Assignment Papers 1 Semister II

BHABHA UNIVERSITY
MEd - Semester - II, 2023

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION
Assignments Paper-1
Q 1. What is learning? Discuss anyone behavioral theory of learning and their importance along with
educational implications.
Ans.
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes,
and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is
also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a
single event, but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes
induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be
"lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.
Human learning starts at birth and continues until death because of ongoing interactions between
people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many
established fields as well as emerging fields of knowledge or in collaborative learning health systems.
Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning
may occur because of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more
complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may
occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided
or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human
behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks
into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for
learning and memory to occur very early on in development.
Behavioral theory of Learning
The behavioral learning theory, or behaviorism, defines how people learn and behave. Educators and
leaders use this concept to facilitate positive behavior in the classrooms and workplaces.
Understanding this theory can help you understand how people learn and how you can interact with
clients and colleagues better. In this article, we introduce behaviorism, describe its types, delve into the
fields using his theory, discuss its benefits and share strategies for using it.
What is Behavioral theory of Learning?

The behavioural learning theory is the concept that people acquire all their behaviors by interacting
with the environment through conditioning. It also asserts that all human behavior is a response to
external environmental stimuli. According to the theory, a learner is born without behavioural
influences. Others affect their behavior through positive or negative reinforcement of certain
behaviors. Positive reinforcement is the application of a stimulus to promote behavior. Conversely,
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negative reinforcement is withholding a stimulus to prevent a behavior from occurring or removing an
uncomfortable stimulus to reward the correct behavior.
Types Of Behavioural Learning Theory
There are three types of behavioral learning theories.
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
3. Observational learning
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a process that leads to acquiring new behaviors through the association of two
stimuli. The linked stimuli create a newly learned response. One stimulus prompts an automatic
response, while the other stimulus is neutral. The conditioned response automatically elicits from the
neutral stimulus by associating them with the subject's mind. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
conducted the first experiment on classical conditioning.
The experiment involved conditioning dogs by associating the sound of a bell with the desire for food
by pairing the natural response. The smell of food prompted a dog with a neutral stimulus, the sound of
a bell. The conditioned dogs immediately displayed signs of hunger when they heard the bell.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning in which outcomes govern responses. The theory that a
person is more likely to engage in a behavior if they believe it can result in a reward is the basis for
operant conditioning. A person is less likely to engage in a behavior if they predict it may result in
punishment. Positive reinforcement involves the introduction of a stimulus, while negative
reinforcement involves removing a stimulus.
The following is an introduction to operant conditioning through positive and negative reinforcement
and positive and negative punishment:
 Positive reinforcement: The addition of a positive stimulus follows the desirable response to
increasing the frequency of that response. For instance, praising someone after a behavior,
which is a positive stimulus, likely motivates them to repeat it.
 Negative reinforcement: The removal of an undesirable stimulus follows the desirable
response to increasing the frequency of that response. An example of negative reinforcement
is a vehicle making a beeping sound if the driver does not buckle their seatbelt. Thus, the
sound, the undesirable stimulus, can encourage the driver to perform the desired behavior of
fastening their seatbelt.
 Positive punishment: The addition of a negative stimulus after an undesirable behavior
discourages it in the future. For instance, a child might get additional tasks if they disturb
others or make any noise in the classroom.

 Negative punishment: The removal of a desirable stimulus after the behavior discourages that
behavior in the future. For instance, when a driver breaks a traffic rule, suspending their
driver's license for a certain duration might discourage them from repeating the behavior.
Observational Learning
Observational learning involves watching and simulating others. When individuals observe others'
behaviors, they constantly retain those behaviors and repeat similar actions in the future.
Observational learning also refers to shaping and modelling, which typically occurs during childhood.
When children learn to interact and behave with others, such learning can be an integral component of
socialisation. Children typically learn to behave by observing their parents and other people interacting
with others.
As per psychologist Albert Bandura, observational learning suggests that social imitation typically
begins around the age of two. Bandura demonstrated that children are more likely to imitate others'
behavior when they observe that there are no negative results for the act or when the action results in
a reward. Whereas, when children observe punishment for a particular behavior, they are less likely to
replicate that behavior. Observational learning can occur in the workplace when employees observe
the manager's response to specific employee behaviors and then choose their behavior according to
positive or negative results.
Educational Implications
Behaviorism can be an effective way to influence learners to adopt positive behaviors and discourage
negative behaviors. This theory in the classroom usually follows these four steps.
1. Demonstrating the desirable response or behavior to students: The educator explains

acceptable and unacceptable classroom behaviors to the students.
2. Reinforcing the desired behavior or response: The educator encourages good behavior
through reinforcement and discourages inappropriate behavior through punishment.
3. Providing new behavioural goals: The instructor continuously tries to improve student
behavior by showing new desirable behaviors and rewarding them.
4. Being consistent: It is important for educators to be consistent when assessing and reacting to
both desirable and undesirable behaviors.

