ME151

FLUID
MACHINERIES

WEEK 1
2017-2018/3T

Prepared by:
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
January 2018
➢ Define fluid machinery, fluid mechanics, and other terms involving fluid
and principle of fluid flow.
➢ Enumerate the different fluid, properties and define each property.
➢ Define Reynolds number and know its application.
➢ Enumerate the types of flow of fluid and define each.
➢ Define continuity equation and know its applications.
➢ Solve problems involving properties of fluid and Reynolds number.
➢ Define head of fluid and enumerate the different heads.
➢ Define Bernoulli's equation In terms of head of the fluid.
➢ Draw the typical installation of a pumping system.
➢ Definitions and Useful Information
➢ Properties of Fluids
➢ Reynolds Number
➢ Types of Flow of Fluids
➢ Continuity Equation
➢ Fluid machinery refers to machines that handle fluids in either liquid or
gas form.
➢ Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids wheter at rest or in
motion.
➢ Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion.
➢ Hydraulics is the branch of science concerned with water or other fluids in
motion.
➢ Fluids are substances which are capable of flowing, and have particles that
easily move and change their relative position without separation of mass.
➢ Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest or body which could be measured
by a weighing scale.
➢ Mass is the absolute quantity of matter.
➢ Weight is the force of gravity of a fluid or body which could be measured
by a weighing scale.
➢ Properties of water at 4˚C and 1 atmosphere
▪ Density, 𝜌 = 1 000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/1 = 1.9 slug/ft3
▪ Specific weight, 𝛾 = 9 810 N/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
▪ Specific volume, v = 9.001 m3/kg = 0.51546 ft3/slug
▪ Specific gravity, SG = 1.0
1. Specific weight is the force of gravity in a unit volume of a substance.
Wt mg
γ= =
V V
where γ = specific weight of the substance, lb/m3, kg/m3, N/m3
V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, fps2
= 9.8066 m/s2
= 32.2 fps2
2. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
m
ρ=
V
where ρ = density of the substance, kg/m3, lb/ft3
V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
3. Specific Volume is the volume of a unit mass of a substance or the
reciprocal of density.
V 1
v= =
m ρ

where v = specific volume of the substance, m3/kg, ft3/lb

V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
4. Specific Gravity (SG) is the ratio of the specific weight of any substance to
that of water or the ratio of density of any substance to that of water.
γ ρ
SG = =
γw ρw

where ρ = density of any substance

ρw = density of water = 1 000 kg/m3
γ = specific weight of any substance
γw = specific weight of water
5. Temperature is the measure of random motion of molecules of a fluid or
system. It is the thermal condition of fluid with reference to its ability to
communicate heat from one body to another body or fluid. It is the
measure of hotness and coldness of a fluid.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a fluid measured with respect
to an absolute zero, which is -460˚F or -273˚C.
▪ Common Temperature Scales
a) Celsius Scale – scale used in the metric or SI system of units
Basis: Freezing point of water 0˚C
Boiling point of water 100˚C

a) Fahrenheit Scale – scale used in the English system of units

Basis: Freezing point of water 32˚F
Boiling point of water 212˚F
▪ Equations of Temperature
a) Fahrenheit to Celsius temperature
5
tC = (tF − 32)
9

b) Celsius to Fahrenheit temperature

9
tF = tC + 32
5

where tF = temperature of fluid, °F

tC = temperature of fluid, °C
▪ Common Scales Used in the Absolute Temperatures
a) Kelvin – an absolute scale used in the metric or SI system of units
TK = tC + 273

b) Degrees Rankine – an absolute scale used in the English system of

units
TR = tF + 460

where TK = absolute temperature of fluid, K

TR = absolute temperature of fluid, °R
6. Pressure is basically defined as the normal force per unit area.
F
p=
A
a) Gauge pressure – the pressure of a fluid or system measured by
pressure measuring-instruments like a pressure gauge or manometer
▪ This pressure may be higher than or lower than the atmospheric
pressure.
▪ Gauge pressure that is lower than the atmospheric pressure is
known as vacuum pressure.
b) Absolute pressure – the pressure of a fluid or system with reference to
an absolute zero pressure
It is the pressure of a fluid or system including the atmospheric
pressure.
pabs = patm ± pg

