RAIN WATER HARVESTING

The term rainwater harvesting refers to direct collection of precipitation falling on the
roof or onto the ground without passing through the stage of surface runoff on land. It is
sometimes used to describe the entire gamut of water harvesting. We shall use it here only in
the specific sense. There are two types of rainwater harvesting, roof water harvesting and ‘In
situ’ water harvesting. In this chapter, roof water harvesting (RWH) methods are described.
Basically, there are two types of rainwater harvesting schemes: those designed for
agricultural use and those designed for human use. Rainwater catchment schemes
intended for agricultural use and those designed for human use. Rainwater catchment
schemes intended for agricultural use require large catchment areas. In this case, use of the
ground surface is the obvious choice. However, water for human use should be more
convenient and cleaner than water for agriculture use.
Roofs are an obvious choice for a catchment surface as their elevation protects them from
contamination and damage which are common to ground surface catchments.
The advantages of rainwater roof catchment system are:
• The quality of rainwater is high, if collected and stored in a hygienic manner.
• The system is independent, and therefore suitable for scattered settlements.
• Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in rainwater system construction.
• No energy costs are needed to run the system.
• Ease of maintenance by the owner/user.
The disadvantages of rainwater roof catchment system are:
• The high initial cost.
• The water available is limited by rainfall and roof area. For long dry seasons, the required
storage volume may be too high, which is very expensive.
• Mineral free water has no taste while people may prefer the taste of mineral rich water.
• Mineral free water may cause nutrition deficiencies in people who are already on mineral
deficient diets.
Feasibility of Roof Water Harvesting
The initial step in planning and developing a rainwater roof catchment system involves an
appraisal of the feasibility of the system. The feasibility can be determined in light of three
constraints: technical, economical and social.
Technical: The initial consideration of the feasibility of rainwater roof catchment system
concerns water availability as compared to its user demand. The total rainwater available
depends on a catchment area and annual precipitation. The total annual demand is based on
total design population and per capita rate of supply. If the supply exceeds demand, then
rainwater roof catchment system is feasible from a technical point of view, based on total
maximum supply over the period of a year. If the supply is less than demand, then possible
solutions include increasing the catchment area or reducing the demand for rainwater.
Economical: The cost of proposed rainwater roof catchment system must be evaluated and
compared with the costs of alternative water supply improvements. Costs of catchment and
storage demand on which existing structures can be used, and the cost of materials. Though
system may be economically justifiable, it must also be affordable to the household.
Social: Once it has been tentatively established that it is technically and economically
feasible to construct a rainwater roof catchment system, the next step involves social and
community assessment. This stage is critical to the success of the catchment scheme.
The components of a rainwater roof catchment system include the roof, the gutter system and
the storage tank.

The Roof Area: To collect rainfall, the roof must be constructed of appropriate material such
as corrugated metal, clay tile and locally available materials; also have sufficient surface area
and be adequately sloped to allow run-off. Corrugated metal is light in weight, easy to install
and requires little maintenance. However, it may be expensive or unavailable in isolated areas
where rainwater roof catchment system may be most applicable. Clay tiles make good
surfaces and are usually cheaper and longer lasting than sheet metal because they can be
produced locally. However, the manufacturer of clay tiles requires a good source of clay and
fuel for firing. The disadvantage of tile is their weight. A strong roof support structure is
required for supporting the tiles. Roofs constructed of thatched materials such as grass and
palm leaves have proved to be inexpensive and durable. The disadvantage of thatched roofs is
that the run-off contains organic matter, is yellowish in colour and smells of decomposed
leaves. For this reason, thatched roofs should be used in conjunction with a simple filtration
device.
The Gutter System: Effective guttering is an important part of the rainwater roof harvesting
system. Water must be efficiently conveyed from the roof to the tank to meet the
homeowner’s demands. A good gutter material should be lightweight, water resistant and
easy to join. To reduce the number of joints and thus the likelihood of leakages, a material
that is available in long, straight sections is preferred. Metal gutters are most durable and
require the least maintenance. However, they are the most expensive. Regardless of the
material selected, the gutter should be large enough to channel water from heavy rains
without overflowing. A gutter with a cross-section of 100 sq. cm is usually sufficient to meet
this requirement. The minimum recommended depth is 7.0 cm for any gutter. The gutter
should be placed at a uniform slope to prevent water from pooling or overflowing. The slope
should be about 1 cm per meter. To collect the water running off during light and heavy rains,
the roof should overhang the gutter by 1 or 2 cm. The gutter should extend beyond the roof
edge by about 7 cm.
The Storage Tank: A satisfactory storage tank is the most important part of the rainwater
roof water harvesting system. It is difficult to construct and must be a durable device, hence it
is the most expensive component of the system. The materials used are masonry, concrete,
ferro-cement, plastic, metals sheet etc. The design stage of the project involves sizing the
storage tank. There are a number of methods that can be used to determine tank volume.
Operation and Maintenance
Rooftop catchment surfaces collect dust, organic matter and bird droppings, which can clog
channels, cause sediment buildup on the tank bottom apart from contamination of the stored
water. During periods of no rain, these materials are accumulated on the roof and they are
washed off with the first rain.
The following steps are necessary for proper maintenance of various components:
Roof:
(i) Roof must be periodically cleaned out of dust, branches of trees, leaves, bird
droppings etc.
(ii) Corrugated metal sheet requires to be painted preferably before each monsoon.
(iii) Clay tiles are to be checked from time to time and broken tiles are to be replaced.
(iv) Support structure of the roof is to be checked time to time.
Gutter System:
(i) The gutter must be cleaned frequently to prevent overflowing during heavy rains.
(ii) The joints of the gutter should be checked periodically and made correct if there is
a likelihood of leakage. The joints can be sealed with tar or rubber and the jointing
compound should not contaminate water.
(iii) The slope of the gutter should also be checked from time to time.
(iv) Metal gutters are required to be painted when required. The support of the gutter
should also be checked. This can be accomplished by tying wire around the gutter
and fastening it to roof.
Storage Tank:
The maintenance requirements of the tank will eventually depend on the effectiveness of the
first flush system and the frequency of roof and gutter cleaning. Contamination can be
avoided by diverting the first 10 – 20 liters of rain from the tank. Flush traps can be used to
prevent the first flush from reaching the tank. In this case, the plastic pipe over the reservoir
collects the first flush water from the roof and the removable end allows discharge after each
rainstorm.
Another important factor is the quality of the tank cover and screening on inlet and outlet.
Sunlight reaching the water will promote algae growth. Unprotected openings will also
encourage mosquito breeding. So, the following steps are necessary: (i) The inside of all
tanks require periodic cleaning. The water should be scrapped annually. Vinegar, baking soda
or bleaching powder solutions are commonly used as cleaning agents. (ii) Sediments should
be removed and walls should be scrapped annually. (iii) Care must be taken not to
contaminate the next volume of incoming storage water. (iv) If cracks in the tank wall are
observed, they should be replastered after each cleaning of the tank surface. (v) After
cleaning and after disinfections, the water should be allowed to enter. (vi) The tank cover
should be checked for tightness so that mosquito and other insects cannot find entry inside
the tank. (vii) The entry pipe and the overflow pipe should be checked for proper screening
arrangements to prevent entry of flies etc. (viii) Sheet metal tanks require to be painted
periodically to prevent formation of rust.