Q 2. What do you understand by Adjustment? Explain in detail the concept and nature of Defense
Mechanism.
Ans.
Man is a unique product of evolution. In contrast to other forms of animal life one of the unique
attributes of man is his self-awareness and capacity to understand himself. Social existence has
produced physical dangers such as war, there are important psychological problems uniquely
associated with living in Society. There are also questions of attainment of basic satisfaction from
competence in interpersonal relations and through some degree of inner harmony. Thus, as Lazarus
has said man has accordingly become increasingly interested in psychological adjustment and nature of
personality".
The concept of adjustment was originally a biological one and was a comer stone in Darwins theory of
evolution (1859). In Biology the term usually employed was adaptation, Darwin maintained that only
those organisms most fitted to adopt to the hazards of the physical world survive. Biologists have
continued to be concerned with the problem of physical adaptations and many human illnesses are to
be based on the process of adaptation to the stress of life.
When man has accordingly become increasingly interested in adjustment a separate discipline called by
various names as "psychology of adjustment”, "Mental Hygiene", "personality adjustment" is
developing. Such a discipline although an Infant discipline is growing In its breadth and depth.
Meaning of Adjustment
Adjustment, in psychology, the behavioral process by which humans and other animals maintain an
equilibrium among their various needs or between their needs and the obstacles of their
environments. A sequence of adjustment begins when a need is felt and ends when it is satisfied.
Hungry people, for example, are stimulated by their physiological state to seek food. When they eat,
they reduce the stimulating condition that impelled them to activity, and they are thereby adjusted to
this particular need.
In general, the adjustment process involves four parts,
a. a need or motive in the form of a strong persistent stimulus,

b. the thwarting or nonfulfillment of this need,
c. varied activity, or exploratory behavior accompanied by problem solving, and
d. some response that removes or at least reduces the initiating stimulus and completes the
adjustment.
Social and cultural adjustments are similar to physiological adjustments. People strive to be
comfortable in their surroundings and to have their psychological needs (such as love or affirmation)
met through the social networks they inhabit. When needs arise, especially in new or changed
surroundings, they impel interpersonal activity meant to satisfy those needs. In this way, people
increase their familiarity and comfort with their environments, and they come to expect that their
needs will be met in the future through their social networks. Ongoing difficulties in social and cultural
adjustment may be accompanied by anxiety or depression.
Symonds, adjustment can be defined as a satisfactory relationship of an organism to its environment".

According to him environment consists of all surrounding Influences or forces which may influence the
organism in its efforts towards maintenance. Thus, it is a process through which an organism molds
itself in response to conditions it faces.
As per the Traxler the most desirable state of adjustment is one in which the individual is perfectly
happy and satisfied with all aspects of life.
According to McKinneys, “Adjustment is in essence the building up of attitudes or the changing of the
environment so as to meet the thwarted or unsatisfied motives".
Shaffer "Adjustment Is the relationship which becomes established among biological heritage or
organism, the environment and personality".
Skinner "Adjustment involves the organization of personality. This organization leads to the stability
that is an active adjustment of individual to his social and physical environment.
Adjustment is defined in two ways,
a. Adjustment by some is considered as a process,

b. Adjustment by some is considered as a level which a person has attained (a product).
Adjustment is both individual and social. The individual aspect tells how an individual is free from
internal conflicts and tensions or inconsistencies and how he is skillful to adapt to new situations. The
social aspect reveals how an individual has established a satisfactory relationship between himself and
his environment, between his needs and desires and those of other people.
Process of Adjustment
It is said above that adjustment can be considered as a process. The process of adjustment if analyzed
consists of the following components,
a. A Motivating Condition: A need or motive in the form of a strong persistent stimulus. For
example: a bodily need, a wish, an anticipatory goal.
b. An environment or mental condition that thwarts or conflicts with the motive resulting into a
state of tension. For example: absence of food, fear physical defect,
c. Trial and error behavior. For example: the individual reacts positively or negatively to several
stimuli; reaches, withdraws shows over aggressive behavior.

d. The discovery of stimuli which bring out a response that satisfies the motivating condition for
example, eating, removal of feared object, success. Emotional maladjustment due to; failure to
find stimuli, to satisfy motivating situations for example, continued hunger, continued fear,
persistent worry over physical condition.
e. Satisfaction of motivating condition by responses that conflict with other motivating conditions.
For example: eating too rapidly and becoming ill, removing object, which is feared but also
cherished, over aggressive behavior which results in unpopularity. Adjustment to emotional
disequilibrium through understanding of the problem (as analyzed in this outline) to learn new
responses or to find a new environment. For example: to learn how or where to obtain food, to
become accustomed to the feared object or to move away from it to find success in a field that
does not require physical perfection, or to have the defect remedied.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from
anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.
Defense mechanism, in psychoanalytic theory, any of a group of mental processes that enables the
mind to reach compromise solutions to conflicts that it is unable to resolve. The process is usually
unconscious, and the compromise generally involves concealing from oneself internal drives or feelings
that threaten to lower self-esteem or provoke anxiety. The concept derives from the psychoanalytic
hypothesis that there are forces in the mind that oppose and battle against each other. The term was
first used in Sigmund Freud’s paper “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1894).
How Do Defense Mechanisms Work?
In Sigmund Freud's model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with reality.
While doing this, the ego also must cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.
 The id: The part of the personality that seeks to fulfill all wants, needs, and impulses. The id is
the most basic, primal part of our personalities and does not consider things such as social
appropriateness, morality, or even the reality of fulfilling our wants and needs.
 The superego: The part of the personality that tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic and
moral manner. The superego is made up of all the internalized morals and values we acquire
from our parents, other family members, religious influences, and society.
To deal with anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts
created by the id, superego, and reality. So, what happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands
of our desires, the constraints of reality, and our own moral standards?
According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a
signal to the ego that things are not going the way they should. As a result, the ego then employs some
sort of defense mechanism to help reduce these feelings of anxiety.
Some of the major defense mechanisms described by psychoanalysts are the following,

