (a green moss) may de-
only a measure of the directional tendency, or velop in the cooling tower, and their presence can
- driving force, or a water. Since the solubility of interfere with cooling efficiencies. (See Sect:V-I)
calcium carbonate is dependent on temperature, Proprietary compounds are available from water
the water in a cooling system will have a different treatment companies for the control of slime
index for each temperature encountered. In prac- andlor algae. Chlorine and chlorine containing

32
 SECTION I

compounds are effective algaecides and slimi- tower. (Fig. 41) Having been anticipated in a tower's
cides, but excess chlorine can damage wood and design loading, such ice is normally of no structural
other organic materials of construction. If used, concern and, in many cases, its retardation of air
chlorine should be added intermittently (shock flow through the tower achieves a result similar to
treatment), and only as frequently as necessary to the air-side control procedures about to be discussed.
control slime and algae. Residual levels of free Equally broadly, "unacceptable" ice can be cate-
chlorine should not exceed one part per million gorized as either a significant amount of ice that has
parts of water (1 ppm). Chlorine or chlorine cop- formed on the fill, jeopardizing the operation and ex-
taining compounds must be added carefully, istence of the heat transfer surface; or excessive ice
since very high levels of chlorine will occur at or in a support region which may.threaten the tower
near the point of entry into the circulating water structure. (Fig. 42)
system, causing a localized reduction of 6~ and Although the methods of ice control vary some-
resultant corrosion. what with typeof tower, as well as the waterdistribu-
5. Foaming and Discoloration: Heavy foaming can tion system and mechanical equipment arrange-
sometimes occur when a new tower is put into op- ments, the following statements are true for all
eration. This type of foaming usually subsides situations:
after a relatively short operating period. Persistent a. The potential for ice varies directly with the quan-
foaming can be caused by the concentrations of tity of air flowing through the tower. Reducing the
certain combinations of dissolved solids, or by air flow retards the formation of ice.
the contamination of the circulating water with b. Where air flow is uncontrolled (as in the case of
foam-causing compounds. This type of foaming hyperbolic towers), the potential for ice formation
is often alleviated by increasing the rate of blow- varies inversely with the heat load imposed on the
down. In extreme cases, foam depressant chemi- tower. A reduced heat load increases the proba-
cals must be added to the system, which are bility that unacceptable ice will form.
available from a number of chemical companies. c. The potential for ice varies inversely with the
Woods contain some water soluble sub- amount of water flowing over the fill. A reduced
stances, and these commonly discolor the circu- pumping rate increases the likelihood of unac-
lating water on a new tower. This discoloration is ceptable ice formation.
not harmful to any of the components in the sys- All mechanical draft towers afford some degree of
tem, and can be ignored in that regard. However, air-side control, the variability of which depends
a combination of foaming and discolored water upon the number of fans with which the tower is
can result in staining of adjacent structures when equipped and, most importantly, the speed-change
foam is entrained in the air stream and dis- capability of the motors. Towers designed to be op-
charged out the fan cylinders. In those cases, erated.in cold climates also include means by which
operation of the fans should be avoided until the to exercise water-side control. In mechanical draft
foaming is controlled. towers, both air-side and water-side control are mu-
6. Control of Foreign Materials: Suspended materi- tually supportive. However, natural draft towers offer
als, brought into the system from the air, can best no reasonable opportunity for air-side control and,
be removed by continuous filtration. (See Sect. VI- for that reason, the methods will be discussed separ-