where pabs = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia

patm = absolute pressure, kPa, psi
pg = gauge pressure, kPag, psig
▪ Negative (-) if pg of the fluid or system is greater than or higher than
the atmospheric pressure
▪ Positive (+) if pg of the fluid or system is lower than the atmospheric
pressure
▪ Negative pressure (pg) is also known as vacuum pressure.
c) Fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure of fluid
▪ It is the force exerted by the column of fluid per unit area.
▪ As shown in Figure 1.1.
p p
p = ρ gh = γh or h = =
ρg γ
where p = fluid pressure, kPag, psig
ρ = density of fluid, kg/m3, lb/ft3
γ = specific weight of the fluid, kN/m3, lb/ft3
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 fps2
h = depth of the fluid, or head of fluid, m, ft
Figure 1.1 Fluid Pressure
▪ Absolute pressure at the base of the fluid
pb = patm + pg = patm +
ρgh = patm + γh ⟶ kPaa, psia
d) Atmospheric pressure – the force exerted by the column of
atmosphere per unit area at the surface of the earth.
It is the intensity of force per unit area due to the weight of the
atmosphere.
e) Standard atmospheric pressure – the pressure of the atmosphere
measured at the surface of the earth near sea level
patm = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg

patm = 14.69 psi = 101.325 kPa = 1.03 kg/cm2 = 1.01 bar

patm = 1.34 m of H2O = 33.91 ft of H2O

▪ When a fluid is at rest, the pressure at any boundary exerted by the
fluid (and on the fluid) will be perpendicular to the boundary.
Pressure-measuring instruments
a) Pressure gauge
• Bourdon gauge is the
device most commonly
used to measure pressure
commercially.
• The reference pressure in
measuring the pressure of
the system is the
atmospheric. Figure 1.2. Pressure Gauge
Pressure-measuring instruments
b) Manometer – a U-tube containing a liquid of known specific gravity,
the surface of which moves proportionally to changes in pressure
Types of Manometers
• Open-type manometer is a manometer with an atmospheric
surface in one leg and capable of measuring gauge pressure.
− Piezometer – the simplest form of manometer, it is a tube
tapped into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose
of measuring the pressure.
Figure 1.3. Open-type Manometer
 • Differential-type manometer is a manometer without an
atmospheric and capable of measuring only differences of
pressure.

Figure 1.4.
Differential-type
Manometer
7. Surface tension is the force of
molecular attraction per unit length
of free surface. It is a function of
both the liquid and the surface in
contact with the liquid. Surface
tension of liquid decreases as the
temperature increases. It is always
tangent to the interface.
Figure 1.5. Surface Tension
dF F
d𝛿 = or δ =
dL L
where 𝛿 = surface tension, N/m
a) Wetting liquid. A liquid is said to
wet a surface in contact with it if Tube
ϕ
the attraction of the molecules to
the surface exceeds the
attraction of the molecules to
each other.
Liquid

Figure 1.6. Wetting Liquid

b) Non-wetting liquid. A liquid is
said to be non-wetting if the
attraction of the other liquid
molecules to each other is greater
than their attraction to the
surface

Figure 1.7. Non-wetting Liquid

8. Compressibility is the resistance of fluid to change its volume in a
confined space. Compressibility of water usually affects the solution of
practical problems in hydraulics only by changing its unit weight.
Modulus of elasticity or bulk modulus of the fluid is the ratio of the stress
(change of pressure) to the strain (change in volume divided by the
original volume).
Δρ where β = bulk modulus or modulus of elasticity of the fluid
β= β =
ΔV 300 000 psi (for water)
V V = original volume The negative sign (-)
accounts for the fact that
ΔV = change in volume
as the pressure increases,
Δp = change in pressure the volume decreases
Example 1.1
Determine the percentage change in the volume of water if its pressure
increased by 30 000 psi.
Solution:
For water, β = 300 000 psi
From the equation of modulus of elasticity of the fluid,
ΔV Δp 30 000
= =− = −0.10 𝑜𝑟 10% 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
V β 300 000

Note: The negative sign means decrease in volume

9. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid. It may be
defined as the ratio of the shearing stress or force between adjacent
layers of fluid to the rate of change of velocity perpendicular to the
direction of motion. It may also be defined as the property of fluid that
determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing stress.

