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from low-powerhigh-speed communications

lasers to high-powedwide-stripe devices


that run multimode (both spatial and temporal)
and are used mainly for
pumping solid-state lasers. For most scientific
applications it is much easier to use
*Contribution of NIST, not subject to
copyright.
77
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN THE
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Vol 29C
1079-4042/97 $25.00
TN-78
78 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE LASERS
single spatial-mode lasers, and we will
concentrate on these devices here. In
addition to the usual Fabry-Perot type lasers,
distributed feedback (DFB) and
distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) lasers are
now commercially available at some
wavelengths. These lasers have a more complex
resonator structure that incorporates
an optical grating fabricated within the
semiconductor chip. Bragg reflection
from the internal grating provides wavelength-
selective optical feedback that
forces single-longitudinal-mode
operation at a wavelength within the reflection
bandpass of the grating.
Figure 1 gives a rough sketch of the current
(1995) distribution of commercially
available continuous wave (CW) single spatial-
mode semiconductor lasers. There
are gaps in the wavelength coverage (and actual
availability) and significant
differences in performance across this
distribution. Some typical characteristics of
semiconductor lasers are outlined in Table I.
More details can be found in manufacturer’s
catalogs and an excellent recent handbook [ 151.
Another family of semiconductor lasers (outside
the scope of the present
chapter) is based on group IV-VI elements
(most common are Pb-salt lasers).
These lasers span the wavelength range from 3.3
to 30 pm and operate at cryogenic
temperatures. The lead-salt lasers have not
experienced the same degree of com
as the room-temperature devices, primarily
because they are much
more expensive and they have poor mode
quality and relatively low output powe
However, high-quality devices using Sb-based
semiconductors that
operate at wavelengths that range from -2 to 4.5
pm have been developed
These promising new devices, unfortunately,
are not yet commercially available.
4.2.1 Tu n i n g C h a ract e r i st i cs
Often of paramount importance for scientific
applications are the tuning characteristics
of a laser. A diode laser’s wavelength is
determined by the semiconductor
material and structure, and is a function of
both temperature and carrier density.
For a typical single-mode laser the
wavelength increases monotonically with
increasing temperature and then suddenly
jumps to another mode at a longer
wavelength. Although this jump is most
often to the next cavity mode (-0.3 nm
cavity mode spacing), it is not at all unusual
for one or several modes to be skipped.
The tuning range of each mode is typically
a micromachined silicon flexure and a VHG. The laser cavity itself is entirely encased in a
zerodur tube, producing minimal thermal fluctuations within the cavity since zerodur has a near
zero (0.01 x 10-6 m/K) thermal expansion coefficient and low thermal conductivity. In general,
this VHG laser is small, inexpensive, and easy to build compared to other laser designs. The
VHG provides a narrow linewidth, along with full degrees of tunability via PZT voltage, diode
current, and diode temperature. Additionally, the VHG laser offers the potential to further
finetune
the laser frequency by thermal control of the VHG itself via the silicon flexure.
II. EXTERNAL CAVITY DE LASER SYSTEM
DESIGN
The essential requirements for a stable ECLD design
are that the laser diode, the diffraction
grating, and a collimating le all be fixed rigidly with
respect to each other. This assures
minimal thermal drift in the lasing frequency, and
protects against external vibrations. It is also
necessary to allow the lens and/or diffraction grating
sufficient degrees of freedom and precise
adjustability in order to find optical feedback by
steering the feedback beam into the 2 μm diode
aperture. In general it is desirable to create a cavity
as small as possible to maximize the free
spectral range, and thus thmode-hop free range. The
free spectral range, defined as the
separation between frequencies which can resonate
within a laser cavity, is given by the
equation:
,
2 1 nd
FSR v v c q q = − =(1)
3
where c is the speed of light n the index of
refraction, and d is the length of the laser cavity.
Thus, smaller the values of d created larger the free
spectral ranges 1. Generation 1 VHG Laser design
A first-generation VHG laser was designed and
constructed by Rick Chuang in 2006 [8].
The laser successfully implemented a VHG, held by
a micromachined silicon flexure (Fig. 2) to
provide optical feedback. The silicon flexure was
made by bulk micromachining of a 500 μm
thick single-crystal silicon wafer. The cavity sat on an invar bed, with thermal expansion
coefficient of ~1 μm/K, to prevent thermal drift. The system design, shown in Fig. 3, has an
overall size of 28.76mm x 20.65mm x 12mm. Thermo-electric-controllers (TEC) were placed on
the diode copper plate and the VHG copper plate to allow for thermal control of each of these
components, and an AR-coated diode was used as the light source to minimize mode hops. It was
demonstrated that a 17 GHz tuning range could be obtained by varying the VHG temperature [8].
Unfortunately, the cavity was extremely unstable, and it was difficult to keep feedback for
an extended period of time. Drifts were also present in the laser frequency, and the mode-hopfree
range of the laser was only 4 GHz. The silicon flexure was also deemed to be too stiff, not
allowing sufficient PZT sweeping range to see a full rubidium spectrum.
4

on the order of 25% of the mode


spacing, but might vary by a factor of 5 or
more. Subsequently decreasing the
temperature causes the operating wavelength
to shift downward with similar
behavior, but hysteresis will be observed at
the mode transitions. Details of the
tuning characteristics are available in the
general references [ 1-81 and [ 171.
Operating a simple diode laser at the
wavelength of an atomic or molecular
transition usually requires iterative selection
of injection current and temperature
settings. However, for any given laser the
optimum tuning to a specific wavelength
cannot always be achieved. Possible

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