*
E) Oils and fats should be removed from the circu- ately, as follows:
lating water by means of a skimmer (See Sect. 1. Air-Side Control
V-1-2)or, preferably, by eliminating the source of The basic operating concepts that result in
such contamination. Oils and fats are not only a good energy management (Sect. V-F) also serve to
fire hazard, but will reduce thermal performance reduce a cooling tower's ability to produce unac-
of both the heat exchanger and the cooling tower. ceptable ice formations. Manipulation of the air
flow is an invaluable tool, not only in the retarda-
H. OPERATION I N FREEZING WEATHER tion of ice formation, but in the reduction or eli-
Cooling towers are designed to promote the maxi- mination of ice already formed. In addition to
mum possible contact between air and water-and bringing less cold air into contact with the circu-
to do so for the maximum possible time period. This lating water, reducing the entering air flow veloc-
design endeavor results in an efficiency which, at- ity alters the path of the falling water, allowing it
though greatly appreciated in the summertime, has to impinge upon (and melt) ice previously formed
the capability to produce performance-degradingice by random droplets which wind gusts, or normal
formations during winter operation. Obviously, splashing, may have caused to escape the protec-
therefore, means by which the cooling tower's effi- tion of the relatively warm mainstream of water.
ciency can either be controlled, or can be made to Single-speed fans afford the least opportunity
, work toward the management of ice formations, for airflow variation, and towers so equipped re-
must be incorporated into its design, and must be quire maximum vigilance on the part of the user
L/
,properly utilized by the operator. to determine the proper cyclic fan operation that
In broadly general terms, "acceptable" ice may be will best control ice. Two-speed fan motors offer
defined as ice of relatively thin cross section which significantly greater operating flexibility, and
forms on the louvers or air intake structure of the should be given maximum consideration in the
 purchase of towers for use in cold climates. Fans ting a common plenum, those fans should bt
may be individually cycled back and forth be- brought to the off position in unison to prevent 2
tween full-speed and half-speed as required to downdraft of cold, moisture laden air from icinc
achieve balance between cooling effect and ice up the mechanical equipment of an inoperative
control, limited only by the maximum allowable fan.
motor insulation temperature which an abnormal Ultimately, severe ice formations may require
number of speed changes per hour may cause to that the fans be reversed for a period of time. This
be exceeded. (Sect. IV-D) In many cases, it will be causes the falling water pattern to be shifted out-
found that all of the fans operating at half-speed ward, bringing a deluge of relatively warm water
produces the best combination of cooling effect in contact with ice formations for rapid melting.
and ice control, at which point fan energy usage The warmed air exiting the air inlets also pro-
will have reduced by something in excess of 80 motes melting of ice formation not reached by the
percent. (Sect. V-E) falling water. This mode of operation should be
On towers equipped with a separate plenum for utilized only for short periods of time due to the
each fan, individual fans may also be shut off, possibility of ice forming on the fan cylinders, fan
providing another increment of flexibility. How- blades, and mechanical equipment. The allow-
ever, on towers having two or more fans evacua- able length of time will be a function of atmos-

'I,

j
Figure 41a - "Acceptable" counterflow ice. Figure 41b - "Acceptable" crossflow ice
i i

'.- / - '

Figure 42a - "Unacceptable" counterflow ice. Figure 42b - "Unacceptable" crossflow ice.
 SECTION I

pheric conditions and should be established, and chancial draft towers, and should be considered
monitored, by the operator. On multi-fan towers, mandatory on natural draft towers. During cold
individual fan reversal should be avoided. Other- weather start-up, the basin water inventory may
wise, the discharge vapors from adjacent fans be at a temperature very near freezing, at which
may cause severe icing of a reversed fan. time the total
-water flow should be directed back
2. Water-Side Control into the cold water basin upon its return ftom the
All cooling towers, regardless of type, which process load, without going over the fill. This by-
are designed for operation in freezing w e m e r pass mode should be continued until the total
should be equipped with a water distribution sys- water inventory reaches an acceptable tempera-
tem which can be manipulated to place the great- ture level (usually about 8p°F), at which time the
est concentration of flowing water nearest the air by-pass may be closed to-cause total flow over
intakes of the tower. This is particularly true in the fill.
the case of natural draft towers (Fig. 3) where no Even during operation, combinations of low-
means of air-side control is available. Not only load and low-ambient can promote ice formations
does this give the most difficult cooling job to the despite normal air-side and water-side control
coldest air, but it also assures a rapid rise in air procedures. In those cases, it may be necessary
temperature to preclude freezing within the fill. to divert tot^ by-pass flow in order to maintain
Most importantly, it places the maximum amount a reasonable basin water temperature. Modula-
of relatively warm flowing water in close proxim- tion of by-pass whereby a portion of the water
ity to the areas of greatest ice concern. flow is allowed to continue over the fill, must not
Since the potential for freezing on the fill de- be allowed to occur on a natural draft tower, and
pends so much upon the incoming water tempera- its utilization on mechanical draft towers should
ture, provision for total water by-pass directly into be discouraged unless 1) very fine air-side control
the cold water basin (Fig. 43) is advisable on me- is maintained, 2) the water distribution system