Figure 1.8
Absolute Viscosity
▪ Absolute viscosity is defined as the unit force required to move one
layer of fluid at a unit velocity to another layer of the fluid which is at
unit distance from the first.
t
μ=
𝜕V
𝜕y
▪ Absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity is the ratio of the fluid layer
shearing stress to that of the shear stress rate.
▪ Shear strain rate the ratio of the velocity of a particular layer to its
perpendicular distance from the stationary surface and is constant for
each layer.
Vb V
𝑠= =
z y
▪ According to Newton, the force F required to maintain a constant
velocity Vb of the upper (layer) surface is proportional to the area and
the shear strain rate. 𝐹
Vb Vb 𝐴 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑁/𝑚2)
F∞A or F = μA μ= 𝑉𝑏 =
z z 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (1/𝑠)
𝑧

where τ = shearing force or stress

V = velocity of fluid
y = distance perpendicular to flow
μ = proportionality constant, known as absolute viscosity
𝑧 = distance between layers or plates
Other Derivation of Viscosity, 𝝁
a) Points to consider
• If the distance between the plates and the relative velocity of the
upper plate to the lower plate are both kept constant, the force F
required will be directly proportional to the area of the moving
plate.
F∞A eq. 1

where A = shearing area

F = shearing force
• If both the distance between the plates and the area of the moving
plates are kept constant the force required will be directly
proportional to the relative velocity of the plates.
F∞V eq. 2
• If the relative velocity and the area of the moving plate are kept
constant but the distance between the plates are varied, the force
required will be inversely proportional to the distance between the
plates. This arises from the fact that as the distance between the
plates decreases, the shear stress increases.
1
F∞ eq. 3
z
• Combining eq. 1, 2, and 3.
AV
F∞
z
• Introducing the proportionality constant, μ.
AV
F= μ
z
• Dividing both sides by A,
AV
F= μ
z

F
where = 𝜏 = shearing stress between plates or layers
A
V
= rate of shearing strain or linear velocity
z
distribution in the fluid
μ = proportionality constant, known as viscosity
• Taking the value of μ,
F
V τ shearing stress
μ= V = V =
rate of shearing strain
z z
b) Units of Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity (SI, mks, and cgs)
N⋅s
SI ⟶ 2 ⟶ Pa ∙ s ⟶ kg/m ∙ s
m

Dyne ⋅ s
Cgs ⟶ 2 ⟶ Poise ⟶ g/cm ∙ s
cm

lb ⋅ s
English ⟶ 2 ⟶ Reyn
cm
• Derivation:
F
A N⋅s N/m2
μ= = m/s = 2 = Pa ∙ s
V m
z m

F
A N/m2 N⋅s kg ⋅ m/s2 ⋅ s kg
μ= = m/s = m2 = 2 =
V m m∙s
z m

F
A Dyne/cm2 Dyne ⋅ s
μ= = cm/s = 2 = Poise
V cm
z cm
• Derivation:
F
A Dyne/cm2 Dyne ⋅ s g ⋅cm/s2 ⋅ s g
μ= = cm/s = 2 = 2 =
V cm cm cm ∙ s
z cm

Conversion:
1 Poise = 1 g/cm-s 1 Dyne = 1 g-cm/s2
1 Poise = 1 Dyne-s/cm2 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa ∙ s
1 Reyn = 6.9  104 Poise
• Derivation of 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa ⋅ s
N⋅s kg ⋅ m/s2 ⋅ s 1000 g ⋅ 100 cm/s2 ∙ s
1 Pa ∙ s = 1 2 = 1 2 =
m m 100 cm 2
1000g ⋅ cm/s2∙ s g ⋅ cm/s2 ⋅ s
= 2 = 10
100 cm cm2
Dyne ⋅ s
= 10 2 = 10 Poise
cm

Then, 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa ∙ s

1 CentiPoise = 0.01 Poise = 0.001 Pa ⋅ s
c) Units of Viscosity (English system of units)
F
A lbf/ft2
lbf ⋅ s
μ= V = fps =
ft2
z ft
F
A lbf/in2 lbf ⋅ s
μ= V = ips = 2 = Reyn ⟶ after Osborne Reynolds
in
z in
• 1 Reyn = 1 lb, s/in2
F slug ⋅ fps2
A ft2 slug
μ= V = fps =
ft ⋅ s
z ft