1. Repression is the withdrawal from consciousness of an unwanted idea, affect, or desire by
pushing it down, or repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind. An example may be
found in a case of hysterical amnesia, in which the victim has performed or witnessed some
disturbing act and then completely forgotten the act itself and the circumstances surrounding
it.
2. Reaction formation is the fixation in consciousness of an idea, affect, or desire that is opposite
to a feared unconscious impulse. A mother who bears an unwanted child, for example, may
react to her feelings of guilt for not wanting the child by becoming extremely solicitous and
overprotective to convince both the child and herself that she is a good mother.
3. Projection is a form of defense in which unwanted feelings are displaced onto another person,
where they then appear as a threat from the external world. A common form of projection
occurs when an individual, threatened by his own angry feelings, accuses another of harboring
hostile thoughts.
4. Regression is a return to earlier stages of development and abandoned forms of gratification
belonging to them, prompted by dangers or conflicts arising at one of the later stages. A young
wife, for example, might retreat to the security of her parents’ home after her first quarrel with
her husband.
5. Sublimation is the diversion or deflection of instinctual drives, usually sexual ones, into non-
instinctual channels. Psychoanalytic theory holds that the energy invested in sexual impulses
can be shifted to the pursuit of more acceptable and even socially valuable achievements, such
as artistic or scientific endeavours.
6. Denial is the conscious refusal to perceive that painful facts exist. In denying latent feelings of
homosexuality or hostility, or mental defects in one’s child, an individual can escape intolerable
thoughts, feelings, or events.
7. Rationalization is the substitution of a safe and reasonable explanation for the true (but
threatening) cause of behavior.
Psychoanalysts emphasize that the use of a defense mechanism is a normal part of personality function
and not in and of itself a sign of psychological disorder. Various psychological disorders, however, can
be characterized by an excessive or rigid use of these defenses.
Commonly used defense Mechanisms

1. Denial: Denial is one of the most common defense mechanisms. It occurs when you refuse to
accept reality or facts. You block external events or circumstances from your mind so that you
don’t have to deal with the emotional impact. In other words, you avoid the painful feelings or
events. This defense mechanism is one of the most widely known, too. The phrase, “They’re in
denial” is commonly understood to mean a person is avoiding reality despite what may be
obvious to people around them.
2. Repression: Unsavory thoughts, painful memories, or irrational beliefs can upset you. Instead
of facing them, you may unconsciously choose to hide them in hopes of forgetting about them
entirely. That does not mean, however, that the memories disappear entirely. They may
influence behaviors, and they may impact future relationships. You just may not realize the
impact this defense mechanism is having.
3. Projection: Some thoughts or feelings you have about another person may make you
uncomfortable. If you project those feelings, you’re misattributing them to the other person.
For example, you may dislike your new co-worker, but instead of accepting that, you choose to

tell yourself that they dislike you. You see in their actions the things you wish you could do or
say.
4. Displacement: You direct strong emotions and frustrations toward a person or object that
doesn’t feel threatening. This allows you to satisfy an impulse to react, but you don’t risk
significant consequences. A good example of this defense mechanism is getting angry at your
child or spouse because you had a bad day at work. Neither of these people is the target of
your strong emotions, but reacting to them is likely less problematic than reacting to your boss.
5. Regression: Some people who feel threatened or anxious may unconsciously “escape” to an
earlier stage of development. This type of defense mechanism may be most obvious in young
children. If they experience trauma or loss, they may suddenly act as if they’re younger again.
They may even begin wetting the bed or sucking their thumb. Adults can regress, too. Adults
who are struggling to cope with events or behaviors may return to sleeping with a cherished
stuffed animal, overeat foods they find comforting, or begin chain smoking or chewing on
pencils or pens. They may also avoid everyday activities because they feel overwhelming.
6. Rationalization: Some people may attempt to explain undesirable behaviors with their own set
of “facts.” This allows you to feel comfortable with the choice you made, even if you know on
another level it’s not right. For example, people who might be angry at co-workers for not
completing work on time could be ignoring the fact that they’re typically late, too.
7. Sublimation: This type of defense mechanism is considered a positive strategy. That’s because
people who rely on it choose to redirect strong emotions or feelings into an object or activity
that is appropriate and safe. For example, instead of lashing out at your employees, you choose
to channel your frustration into kickboxing or exercise. You could also funnel or redirect the
feelings into music, art, or sports.
8. Reaction formation: People who use this defense mechanism recognize how they feel, but
they choose to behave in the opposite manner of their instincts. A person who reacts this way,
for example, may feel they should not express negative emotions, such as anger or frustration.
They choose to instead react in an overly positive way.
9. Compartmentalization: Separating your life into independent sectors may feel like a way to
protect many elements of it. For example, when you choose to not discuss personal life issues
at work, you block off, or compartmentalize, that element of your life. This allows you to carry
on without facing the anxieties or challenges while you’re in that setting or mindset.
10. Intellectualization: When you’re hit with a trying situation, you may choose to remove all
emotion from your responses and instead focus on quantitative facts. You may see this strategy
in use when a person who is let go from a job chooses to spend their days creating
spreadsheets of job opportunities and leads.

Q 3. What are the different methods of educational psychology?
Ans.
Education and Psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior, the activities of animate creature, which can be observed and
measured in an objective way.
Education in the narrow sense is the modification of behavior of children in a controlled environment.
To shape the behavior of the subject and bring some positive or negative changes, it is necessary to
study the science of behavior. The developmental stages and characteristics of children are very
essential factors from which the teacher must be aware to be a successful teacher. If the teacher has
no knowledge of children psychology, how can we expect from him that he would succeed in bringing
about the desirable changes in children?
Definition of Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the application of psychological findings in the field of education. Educational
psychology is the systematic study of the development of the individual within the educational settings.
It helps the teacher to understand the students and enhance their skills.
Educational psychology is an applied discipline which combines the two different fields of education
and psychology. It is the scientific study of human behavior by which it can be understood, predicted,
and directed by education to achieve goals of life.
Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the development of an
individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.”
Contribution of Educational Psychology
One simple question may be asked as to why educational psychology should be taught to prospective
teachers in training colleges. The educational psychology helps the teachers in the following ways,
1. To understand developmental characteristics - Children pass through different stages of
development in life as infancy, childhood, and adolescence. These developmental stages have
their own characteristics and demands.