WATER PANS AND PONDS

Excavated ponds and pans are small reservoirs, about 1 m to 3 m deep, usually dug of-stream
with raised and compacted banks all around. They are constructed to collect and store runoff
water from various surfaces including from hillsides, roads, rocky areas and open rangeland.
The difference is that pans receive their water wholly from surface runoff while ponds
are constructed where there is some ground water contribution or a high water table.
The capacity of pans and ponds can range from 500 to 5,000 m3 . Structures whose reservoir
capacity is less than 500 m3 are called tanks, while those exceeding 5,000 m3 are called dams.
The figure below shows a pictorial depiction of a pan/pond layout:
Advantages and limitations of ponds
Advantages
One advantage of pans and ponds is that relatively large volume rainwater can be stored
when compared to that of surface or sub-surface tanks.
 The storage structure is easy to construct and use

 Pans can be used to collect runoff from home compound, where houses are grass-thatched
 They can provide water for domestic/livestock use and for crop irrigation

 Pans can be sited almost anywhere if lined to control seepage.

Limitations of ponds
 The main disadvantage of pans/ponds is that the water is liable to pollution and
contamination due to unprotected catchments.
 Seepage and evaporation losses are also problems owing to the fact that the reservoirs are
built on natural ground and that they are mostly too wide to provide cover.

 For community water supplies, they have relatively small capacities compared to earth
dams,
 They can suffer high siltation rates
Components of storage ponds
The components of a pan or pond are quite similar to those of an underground tank.
Basically, a pond must have a:
a) catchment area,
b) diversion channel,
c) desitling basins,
d) the reservoir and
e) water delivery system, mainly pipes and taps.
A properly designed and constructed pan has an embankment which is covered with grass
sod to prevent collapse or erosion of the banks. Particular attention is given to the
development of seepage areas on the downstream face of the dam. Any evidence of piping,
wave action or damage should have corrective steps taken in time.