Figure 43 - Typical piping and valving arrangement to by-pass return water directly into the cold water basin.
SECTION I

has the capability to concentrate water flow to requiring more frequent fan reversal. Crossflow
the outboard portions of the fill, and 3) the opera- towers have an inwardly sloping air inlet face which
tor monitors the tower's condition vigilantly. Even assures continuous contact of warm water with criti-
so, fill flow rates of less than 50 percent must not cal areas and, with only occasional fan reversal, pro-
be allowed. motes rapid de-icing.
Of the two basic types of towers utilized (counter- This manual is not intended to offer precise in-
flow and crossflow) neither can be considered to structions on cold weather operation of a particular
have an overriding advantage over the other in terms tower, but is meant to raise the level of understand-
. of cold weather operation. Although the counterflow ing and awareness of potential users and practition-
tower's configuration tends to confine ice forma- ers. Precise instructions for individual cases should
tions to areas of greatest structural strength, it is be obtained from the manufacturer.
also the most difficult to de-ice. This is because their Measures for the prevention of basin freezing in
straight-sided shape reduces the opportunity for di- an inoperative tower are covered in Section V I of this
rect warm water contact with a major ice formation, manual.
 SECTION I1

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

A. GENERAL B. COLD WATER BASIN

The structure of a cooling tower must accommq- The cooling tower basin serves the two fundamen-
date long duration dead loads imposed by th6 tally important functions of 1) collecting the cold
weight of the tower components, circulating water, water following its transit of the tower, and 2) acting
snow and ice; plus short term loads caused by wind, as the tower's primary foundatlon. Because it also
maintenance and, in some areas, seismic activity. It functions as a collecting point for foreign material
must maintain its integrity throughout a variety of washed out of the air by the circulating water, it
external atmospheric conditions, and despite a con- must be accessible, cleanable, have adequate drain-
stant internal rainstorm. Wide-ranging temperatures ing facilities, and be equipped with suitable screen-
must be accepted, as well as the corrosive effects of ing to prevent entry of debris into the suction-side
high humidity and constant oxygenation. piping.
. . -
Were it not for the fact that a cooling tower struc- 1. Basin Types: Ground level installations, typical of
ture must also provide the least possible impedance virtually all large industrial towers, utilize con-
to the free contact of air and water, the solution to crete basins (Fig. 44) almost exclusively, whereas
the above problems would be relatively routine. That elevated or rooftop installations are normally
requirement, plus the constant vibratory forces im- equipped with basins provided by the cooling
posed by mechanical equipment operation, dictate tower manufacturer, compatible with the cooling
structural considerations, and variations, which are tower framework. Typical materials include wood
unique to the cooling tower industry. Although basic (Fig. 43, steel and, occasionally, plastic. In those
design concepts are predicated upon universally ac- cases, the cooling tower manufacturer usually in-
cepted design codes, reputable cooling tower manu- cludes drain and overflow fittings, make-up
facturers will modify these codes as necessary to valve(s), sumps and screens, as well as provisions
compensate for effects deemed not to have been for anchorage.
foreseen by the original authority. Concrete basins for wood or steel framed, field-
The components to be considered in this Section erected towers (Fig. 44) are usually designed and
are the cold water basin, framework, water distribu- built by the purchaser, utilizing dimensional and
tion system, fan deck, fan cylinders, mechanical load information provided by the manufacturer.
equipment supports, fill, drift eliminators, casing, However, due to their integration into the overall
and louvers. The best materials for these compon- tower structure, and because of the extensive site-
ents are continuously sought, along with improved related concrete work required, cold water basins
techniques for integrating them into a stable, de- for concrete towers (Fig. 46) are often both designed
pendable, long lasting unit. and built by the cooling tower manufacturer,