Conversion:
1 Poise = 0.10 Pa ∙ s 1 Poise = 0.002089 lbf-s/ft2
1 cP = 0.001 Pa ∙ s 1 Pa ∙ s = 2.089  10-2 lbf-s/ft2
1 cP = 2.089  10-5 lbf-s/ft2
1 lbf-s/ft2 = 478.8 Poise = 47.88 Pa ∙ s
d) Kinematic viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by
density. It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mas
density.
μ
μ=
ρ
• Units of Kinematic Viscosity (SI or metric system of units)
kg ⋅m/s2
μ N ⋅s/m2 ⋅s m2
m2
v= = 3 = =
ρ kg/m kg/m3 s
Dyne )/
μ ⋅
s (g × cm/s cm2 ⋅ s cm22
cm2
v= = 3 = 3 = = stoke
ρ g/cm g/cm s

1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
• Units of Kinematic Viscosity (English system of units)
lbf ∙ s slug ∙fps2
μ ⋅ s ft2
ft2 ft2
v= = 3= =
ρ slug/ft slug/ft3 s
▪ System of Units for Viscosity
1. Absolute Metric System
1 Poise = 1 g/cm-s
1 Poise = 1 Dyne-s/cm2
2. Absolute British System
1 poundal-s/ft2 = 1lbm/ft-s
Conversion: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 lb-s/ft2
1 Poise = 0.0672 1lbm/ft-s
▪ System of Units for Viscosity
3. Absolute “Gravitational” British System, of the Engineers’ System
1 lb-s/ft2 = 1 slug/ft-s
Conversion: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 lb-s/ft2
1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s
Note: 0.0020885 = 0.06772/32.17

4. Units of Kinematic Viscosity

Metric System: 1 stoke = 1cm2/s
Conversion: 1 stoke = 0.001076 ft2/s
▪ Methods of Obtaining Viscosity
1. Universal Saybolt Viscosimeter (kinematic viscosity)
1.8 where t′ = Saybolt second
v = 0.0022t’ – ′
t v = kinematic viscosity, stoke
• Saybolt second is the time in seconds required for 60 cm2 of
liquid to pass through an opening of standard size.
10-5 where v = kinematic 2
′ 194
v = 0.236t −
t′ viscosity, ft /s
Note: For heavy oil, a Saybolt-Furol viscosimeter is used
1 Saybolt-Furol = 10 · Saybolt Universal
▪ Methods of Obtaining Viscosity
2. Engler Viscosimeter
403
v = 0.158t′ – ′ 10-5
t
3. Engler Viscosimeter
185
v = 0.280t′ – ′ 10-5
t

where v = kinematic viscosity, ft2/s

t' = Sayblolt seconds
▪ Methods of Obtaining Viscosity
4. Helmholtz Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Water
0.01779
μ=
1 + 0.03366t + 0.000221t2

5. Grindley and Gibson’s Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Air

μ = 0.0001702(1 + 0.00329𝑡 + 0.000007𝑡2)

where 𝜇 = absolute viscosity, poise

t = temperature of water, °C
Example 1.2
Using Helmholtz equation, determine the viscosity of water in Poise and
slug/ft-s for a temperature of 15.55°C. If the density of water at this
temperature is 1 gm/cm2, determine the kinematic viscosity in both units.
Given: Water at a given condition
t = 15.55°C ρ = 1 g/cm3
Required:
The absolute viscosity, in Poise, and kinematic viscosity in both units
Solution:
Using Helmholtz equation,
0.0779 0.01779
μ= 2= 2
1+0.03368𝑡+0.000221𝑡 1+0.03368 15.55 +0.000221 15.55
μ = 0.01128 Poise Answer

In English unit: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s

μ = (0.01128 Poise) (0.0020885 slug/ft-s/Poise)
μ = 0.0000236 slug/ft-s
For Kinematic Viscosity,
μ 0.01128 Poise 2/s
v= = =0.01128 stoke = 0.00001214 ft
ρ 1 g/cm3
Example 1.3
Using Grindley and Gibson’s equation, determine the viscosity of air for
60°F . Specific weight of air is 0.0765 lb/ft3. Find the kinematic viscosity for
both units.
Given: Air at a given condition
t = 60°F γ = 0.0765 lb/ft3
Required:
• The absolute viscosity using Grindley and Gibson’s equation
• The kinematic viscosity for both units
Solution:
Using Grindley and Gibson’s equation,
μ = 0.0001702 1 + 0.00329t + 0.000007t2
5
where t = 60 − 32 = 15.56°C
9
μ = 0.0001702 1 + 0.00329 15.56 + 0.000007 15.56 2