2. To understand the nature of classroom learning - With the help of education psychology the
teacher understands the students and their need and problems, it help teacher in learning
process in general and class-room learning in particular.
3. To understand individual differences - With the help of psychology teacher understand the
individual’s differences. Teacher faces a class of 30 to 50 students who have a different range
of individual differences. Teacher with the knowledge of education psychology and individual
differences may adjust his teaching to the needs and requirements of the class.
4. To understand effective teaching methods - Every day experience shows that lack of proper
methods of teaching sometimes results in failure of communication in the classroom. The
educational psychology gives us the knowledge of appropriate methods of teaching. It helps in
developing new strategies of teaching.
5. knowledge of mental health - Mental health of the student and teacher is very important for
efficient learning. With the help of educational psychology, the teacher can understand the
various factors, which are responsible for the mental health and maladjustment.
6. Curriculum construction – Psychological principles are also used in formulating curriculum for
different stages.
7. Measurement of learning out-comes - Psychological tools help the teachers to evaluate the
learning out-come of the students. it helps the teacher to evaluate his own performance.
8. Guidance for the education of exceptional children - Most important contribution of
educational psychology is the provision and organization of the educational psychology is the
provision and organization of the education for the education of sub normal children.
Methods of educational psychology
Different types of techniques are used by researchers to collect data and conduct research studies.
With the increasing use of educational technology in education, psychology and other social sciences,
new research strategies are evolved.
Following are the important methods and techniques of collecting data are,
1. Introspection
2. Observation
3. Clinical method
4. Case study
5. Scientific or experimental method
Introspection
Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and then
in psychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. Introspection means to see
with in oneself or self-observation. To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind. This
method was developed by the structuralists in psychology who defined psychology as the study of
conscious experiences of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and disadvantages.
Merits:
 It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult by other methods.
 It is an easy method and needs no equipment.
 It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and observation method.
Demerits:
 This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific objectivity.
 The most serious objection against this method is that human mind is not static like inanimate
objects such as stone or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so when one
attempts to introspect, the state of mental process disappears, and it becomes a retrospect.
 The human mind is divided in two parts. One is his own mental operation and the other is the
object to which this mental operation is directed. To expect any individual to attend the
workings of his own mind during a mental process, especially in a complex and emotional state
such as anger or fear, is a mistaken idea. Ross commenting on the limitation of introspection
said, “The observer and the observed are the same, the mind is both the field and the
instrument of observation.
 Introspection cannot be employed on children and insane propel.
 There are conflicting reports, as regards the findings collected from different introspectionists.
Observation
With the development of psychology as an objective science of behavior, the method of introspection
was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behavior. Observation literally means looking
outside oneself. It is a very important method for collecting data in almost all type of research studies.
Different type of Observation used in research, direct or indirect, scheduled, or unscheduled, natural,
or artificial, participant, and non-participant. But there are two basic types of observation. They are,
1. Natural observation - In natural observation the observer observes the specific behavioral and
characteristics of subjects in natural settings and the subject does not aware of the fact that
their behavior is being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the behavior of his
student in the playground or in any other social gathering without making him conscious.
Natural observation can be done anywhere without any tools.
2. Participant observation - In participant observation the observer became the part of the group
which he wants to observe. Observational study is particularly very important and produces
significant results on developmental characteristics of children. No doubt that observation is a
scientific technique of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied upon to locate
behavioral problems.
Merits:
 this type of observation is a natural and normal way of knowing the external world but also the
mind of the subject.
 This method is objective in nature and free form personal bias and prejudice.
 Through this method we can observe as many children as we like.
 This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal person who cannot be examined
through introspection.
 This can be used anytime and anywhere.
Demerits:
 Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt behavior which is manifested in
several activities. This overt behavior does not provide reliable information regarding the
internal mental process. We can only guess about the mental state of the individual based on
overt behavior which may or may not be true. It becomes very difficult to draw any conclusion
in case of adults who can hide their actual behavior in the presence of the observer.
 Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this method. The observer may interpret
his sensation of external stimulus on the bias of his experience. He may be biased in his
interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that strong personal interests tend to
make researcher see only those things which he wants to see.
 Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error and observer error. The first error
occurs because of inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The observer error may
be due to knowledge and background of the situation to be observed. Because some time the
observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence, he may commit error.
Experimental Method
This method has been developed in psychology by the continuous efforts by psychologists to make
objective and scientific study of human behavior. One of the major contributions of the behaviorism is
the development of experimental method to understand, control and predict behavior. It is the most
precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental method uses a systematic procedure called
experimental design. Experimental design provides important guidelines to the researcher to carry out
his research systematically. The lay out of the design depends on the nature of the problem that an
investigator wants to investigate. The lay out or design of the experimental method is as follows,
1. selecting a research topic
2. formulating hypotheses
3. selecting an appropriate design
4. collect data.
5. analyzing and interpreting data
6. discussion and conclusions.
Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in the classroom or anywhere else in the community.
Experimentation involves comparison between behavior of a control group and that of an experimental
group.
Hypotheses have a rational base, or they emerged from a framework of theory or preliminary
experimentation. An experiment involves two or more variables for example, incentives have a
measurable impact on learning. The variables whose effects are being studied are called independent
variable.
Merits:
 This method is the most systematic procedure of solving problems. It provides reliable
information.
 it is a revisable method.
 it makes psychology a scientific study.
 It provides objective and precise information about the problems.
 it gives observer easy approach to the mind of an individual.
 It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.
 It enables us to control and direct human behavior.
 it is applicable in educational, individual, and social problems.
Demerits:
 It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is artificially arranged. Behavior is a
natural phenomenon, and it may change under artificial environment.
 This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover, it requires specialized knowledge and
skills.
 Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the experiments have conducted on rats, cats,
and dogs. The results are conducted and then applied on human beings.
 It sometimes interferes with the very thing that we are trying to observe.
Clinical Method
This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behavior problems of maladjusted
and deviant cases. The main objective of this method is to study individual case or cases of group to
detect and diagnose their specific problems and to suggest therapeutic measures to rehabilitate them
in their environment.
It involves the following steps,