Figure 44 - Crossflow tower framework on

conclete basin prepared for
future tower extension.
' SECTION I1

Figure 45 - Plywood cold water basin floor. (Note de-

pressed sump)

To insure proper functioning of the tower, the

basin must provide a stable, level foundation.
Generally, a well-drained soil with moderate bear-
ing capacity will support mechanical draft towers
of wood or steel construction. Concrete towers
impose heavier loads on the soil and, in some
cases, may require the use of piles or caissons.
The soil should have a uniform bearing capacity
under the basin to prevent uneven settlement.
Footings must be below the prevailing frostline
(Fig. 47), and construction practices should al- Figure 46 - Basin and basic framework of an octago-
ways conform to local codes. nal mechanical draft tower in concrete
Wood towers may be equipped with either construction.
wood or steel basins, with tongue and groove,
treated Douglas Fir plywood flooring (Fig. 45) be- basins typically require considerably less mainte-
ing the predominant choice because of its high nance than do carbon steel basins.
strength and dimensional stability. Wood basins Steel basins may be of carbon steel (galvanized
are normally flat, less than 2' deep, and equipped or painted), or stainless steel, aild of either bolted
with depressed sumps to facilitate pump suction. or welded construction. If bolted, joints must be
Joints are sealed to prevent leakage. Plywood gasketed and sealed leak-tight. If welded, the

**.
Figure 47 - Extreme depth of frost b"
penetration (in.) based
on state averages. L ".*~,,&"........... .......... ._.---
\<>
........ ..--*-.--. "
<\%

.............
j
$
 SECTION I1

weld vicinity should be suitably coated for corro- and of sufficient strength t o preclude excess de-
sion protection. Steel basins also are normally flection under load.
flat, except for those under certain factory- In designing the grillage, the possibility of fu-
assembled towers (Fig. 12)) which incorporate a ture extension of the tower should be considered
depressed section to facilitate cleaning and im- as a means of minimizing future cost impact.
prove outflow characteristics. Being subject to 3. Basin Depth: As indicated previously, wood and
oxidation, steel basins require more mainte- steel basins are of relatively .shallow construc-
nance, and are more sensitive to water qualiPy, tion, typically 14" to 20" deep. Although greater
than are wood basins. depths are possible, they are seldom required or
2. Basin Support: A grillage of steel or concrete is recommended.,Sufficient freeboard above the op-
normally utilized for support of a tower installed erating water level i s included to accommodate
over a wood or steel basin. (Fig. 48) Grillages the normal amount of transient water that col-
must be designed to withstand the total wet oper- lects in the basin at shutdown.
ating weight of the tower and attendant piping, as Greater design flexibility is afforded with the
well as the dead loads contributed by stairways, concrete basins typically utilized for larger
catwalks, etc. It must also accept transient loads towers (Fig. 44), and adaptable for smaller towers.
attributable to wind, earthquake, and mainte- Once the load points are accommodated at the
nance traffic. Grillage members must be level, proper elevation, the basin floor (slab) may be as
far below the to^ of the basin wall (curb) as re-
quired to satisfy' design criteria. ~ h e ' b a s i nm
&
be deep enough to provide sufficient hydraulic
head for proper water flow into the sump(s), and
to accept the transient water and potential back-
flow at pump shutdown. Beyond this, the basin.
may be made deep enough to hold a reserve in ,
case of interrupted make-up water supply; to sta-
bilize water temperatures under highly variable
loads; or to act as a reservoir to supply the plant
fire protection system.
"Dry basins" are minimum depth basins which
drain by gravity into adjacent flumes, vessels, col-
lection ponds, or streams. They are so designated
because they are intended to drain completely
upon pump shutdown. Typical applications of
this principle are the "indoor tank" (Fig. 135), and
the "helper" tower. (Fig. 49) (Sect. V-L) Sufficient-
ly low water levels in dry-basin towers may neces-
sitate air seals to prevent the reduction intower
Figure 48 -Steel grillage supporting tower equipped performance associated with air by-passing be-
with wood cold water collection basin. neath the fill.
4

Figure 49 - Wat el- from the basin of this

tower returns directly to the
lake.
,- SECTION I1
,'

Figure 50 - Typical cross-section of concrete sump pit.