= 0.00018 Poise
In the English unit: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s
μ = (0.00018 Poise) (0.0020885 slug/ft-s/Poise)
= 37.59 × 10-8 slug/ft-s
For Kinematic Viscosity,
μg 37.59 ×10−8 slug/ft −s(32.2fps2)
v = = 3 = 1.5822 × 10-4 ft2/s
γ 0.0765 lb/ft
1 stoke
v = (1.58 × 10-4 ft2/s) 2 = 0.147 stoke
0.001076 ft /s
Example 1.4
No. 6 fuel oil has a viscosity of 300 SSU and a specific gravity of
approximately 1.0. Determine the kinematic viscosity and absolute
viscosity of the oil for both units.
Given: No. 6 fuel oil
μ = t‘ = 300 SSU SG = 1.0
Required:
The kinematic viscosity and absolute viscosity in both units
Solution:
a) For heavy oil, 1 SSF = 10 SSU
where SSF = Saybolt Second Furol
SSU = Saybolt Second Universal
300 SSU
t' = = 30 SSF
10
b) For English unit,
′ 194 194
v = 0.236t − 10-5 = 0.236 30 − 10-5
t′ 30
= 6.13 × 10-6 ft2/s
c) For SI unit,
1.8 1.8
v = 0.0022t’ – ′ = 0.0022(30) – = 0.006 cm2/s or stokes
t 30
d) Solving for the absolute viscosity, μ = vρ
where ρ = (1 000) (SG) = (1 000) (1.0) = 1 000 kg/m3
= 0.001 kg/cm3
Then, μ = (0.006 cm2/s) (0.001 kg/cm3)
= 6 × 10-3 g/cm-s or Poises
e) For English System,
1 Poise – 0.0020885 slug/ft-s
μ = (0.006 Poise) (0.0020885 slug/ft-s/Poise)
= 1.2531 × 10-5 slug/ft-s
➢ Viscometer or viscosimeter is a device
used to measure viscosity of a fluid.
➢ Hydrometer is a device used to
measure the specific gravity of a fluid.
➢ Saybolt viscometer is the most
commonly used device for
determining the absolute viscosity of hydrometer
liquids.
➢ Saybold Seconds Universal (SSU) is
the Saybolt time used to measure the
viscosity of fluid. viscometer
➢ Relationship between SSU and Kinematic viscosity
Let t = time, in seconds
▪ For t < seconds:
195
SSU = 0.220t – ⟶ in centistokes
t
▪ For t > seconds:
135
SSU = 0.220t – ⟶ in centistokes
t
➢ Conversion of SSU to centistokes, centistokes = 0.308(SSU – 26)
➢ Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF) – another viscosity index
▪ 60 SSF = 600 SSU
Example 1.5
The absolute viscosity of a fluid at atmospheric condition is 6 × 10-3
kgf-s/m2. Find the viscosity in
a) Reyn
b) Poise
c) lbf-s/ft2
d) Pa-s
Solution:
a) For the viscosity in Reyn,
-3
kgf ⋅ s 2.205 lb 1m 2 2.54 cm2
μ = 6 × 10
m2 1 kg 100 cm 1 inch
=8.535 × 10-6 = 8.535 × 10-6 Reyn
b) For the conversion to Poise,
kgf ⋅ s 9.81 N N
μ = 6× 10-3 = 0.05886 2 · s = 0.5886 Pa · s
m2 1 kgf m

1 Poise
μ = 0.05886 Pa · s = 0.5886 Poise
0.10 Pa · s
c) For the conversion to lbf-s/ft2,
2
-3
kgf ⋅ s 2.20 lb 1m =
lbf · s
μ = 6 × 10 1.2297 × 10-3
m2 1 kg 3.28 cm ft2

d) For the conversion to Pa · s,

kgf ⋅ s 9.81 N N
μ = 6 × 10 -3 = 0.05886 2 · s = 0.5886 Pa · s
m2 1 kgf m
Example 1.6
Given a fluid with an absolute viscosity m between 1-m2 surfaces spaded 1
mm apart, find how fast the surfaces will move relative to each other if a
10-N force is applied in the direction of the surfaces when m is
a) 0.001 N-s/m2 (water)
b) 0.100 n-s/m2 (a thin oil at room temperature)
c) 10.0 Pa-s (syrup; cold oil)
d) 108 Pa-s (asphalt)
Solution:

a) Solving for the relative velocity if μ = 0.001 N-s/m2

F z 10 N 0.001 m
V = = = 10 m/s
A μ 1 m2 0.001 N · s/m2
b) Solving for the relative velocity of μ = 0.100 N-s/m2,
F z 10 N 0.001 m
V = = = 0.10 m/s
A μ 1 m2 0.100 N · s/m2