1. Interview
2. Information gathering
3. A hypothesis formulate.
4. Diagnoses are made.
5. Planned a treatment programme.
Case Study
Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth analysis of a person, group, or
phenomenon. A variety of techniques are employed including personal interviews, psychometric
tests, direct observation, and archival records. Case studies are most often used in psychology
in clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions of the subject; case study is specially used
in education psychology. It deals in education the following problems.
 Lack of interest in students.
 Aggressive behavior in student.
 Day dreaming.
 Poor academic performance.
 Emotional problem.
 Social problems.
 Empathetic understanding.
 Find the problem.
 Establish report.
 Treatment

Q 4. Discuss Cognitive Development theory.
Ans.
The Theory of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, suggests that children's
intelligence undergoes changes as they grow. Cognitive development in children is not only related to
acquiring knowledge, children, need to build or develop a mental model of their surrounding world.
His work is regarded as the cornerstone in the field of developmental psychology. In this article, we
examine the implications his work has for the intellectual development of children in classrooms.
In the 1920s, Piaget was working at the Binet Institute and his main responsibility was to translate
questions written in English intelligence tests into French. He became interested to find out why
children gave incorrect answers to the questions needing logical thinking.
Piaget believed that these wrong answers revealed significant differences between the thinking of
children and adults. Piaget proposed a new set of assumptions about the intelligence of children:
 Children think differently and see the world differently from adults.
 Children are not passive learners; they actively build up their knowledge about the
surrounding.
 The most effective way to understand children’s reasoning is to think from children's point of
view.
Piaget did not want to measure how well children can spell, count, or solve problems to check their I.Q.
He was more intrigued to find out how the fundamental concepts such as the very idea of time,
number, justice, quantity and so on emerged (Greenfield, 2019).
Piaget used observations and clinical interviews of older children who were able to
hold conversations and understand questions. He also made controlled observation and
used naturalistic observation of his own three children and developed diary description with charts of
children's development.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the idea that children go through four stages of
development, each with their own unique characteristics and abilities. The first stage, the sensorimotor
stage, occurs from birth to around two years old and is characterized by the child's understanding of
the world through sensory experiences and motor actions.
The second stage, the preoperational stage, occurs from around two to seven years old and is
characterized by the child's ability to use symbols to represent objects and events. The third stage, the
concrete operational stage, occurs from around seven to twelve years old and is characterized by
the child's ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Finally, the fourth stage, the
formal operational stage, occurs from around twelve years old and is characterized by the child's ability
to think abstractly and reason hypothetically.
Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, stages of development take place via the interaction between natural
capacities and environmental happenings, and children experience a series of stages. The sequence of
these stages remains same across cultures. Each child goes through the same stages of cognitive
development in life but with a different rate.
The following are Piaget's stages of intellectual development,
Sensorimotor stage (Object permanence)
From birth to 18-24 months
The infants use their actions and senses to explore and learn about their surrounding environment.
During this stage, children develop object permanence, which means they understand that objects
continue to exist even when they can't see them. This is a crucial milestone in cognitive development as
it allows children to start forming mental representations of the world around them. As they progress
through the following stages, they will continue to build on this foundation of knowledge, ultimately
developing more complex cognitive abilities.

A variety of cognitive abilities develop at this stage, which mainly include representational play, object
permanence, deferred imitation, and self-recognition.
At this stage, infants live only in present. They do not have anything related to this world stored in
their memory. At age of 8 months, the infant will understand different objects' permanence and they
will search for them when they are not present.
Towards the endpoint of this stage, infants' general symbolic function starts to appear, and they can
use two objects to stand for each other. Language begins to appear when they realise that they can use
words to represent feelings and objects. The child starts to store information he knows about the
world, label it and recall it.
Pre-operational stage (Symbolic thought)

From 2 to 7 years
The pre-operational stage is a crucial period in children's cognitive development. During this stage,
children's thinking is not yet logical or concrete, and they struggle with concepts like cause and effect.
They also have difficulty understanding other people's perspectives, which is why their thinking is
egocentric. Additionally, their reasoning is based on intuition rather than logic, which can lead to errors
in judgement. Despite these limitations, children in the pre-operational stage are still capable
of incredible growth and learning, and it's important for parents and educators to provide them with
the support and guidance they need to thrive.