4. Basin Sumps: Sumps for towers with wood or down intervals. Where towers are expected to op-
steel basins are normally designed and furnished erate continuously, strategically located basin
by the manufacturer. (Fig. 45) Concrete sumps partitions can permit partial shutdown for sec-
(Fig. 50), provided by the purchaser, should be de- tional cleaning and maintenance.
signed for water entrance velocities of less than Where possible, large capacity cleanout drains
S'lsec., and should be of sufficient depth to satis- (Fig. 50) should be provided. Concrete basin
fy pump suction head requirements. Screens are floors should slope toward the sumps or drains at
usually vertical, of 1' 2' " square mesh, sized for a rate of 1' per loo', to permit flushing of the sedi-
l'lsec. net velocity through the open area of the ment. Where drains cannot be provided, basins
screen, and held in place by channels imbedded should slope toward a cleanout sump from which
in the sump walls to allow for easy removal. sludge can be pumped, or removed manually.
Screens may be installed in duplicate to permit Side-stream filtration (Sect.VI-E) has been found
cleaning during continued operation. to be an effective means of maintaining suspend-
5. Basin Cleaning Facilities: Because it is an area of ed solids at acceptable levels in the circulating

- relatively low flow velocity, any water borne or air

borne particulates entering the circulating water
system will tend to settle in the basin, where the
water system, and of reducing the costs associ-
ated with periodic silt removal. For most effective
filtration, discharge flow from the filter should be
resultant silt can be either periodically or continu- returned to areas of low velocity in the basin in
ously removed from the system. Periodic sludge order to help maintain particulate suspension.
removal usually takes place during normal shut-
 SECTION I1

dictated or advisable in some areas. Earthquake

loads, if applicable, are in accordance with zones de-
fined in the Uniform Building Code of the Interna-
tional Conference of Building Officials. Design
stress values for wood members and fasteners are
based on the National Design Specification of the
National Forest Products Association. Steel mem-
bers are governed by the American Institute of Steel
Construction manual, and concrete is based on
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
crete of the American Concrete Institute. Fir lumber
grades conform to Standard 16 of the West Coast
Lumber Inspection Bureau, latest revision. Redwood
lumber grades conform to Standard Specification
for Grades of California Redwood Lumber of the
California Redwood Association, latest revision.
In large wood towers, the columns are normally
Figure 51 - Factory-assembled towers of treated wood
spaced on 4' x 8' or 6' x 6' centers. (Fig. 44) These
construction are utilized i n corrosive
bay sizes-have evolved over the years, and have
areas.
proved best to properly support the fill, drift elimina-
'\ tor, and louver modules, as well as to keep lumber
C. TOWER FRAMEWORK sizes to those that are readily available.
The most commonly used materials for the frame- Diagonal bracing in the plane of the columns is
. work of field-erected towers are wood and concrete, usually of column size (Fig. 52), with loads trans-
with steel utilized infrequently to conform to a local mitted through fiber reinforced plastic structural
building code, or to satisfy a specific preference. connectors at the joints. Horizontal girts in the trans-
Factory-assembled towers predominate in steel con- verse and longitudinal directions carry the fill mod-
struction, although wood construction is increasing- ules, and keep the unbraced column lengths to short
ly utilized in locations (or for processes) that tend to vertical spans. In order to achieve a determinate def-
promote corrosion. (Fig. 51) inition of lateral bracing of the columns against
A uniform wind load design of 30 pounds per buckling, transverse and longitudinal girt lines
square foot is standard, with higher values either should be at the same plane.