c) Solving for the relative velocity of μ = 10 Pa-s

F z 10 N 0.001 m
V = = = 0.001 m/s
A μ 1 m2 10 N · s/m2
d) Solving for the relative velocity if μ = 108
F z 10 N 0.001 m
V = = = 10-10 m/s
A μ 1 m2 8
10 N · s/m2
Example 1.7
Mercury at 20°C has a viscosity of 1.58 × 10-2 Poise. What is the force
necessary to maintain a relative velocity of 2 m/s between two plates that
are separated by 10 cm and whose area is 0.10 m2?
N⋅s
1 Poise = 0.10 2
or Pa − s
m
Solution:

Solving for the force necessary to maintain the relative velocity,

m
AV N 0.10 m2 (2 s )
F =μ = 1.58 × 10 -3 ·s = 0.00316 N
z m2 0.10 m
➢ The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter used to determine the
type of flow of fluid.
➢ The Reynolds number is as follows:
γDV ρDV
Re = =
μg μ
where γ = specific weight of fluid, N/m3, lbf/ft3
ρ = density of fluid, kg/m3, lb/ft3
μ = absolute viscosity, Poise, Pa-s, gm/cm-s. slug/ft-s
D = internal diameter of pipe, m, ft
V = velocity of fluid, m/s, fps
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, fps2
= 9.8066 = 32.2 fps2
1. Laminar flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move
along straight, parallel paths in layers or laminae.

Re < 2 000 ⟶ low velocity.

Figure 1.9 Laminar Flow

2. Turbulent flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move
in a haphazard fashion in all directions. It is impossible to trace the
motion of an individual particle because of its high velocity and variable
direction.

Re < 4 000 ⟶ high velocity.

Figure 1.10 Turbulent Flow
3. Critical flow (transitional flow) is combination of laminar and turbulent
flow.
➢ Continuity equation is an equation derived from the first law of
thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system. It is used to determine
the mass flow rate and volume flow rate of fluid.
1. Mass flow rate, m = ρAV = ρQ
2. Volume flow rate, Q = AV
where m = mass flow rate, kg/s
ρ = density of the fluid, kg/m3
A = cross-sectional area, m2
V = velocity of the fluid, m/s
Q = volume flow rate, m3/s
Example 1.8
Air having a density of 1.01 kg/m3 and an absolute viscosity of 1.79 × 10-4
Poise (1.79 × 10-5 Pa-s) flows through a 30.48-cm diameter pipe at the rate
of 1 814.0 kg/hr. Determine the type of flow existing in the pipe.
Given: Air flowing inside a pipe
m = 1 814.0 kg/hr
ρ = 10 1 kg/m3
D = 30.48 cm
μ = 1.79 × 10-4 Poise = 1.79 × 10-5 Pa-s
Required:
The type of flow of fluid inside the piep
Solution:
For the volume flow rate,
1hr
m (1814 kg/hr) 3600 s
Q= = = 0.50 m3/s
ρ 1.01 kg/m3
For the air velocity
Q 4Q 4(0.5m3/s)
V= = 2
= 2
= 3.85 m/s
A πD π 0.3148m
For the Reynolds number,
ρDV (1.01 kg/m3)(0.3048 m)(6.85 m/s)
Re = = −
5
= 117 807.80
μ 1.79 ×10 Pa−s

Since 117 807.8 > 4000, the type of flow is turbulent

Example 1.9
An irrigation pump delivers water through a 15-cm horizontal pipe flowing
full at the outlet, the jet striking the ground at a horizontal distance of 3.66
m and at a vertical distance of 1.22 m from the end of the pipe. Find the
capacity of the pump in lpm.
Given: A figure shown
Required:
The pump capacity, lpm
Solution:
Considering the vertical distance,
y = Vy t = 0.5 g t2, where Vy = 0
2y
Then, t = eq. 1
g
Considering the horizontal distance
x
x = Vx t ⟶ Vx = eq. 2
t
Substituting eq. 1 in eq. 2,
g 9.8066
Vx = x = (3.66) = 7.34 m/s
2y 2(1.22)
For the pump capacity,
𝜋 2 𝜋
Q = A Vx = D Vx = (0.15)2 (7.34)
4 4
= 0.1297 m3/s = 7782 lpm