Young children and Toddlers gain the ability to represent the world internally through mental imagery
and language. At this stage, children symbolically think about things. They are able to make one thing,
for example, an object or a word, stand for another thing different from itself.
A child mostly thinks about how the world appears, not how it is. At the preoperational stage, children
do not show problem-solving or logical thinking. Infants in this age also show animism, which means
that they think that toys and other non-living objects have feelings and live like a person.
By an age of 2 years, toddlers can detach their thought process from the physical world. But they are
still not yet able to develop operational or logical thinking skills of later stages.
Their thinking is still egocentric (centered on their own world view) and intuitive (based on children's
subjective judgements about events).
Concrete operational stage (Logical thought)
7 to 11 years
At this stage, children start to show logical thinking about concrete events. They start to grasp the
concept of conservation. They understand that, even if things change in appearance but some
properties remain the same. Children at this stage can reverse things mentally. They start to think
about other people's feelings and thinking and they also become less egocentric.
This stage is also known as concrete as children begin to think logically. According to Piaget, this stage
is a significant turning point of a child's cognitive development because it marks the starting point of
operational or logical thinking. At this stage, a child is capable of internally working things out in their
head (rather than trying things out in reality).
Another key characteristic of the Concrete Operational Stage is the development of deductive
reasoning. Children at this stage can use logic to draw conclusions and solve problems. They can
understand that if A equals B and B equals C, then A must equal C. This type of reasoning allows them
to understand more complex concepts and ideas, setting them up for success in their academic and
personal lives.
Children at this stage may become overwhelmed or they may make mistakes when they are asked to
reason about hypothetical or abstract problems. Conservation means that the child understands that
even if some things change in appearance, but their properties may remain the same. At age 6 children
can conserve number, at age 7 they can conserve mass and at age 9 they can conserve weight. But
logical thinking is only used if children ask to reason about physically present materials.
Formal operational stage (Symbolic reasoning)
Age 12 and above
At this stage, individuals perform concrete operations on things, and they perform formal
operations on ideas. Formal logical thinking is totally free from perceptual and physical barriers. During
this stage, adolescents can understand abstract concepts. They can follow any specific kind
of argument without thinking about any specific examples.
During the Formal Operational Stage, children begin to develop the ability to think abstractly and use
symbolic reasoning. This means they can think beyond concrete, physical objects and concepts and
start to understand more complex and abstract ideas. They can solve hypothetical problems and

understand metaphors, analogies, and other abstract concepts. This stage typically occurs between the
ages of 11 and 16 but can vary depending on the individual child's development.
Adolescents are capable of dealing with hypothetical problems with several possible outcomes. This
stage allows the emergence of scientific reasoning, formulating hypotheses and abstract theories as
and whenever needed.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development made no claims about any specific age-associated with any
of the stage, but his description provides an indication of the age at which an average child would reach
a certain stage.
Educational Implications of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Although later researchers have demonstrated how Piaget's theory is applicable for learning and
teaching, but Piaget (1952) does not clearly relate his theory to learning.
Piaget was very influential in creating teaching practices and educational policy. For instance, in 1966 a
primary education review by the UK government was based upon Piaget’s theory. Also, the outcome of
this review provided the foundation for publishing Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the concept that children learn best through actively exploring and doing - was
viewed as central to the primary school curriculum transformation.
Piaget believes that children must not be taught certain concepts until reaching the appropriate
cognitive development stage. Also, accommodation and assimilation are requirements of an active
learner only because problem-solving skills must only be discovered they cannot be taught. The
learning inside the classrooms must be student-centered and performed via active discovery learning.
The primary role of an instructor is to facilitate learning, rather than direct teaching. Hence, teachers
need to ensure the following practices within the classroom:
1. Pay more attention to the learning process, rather than focusing on the end product of it.
2. Use active teaching involving reconstructing or rediscovering "truths."
3. Use individual and collaborative activities (to allow children to learn from one another, see our
blog post on dialogic pedagogy).
4. Devise situations that offer useful problems and develop disequilibrium in children (see this
post on critical thinking).
5. Assess a child's development level so appropriate tasks can be created.

‍
Q 5. Write a note on Carl Roger’s Humanistic theory.
Ans.
Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 –1987) was a psychologist who developed a theory called Unconditional
Positive Regard. He believed that children learn through unconditional acceptance and understanding.
Rogers' theory is based on his own experience working with children. His work focused on helping
parents understand their children better and teaching them to accept their children unconditionally.
Rogers was born in 1902 in North Carolina. He attended medical school at Johns Hopkins University and
became a doctor. However, he didn't feel fulfilled by his career path. So, he left medicine and began
studying psychology.
He eventually moved to California, where he studied with John Dewey and William James. His studies
led him to become interested in human behavior and how we learn. His early work included 'On
Becoming a Person’, ‘Anatomy of an Illness, and ‘Peaceful Warrior'.
Rogers believed that humans could become whole persons through self-discovery. He said that our
thoughts, feelings, and actions influence each other. We're not separate entities; rather, we're
connected parts of a greater whole.
This philosophy influenced many psychologists who followed him. They called this process "self-
actualization." Today, psychologists use the term "personality development" instead of self-
actualization.
He wrote several books, including The Human Side of Child Training, The Way Home, and Beyond the
Age of Childhood.
Rogers died at age 90, but he left behind a legacy of ideas that continue to influence parenting today.
Rogers' ideas influenced many psychologists and educators during his lifetime, including John Watson,
B.F. Skinner, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Maria Montessori. His theories continue to be cited in
modern psychology today.
According to Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory of personality development, all humans exist in a world
which is loaded with experiences. Their life experiences create their reactions involving external people
and objects. Also, internal emotions and thoughts. This is referred to as their phenomenal field. The
phenomenal field indicates someone’s thoughts, behavior, objects, reality, as well as people.
Carl R. Rogers acknowledged that a human’s behavior is a factor stimulated by the tendencies of self-
actualisation to work and accomplish the highest level of their achievement and potential. In this
system, people create a self-concept or structure of self. A negative self-concept is associated with
making people unhappy with who they are, a positive self-concept will make them feel safe and secure.
How do Carl Rogers' and Abraham Maslow's theories differ?
The humanistic psychologist Rogers was a supporter of the founder of positive psychology, Abraham
Maslow's humanistic theory of personality. One of the eminent psychologists and a positive
psychology expert Abraham Samuel Maslow believed that people gain their full potential by shifting
from fundamental needs towards self-actualization. However, Roger's personality theory added that
people in their daily lives need an environment with empathy, acceptance, and genuineness to grow.
According to Carl Rogers, a person attains the level of self-actualization when they accomplish their
desires, wishes and goals, at each stage of their life.
As a humanistic psychology leader and positive psychology founder, Abraham Samuel Maslow
addressed the study of personality psychology while emphasizing free will and subjective experiences.
Humanistic psychology highlights the role of a person in shaping his external and internal world.
Carl Rogers believed that humans in their daily lives are creative and active people who stay in the
present and are concerned with situations, interpersonal relationships, and perceptions, only in the
present. Roger’s theory of personality development gives emphasis to human potential and free will for
goodness.
The main difference between both the eminent psychologists' Rogers and Abraham Samuel Maslow is
in their humanistic theories of self-actualization. Abraham Samuel Maslow recognizes the functioning
of a person in one's own self, but Rogers highlights the need for the environment.
Carl Rogers theory of the environment