Figure 52 - Framework and joint detail i n a well-designed cooling tower of wood construction.
 SECTION I1

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

In a general sense, piping and distribution of the
water within the envelope of the tower are responsi-
bilities of the tower manufacturer. Site piping, as
well as attendant risers, valves and controls, which
occur outside the confines of the cooling tower are
provided and installed by others.
Magnitude and routing of the circulating water
lines between the heat source and the tower location
are usually dictated by type of tower, topography
and site layout. (Sect. I-E-7-(d),Fig. 39) Lines may be
buried to minimize problems of thrust loading,
thermal expansion and freezing; or elevated to mini-
mize cost of installation and repair. In either case,
the risers to the tower inlet must be externally sup-
ported, independent of the tower structure and piping.
1. Types and Arranqements: Crossflow tower con- Figure 57 - Counterflow distribution system in opera-
figuration (Fig. 56b) permits the use of a gravity- tion.
flow distribution system wherein the supply water
is elevated to hot water distribution basins above and more difficult to balance, clean, maintain and
\,
the fill, from which it flows over the fill (by gravity) replace; but contribute significantly to overall
through metering orifices located in the distribu- heat transfer, tend toward lower pump heads in
tion basin floor. towers of larger size, and are less conducive to
Conversely, counterflow configuration (Fig. 57) algae growth.
normally necessitates the use of a pressure-type A typical supply piping arrangement, applica-
system of closed pipe and spray nozzles. ble to multi-cell crossflow or counterflow towers,
Gravity systems are readily inspected, cleaned positions the supply line adjacent to the long side
and maintained, and easily balanced; but contri- of the tower and running the full length. (Fig. 58)
bute negligibly to overall heat transfer, tend to re- Vertical risers (one per cell) connect the supply
quire a somewhat higher pump head in larger line to the manufacturer's inlet connections at
towers, and may promote the formation of algae the elevation of the tower's distribution system.
unless the open basins are covered. Pressure Valves are usually installed in these risers to en-
spray systems are more susceptible to clogging able individual cells to be taken out of service.

Figure 58 - Seven cell tower with individual side risers.

43
Figure 62 - Distribution system of an operating round Figure 63 - Typical counterflow tower distribution sys-
crossflo w tower. tem.
-..
Concrete crossflow round towers (Fig. 62) typ- 2. Distribution System Materials: Distribution sys-
ically utilize an open concrete flume, fed by oneor tems are subjected to a combination of hot water
more concrete internal risers, for primary distribu- and maximum oxygenation. Therefore, the materi-
tion of the hot water. Radial flow from the flume als utilized should be highly resistant to both cor-
into the open distribution basin is through adjust- rosion and erosion. Historically proven materials
able weirs or gates. Proper placement of stop are hot-dip galvanized steel, cast iron, and red-
logs in the flume permits the opportunity for ma- wood stave pipe. Because of the relatively low
jor maintenance of a sector of an operating tower, pressures to which cooling tower piping is sub-
should the need arise. jected, the use of various types of plastic pipe
Concrete counterflow round or octagonal (Fig. 64) and nozzles has also become a mark of
towers (Fig. 63) also make use of one or more in- quality construction. Except for relatively small
ternal concrete risers feeding an elevated system diameters, the plastic pipe utilized is usually fiber
of closed flumes or conduits (usually of concrete) reinforced. Precast and prestressed concrete
which, in turn, supply an array of branch piping pipe and flumes are also utilized on concrete
and closely spaced nozzles to achieve uniform towers.
water distribution over the fill.