The inlet should be stone pitched to prevent soil erosion. A mesh should be provided at the
inlet to prevent floating material from entering the pond. The slope of the sides shall depend
on the soil condition. In order to prevent seepage losses through sides and bottom, these are
lined with plastic sheeting. This should be embedded properly and the outlet stone-pitched to
prevent soil erosion. A water extraction piping or well is constructed at a suitable point of
pond to facilitate withdrawal of water. The well has to be constructed by raising two masonry
wing walls and one front wall. A suitable platform fitted with iron fixtures for simple pumps
is necessary.
A silt trap should be provided at the inlet point to prevent sediment load form entering the
pond. The size of the silt trap should be designed keeping in view the site conditions, duration
and intensity of rainfall. Silt Trap should be cleaned regularly. In sandy soil profiles, the pond
volumes are lower because of need for stabilisation of the sands with grass.
The ponds usually have large surface areas compared to the volume of water stored and
heavy losses occur since evaporation is a function of surface area. On the other hand, seepage
increases with the depth of the stored water. Plastic lining is useful in avoiding seepage losses
Site selection
From an economic view point, the bund should be located where maximum storage volume is
obtained for minimum volume of earthfill, since the major share of the cost goes into the
earthfill. This condition, generally, can be met at a site where the stream/ or drainage channel
is narrow, steep, side slopes are steep and stable, and the stream bed is of consolidated and
nearly impervious formation. Such sites also minimise the pond area.
Characteristics of a Good Pond Site
A good pond site should have the following characteristics:
(i) Be a narrow gorge with a fan shaped valley above: so that a small amount of
earthwork gives a large capacity.
(ii) The capacity catchment area ratio should be such that the pond can fill up in about
2-3 months of rainfall. The capacity should not be too small to be choked up with
sediments very soon.
(iii) The pond should be located where it could serve a major purpose e.g. if for
irrigation, it should be above the irrigated fields.
(iv) Junction of two tributary, depressions and other sites of easily available fill
material and favourable geology should be preferred.
(v) The site should not have excessive seepage losses.
(vi) The catchment area should be put under conservation practices

DAMS
Cross Section of a Small Earth Dam
General Guidelines for the Design of Embankments
Design Criteria
The basic requirements for the design of an embankment dam are to ensure:
i) Safety against overtopping. This is a function of the spillway capacity and
freeboard;
ii) Stability. The stability of the slopes should be considered for the case of
construction, steady state and rapid drawdown.
iii) Safety against internal erosion. The selection of material for the downstream shell
and the design of internal drainage blanket and toe drain address this aspect;
iv) Functional performance in terms of excessive seepage. The design of the cut-off
and impervious core address this aspect.
Height of Embankment
The height of the embankment should be determined in accordance with the water depth
calculated in Determination of the Required Storage Capacity and then increased by the
required gross freeboard (GF) which is a function of the width of the spillway; the wider the
spillway, the lower the gross freeboard.
This means that the final embankment height should be established through an iterative
process which considers the cost of spillway excavation and the cost of embankment
construction as the cost of the intake and other structures is constant irrespective of the height
of the embankment. An extra allowance or camber should be provided along the crest of
earthfill dams, to ensure that the freeboard will not be diminished by post-construction
settlement of the dam and the foundation. For small earthfill dams on relatively non-
compressible foundations, a camber of about 2% of the embankment height (with a minimum
of 0.20m) should be provided. Linear equations should be used to vary the amount of camber,
and make it roughly proportional to the height of the embankment.
It should be noted that dam heights less than five metres be carefully considered as the
freeboard is usually 1.00 – 1.50 metres and evaporation in arid areas is above 2.00 metres
with the result that the effective storage available for use is less than is justified by the cost of
the project.

Layout Plan of a Small Earth Dam

Dam Freeboard
The embankment crest must be sufficiently higher than the maximum design water level in
the dam to prevent any overtopping, including the possibility of waves washing up the
embankment. The critical condition is when the inflow design flood (IDF) (for the design
return period) is passing through the spillway.
The net freeboard (NF) is defined as the minimum freeboard that occurs when the spillway
is flowing at its maximum design flood capacity.
The gross freeboard (GF) is therefore the minimum freeboard (NF) plus the water depth in
the reservoir (hA) above the spillway crest when the IDF is passing.

Design of Spillway Structures

The function of the spillway is to discharge the normal and flood flows safely around the
embankment and back to the water course without compromising the long term functionality
and integrity of the dam.
Location and Type of Spillways
The common type of spillway used with earth embankments is a side channel spillway,
excavated in earth or rock next to the embankment. The incorporation of relatively large
concrete structures as spillways for small earth dams is difficult to justify on economical
grounds. The basic factors to be taken into account when choosing a spillway location are:
i. The spillway should be kept away from the embankment in order to avoid the
need for concrete protection structures, and
ii. ii. Excessively steep valleys should also be avoided, in order to prevent erosion
problems in the spillway channel and to reduce excavation volumes.
Consequently, spillways are usually located on the side of the embankment where the valley
slopes are flattest. In the case of large discharges to be catered for, the possibility of
constructing two spillways - one on either side of the embankment- can be considered; the
quantity of excavation required usually being the decisive factor. In cases where the
topography of the site favours such a solution the possibility of discharging the flood waters
into a valley other than the original river valley can also be considered. This could however
have adverse effects on eventual water users downstream of the dam and on the flow regime
of the other river.
Because of the cost of rock blasting, extensive excavation in rock should be avoided, but the
location of the spillway channel on a relatively horizontal layer of bedrock is wherever
possible a handsome solution to all erosion problems in the spillway channel. Problems with
spillway channel erosion prohibit the construction of spillways on backfilled soil. Spillways
should always be excavated in original material.
It is always preferable to let spillway channels discharge on bedrock. Where this is not
possible, it is advisable to protect the river-bed from scouring at the location of the spillway
discharge. Lining with reno-mattresses, gabions or pitched stone is usually appropriate.