Perspective of Carl Rogers on the real self vs the ideal self:

According to Rogers self is divided into 2 categories: real and ideal self. The real self indicates what
someone is in real life, and ideal self is what someone wants to become in his life. In real life, people’s
ideal self is not consistent with what happens in real life.
In the field of Psychology, the difference between the actual experiences and the actual self is
incongruence. Congruence occurs when one's thinking about the ideal self and real self are quite
related, i.e. when one's self-concept is accurate and strong. High congruence results in a healthier and
more productive life with a higher sense of self-worth.
Carl Rogers theory congruence

Rogers Self Concept
Self-Concept is the belief we hold about ourselves. We believe who we are based on our past
experiences, our current circumstances, and our future expectations. Self-Concept is not static; it
changes over time.
We change our Self Concept when we experience events that affect us emotionally. Carl Rogers
believed that Self Concept was influenced by three factors:
1) Our parents' attitudes toward us (our early environment).
2) The beliefs we hold about ourselves (our internal world).
3) Our perceptions of others (the external world).
Carl Rogers developed his theory of Self Concept through his work with patients suffering from
emotional disorders. He found that many of these patients had negative feelings about themselves
because they held inaccurate beliefs about themselves. These beliefs were often reinforced by their
parents.
Rogers concluded that the only way to help these patients overcome their problems was to teach them
to question their own beliefs about themselves. This would allow them to develop more accurate
beliefs about themselves.
To illustrate this point, let's say you're a teenager who feels inadequate because you've never been
able to play sports well. Your parents may reinforce this feeling by telling you that you're too small to
be successful at playing basketball.
If you accept this belief, you'll feel bad about yourself and experience negative feelings. But if
you challenge this belief by asking yourself positive self-reflective questions, you can address any
negativity in a constructive way.

By questioning your beliefs about yourself, you'll gain insight into your Self Concept. And once you
understand your Self Concept better, you'll be able to improve it.
Roger's Unconditional positive regard:
The Humanistic psychology expert, Rogers' Unconditional positive regard indicates the attitude of love
and complete acceptance, whether for one's own self or for another person. When a person has
unconditional positive regard for the other person, nothing the other person can do could give them a
reason to stop considering them as inherently lovable and inherently human. This does not indicate
that people will accept all the acts of that person, but that they accept who that person is at a much
deeper level than the surface level.
Rogers' unconditional positive regard is an important concept in positive psychology and the growth
model of therapy. It is also a significant contribution of therapists who use a humanistic approach in
counseling.
The therapeutic personality is seen as a key factor in the success of therapy, and unconditional positive
regard is one of the factors of empathy that contribute to a positive therapeutic relationship. In fact,
Rogers believed that the therapist's unconditional positive regard for their client was more important
than any specific technique or intervention.
Unconditional positive regard allows the client to feel accepted and valued, even in the face of difficult
or uncomfortable feelings. It creates a safe space for the client to explore their thoughts and emotions
without fear of judgment or rejection.
In practice, unconditional positive regard requires the therapist to cultivate a non-judgmental attitude
and to genuinely value and accept their client as a human being. This can be challenging, especially
when the client's behavior or attitudes may be contrary to the therapist's personal values or beliefs.
Despite its challenges, unconditional positive regard remains a cornerstone of humanistic therapy and
an important factor in promoting personal growth and positive change. It has made a significant impact
on the field of counseling and continues to be a valuable contribution to the helping professions.

Unconditional positive regard
Concept of the fully functioning person:

According to Rogers, a humanistic approach to becoming a fully functioning person would be living "the
good life" in the above criteria. Let's explore what he meant. Rogers describes a fully functioning
person as someone with the following criteria.
 a growing openness to experience - Rogers described this as accepting someone's life