Figure 64 - Large plastic dis-

tribution header.
 SECTION 1.1

E. FAN DECK
The fan deck is considered a part of the tower
structure, acting as a diaphragm for transmitting
dead and live loads to the tower framing. It also pro-
vides a platform for the support of the fan cylinders,
as well as an accessway to the mechanical equip-
ment and water distribution systems.
Fan deck materials are customar~lycompatible
with the tower framework. Wood towers normally
utilize tongue-and-groove fir plywood; galvanized
steel on steel towers; and prestressed double-tee
sections on concrete towers.
Uniform live loading design on larger towers is
normally 60 pounds per 'quare reducing to 40 Figure 68 - Cut-away view of velocity recovery type fan
pounds per square foot on the smaller towers.
cylinder.

ficient structural strength to maintain a stable plan

and profile; and either sufficient height to protect
operating personnel, or a removable mesh guard,
structurally reinforced. .-
All of these physical requirements have practical
limitations, generally controlled by the materials of
construction. Fiber-reinforced plastic, because of its
formability, strength, relatively light weight, stabili-
ty, and resistance to water and weathering, is the
preferred material for this application. Cylinders are
formed over molds which accurately control contour
and dimensions, resulting in a fan cylinder that ap-
proaches ideal air movement, coupled with minimum
noise. Good fan cylinders are also constructed of
wood or steel. However, shape factors usually result
Figure 67 - Typical fiber-reinforced plastic fan cylinder. in lower fan efficiencies.
Fan cylinders of an extended height (sometimes
called "fan stacks") promote discharge of the satur-
F. FAN CYLINDERS ated air stream at higher elevations, minimizing the
Considerable thought, calculation, modeling, and effects of recirculation and interference. (Sect. I-E-5
testing goes into the design and construction of a & 6) One type of fan stack is in the form of a flared
fan cylinder because it so directly affects the proper diffuser (Fig. 68) that provides a gradual increase in
flow of air through the tower. (Sect. 111-B) Fan effi- cross-sectional area beyond the fan with a resultant
ciencies can be severely reduced by a poorly de- decrease in leaving air velocity. This effectively con-
signed fan cylinder, or significantly enhanced by a verts velocity pressure to static pressure, resulting
well-designed one. in a significant increase in air delivery over what
The essence of a well designed fan cylinder (Fig. could be accomplished with a straight stack at the
67) incorporates; an eased inlet to promote smooth same fan horsepower. These velocity-recovery
flow of air to the fan;- minimum fan blade tip clear- stacks are particularly applicable to large industrial
ance; a smooth profile below and above the fan; suf- towers. (Figs. 58 & 59)
 SECTION I1

Figure 70b - Splash type fill: plastic splash bars.

Figure 70a - Splash type fill: wood splash bars.

exclusive use of the film fills. Crossflow towers, on

the other hand, make use of either type. with equal
facility, occasionally in concert.
Splash type fill breaks up the water, and interrupts
its vertical progress, by causing it to cascade
through successive offset levels of parallel splash
bars. Maximum exposure of the water surface to the
passing air is thus obtained by repeatedly arresting
the water's fall and splashing it into small droplets,
as well as by wetting the surface of the individual
splash bars. (Fig. 17)
Splash fill is characterized by reduced air pres- Figure 71 - Film type fill.
sure losses, and is not conducive to clogging. How-
ever, it is very sensitive to inadequate support. The be exercised to assure that the splash bars will not
splash bars must remain horizontal. If sagging oc- abrade the coating, exposing the wire to corrosion.
curs, the water and air will "channel" through the fill Treated wood lath (primarily Douglas Fir) predom-
in separate flow paths, and thermal performance will inated for many years as splash bar material, and
be severely impaired. Also, if the tower is not level, continues to be extensively used because of its
water will gravitate to the low ends of the splash strength, durability, availability, and relatively low
bars and produce this channeling effect. cost. (Fig. 70A) Currently, however, plastics have
Long term performance reliability requires that gained predominance. They may be injection mold-
the splash bars be supported on close ceniers, and ings of polypropylene, or similar materials which can
that the support material be as inert as practicable. be compounded for resistance to fire; or they may be
Of the various support mechanisms presently in use, extrusions of PVC (Fig. 70B), which inherently has a
fiber reinforced plastic grid hangers are recognized low flame spread rate. Stainless steel or aluminum
as having the longest history of success, with PVC splash bars are occasionally used in steel framed
coated wire grids also enjoying considerable use. In towers where totally fireproof construction may be
utilizing coated carbon steel grids, however, care must mandatory.