experiences without getting defensive or feeling psychological distress for
being psychologically or emotionally attacked.
 an increasing existential lifestyle - It indicates not enabling past experiences to change a
person's response. An increasingly existential lifestyle in the field of Psychology indicates
relishing the moment. For instance, a person enjoys driving so a car accident would not stop
him from driving. The person will continue to enjoy driving through implementing the principle
of an increasingly existential lifestyle.
 increasing organismic trust - Carl Rogers states that increasing organismic trust occurs when
the client demonstrates the self-trust to make correct choices in various social
situations. Rogers' theory also suggested that the client would take up a suitable moral
compass and have a code of ethics to take these decisions.
 freedom of choice - Carl Rogers humanistic theory about freedom of choice proposed that
Roger's clients could understand how to respond to situations. Freedom of choice indicates
that people's reactions are in control, practicing the appropriate emotional intelligence.
Freedom of choice is also governed by the client's individual moral code. Freedom of choice
also means that the client takes responsibility for his conduct.
 creativity - Carl Rogers described creativity as the knowledge to adapt to a situation
appropriately. Rogers gives the example of a teacher who is introverted but decides to become
extroverted in her instructions. This creativity and adaptation would not make any substantial
changes in the teacher's personality but allows him to adapt to the situation in a creative
manner.
 reliability and constructiveness - According to Carl Rogers' theory of personality about
reliability and constructiveness, people might achieve a balance between their real self and
ideal self. Self-worth is an additional element of this balance. An increased level of congruence
is needed between the self-worth, real self, and ideal self. A person with an increased level
of self-worth values himself and can be gracious while getting a compliment. This person may
also accept and relish the compliment with a greater degree of self-worth. To achieve
congruence between the real self and the ideal self, a person needs to practice with the real
self on daily basis to collide with the ideal self in the future. An example of an ideal self would
be a person who enjoys driving a car on the snow using promising all-weather tires giving more
grip in the future. But, to achieve congruence with the real self, the real self will ensure to buy
all-weather tires, before the first snowfall. Hence, the real self will ultimately collide with the
ideal self at the time of the first heavy snowfall.
 living a rich, full life - Carl Rogers suggests that a fully functioning person experiences pain and
joy, heartbreak, and love and, courage and fear more intensely. In other words, a rich, full life
includes intense experiences of the negative and positive aspects of everyday life. For instance,
a person who performs better at work, while living a rich, full life with sufficient conditions
might be more inclined to receive praise from the boss. The same employee with sufficient
conditions in life would also feel more psychological distress at the time of losing his
employment or breaking up with a friend as compared to a person who has never experienced
a rich, full life.

‍
Carl Rogers fully functioning person
Carl Rogers' approach to education:
In Client-Centered Therapy, Carl Rogers explained the approach to education and in 1969
composed Freedom to Learn on this subject. Rogers' approach to education favors student-
centered learning. According to his approach to education, students learn to face the future through a
classroom environment where they can solve real-world problems and learn to think critically.
Student-centered learning (SCL) is a teaching method where students take control over their own
learning. Students learn at their own pace, work independently, and use their creativity to solve
problems. SCL encourages self-directed learning and promotes critical thinking skills.
The theory behind this type of pedagogy is that Students who practice SCL can become independent
learners, able to adapt to changing situations and find solutions to complex problems. They develop
confidence in their ability to succeed.
To be successful, teachers must understand the principles of SCL and incorporate them into
their classroom practices. This includes providing ample opportunities for students to explore
ideas, express opinions, and collaborate with others.
SCL is not just for elementary school children. It's used throughout the entire educational system,
including college classrooms.
Rogers' client-centred therapy approach emerged in a Clinical Psychology study of American
psychology and concluded that every individual is unique and, thus, everyone’s perception of his own
world, and his ability to handle it, must be trusted. Rogers was a supporter of self-actualization, which
means every person has the ability to find the best solutions for himself and the ability to make
appropriate modifications in his everyday life. Rogers initially named his client-centered approach to
therapy as non-directive therapy, because this therapeutic approach required the therapist to maintain
a therapeutic relationship in which the therapist attends to the client’s lead rather than the direct
discussion.
In Carl Rogers' humanistic psychology, client-centered therapy while building a therapeutic
relationship, the therapist acknowledges the experiences of client, listens to the client without
judgment, and works as a compassionate facilitator, without changing the direction of
the conversation. The therapist with the person-centered approach is meant to support and encourage
the client without interfering or interrupting with the client's process of self-discovery, as in Client-
Centered Therapy, the client reveals what is wrong and what is needed to fix everything.
Unlike other therapy methods, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy or the engagement of gestalt
therapy, person-centered therapy focuses on the individual rather than the symptoms. Carl Rogers'
person-centered psychology emphasizes the importance of building a therapeutic relationship based
on empathy, respect, and authenticity. The therapist's role is to support and encourage the client's self-
discovery process without interrupting or changing the direction of the conversation.
Rogers believed in self-actualization, the idea that every individual has the ability to find the best
solutions for themselves and make appropriate modifications in their everyday life. In person-centered
therapy, the therapist trusts the client's ability to handle their own problems and works as a
compassionate facilitator. This approach has made Carl Rogers one of the most influential psychologists
of the 20th century and his legacy continues to impact the field of psychology today.
Conclusion
Rogers' theories were influenced by Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler. They had similar views on the
importance of understanding yourself. However, Rogers thought that these theories didn't go far
enough. He wanted to help people understand their feelings and emotions.
Rogers believed that everyone wants to be happy. But many people struggle to achieve happiness
because they're not aware of who they truly are. To find out who you are, you need to learn about
yourself.
In conclusion, Carl Rogers was a psychologist who believed that everyone had the potential to heal
themselves. He also believed that if someone wanted to improve their mental state, they should first
look within themselves to find out why they were feeling bad.
This approach allowed him to develop his famous client-centered therapy, which he used to treat
patients suffering from depression, anxiety, and phobias. His work continues to
influence psychologists today.
Rogers believed there are four basic needs that drive human behavior. These needs are safety,
belongingness, self-esteem, and freedom. People strive to meet these needs.
People often try to fill their lives with things that give them pleasure. But when they fail to satisfy these
needs, they may experience stress. Stress causes unhappiness.


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BHABHA UNIVERSITY

MEd - Semester - II, 2023

What is Behavioral theory of Learning?

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a. a need or motive in the form of a strong persistent stimulus,

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Commonly used defense Mechanisms

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Education and Psychology

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It involves the following steps,

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Stages of Cognitive Development

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Pre-operational stage (Symbolic thought)

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Educational Implications of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

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Q 5. Write a note on Carl Roger’s Humanistic theory.

Carl Rogers theory of the environment

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Carl Rogers theory congruence

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Concept of the fully functioning person:

 a growing openness to experience - Rogers described this as accepting someone's life

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