Reviewer

Motor Skills
Motor skills are tasks that require voluntary control over movements of the joints and
body segments to achieve a goal (riding a bicycle, walking, surfing, jumping, running, and
weightlifting). The learning and performance of these skills are what movement scientists refer
to as motor learning and control, or skill acquisition. The study of motor learning and control
plays an integral role in both the performance and rehabilitation of these skills (stroke or total
knee arthroplasty rehabilitation).

• In order to perform this skill, the bodies nervous system, muscles, and brain has to all
work together.
• The goal of motor skill is to optimize the ability to perform the skill at the rate of success,
precision, and to reduce the energy consumption required for performance.
• Performance is an act of executing a motor skill or task. Continuous practice of a specific
motor skill will result in a greatly improved performance, which leads to Motor Learning.
• Motor learning is a relatively permanent change in the ability to perform a skill as a result
of continuous practice or experience.

TYPES OF MOTOR CONTROL

 Gross Motor Skills
- Gross motor skills direct performance of large muscle groups.
 Fine Motor Skills
- Fine motor skills coordinate precise, small movements involving the hands, wrists,
feet, toes, lips and tongue.
 Discrete Skills
- Movement skills that have a clear beginning end.
 Continues Skills
- Continuous skills have no distinct, identifiable bringing or end.
 Serial Skills
- Serial skill involves a number of separate discrete skills performed in a specific
sequence, which creates one larger activity.
 Open Skills
- Movements vary depending on what is going on around you.
 Close Skills
- Closed skills are skills that are not affected by the environment

 Cephalocaudal – the principle that development occurs from head to tail.

 Proximodistal – the principle that movement of limbs that are closer to the body develop
before the parts that are further away.
 Gross to specific – a pattern in which larger muscle movements develop before finer
movements.

In children, a critical period for the development of motor skills is preschool years (ages 3–
5), as fundamental neuroanatomic structure shows significant development, elaboration,
and myelination over the course of this period.
Motor development progresses in seven stages throughout an individual's life: reflexive,
rudimentary, fundamental, sports skill, growth and refinement, peak performance, and
regression.
  Qualitative – changes in movement-process results in changes in movement-outcome.
 Directional – cephalocaudal or proximodistal
 Sequential – certain motor patterns precede others.
 Multifactorial – numerous-factors impact
 Cumulative – current movements are built on previous ones.
 Individual – dependent on each person gender differences in motor skills are seen to be
affected by environmental factors. In essence

In the journal article "Gender Differences in Motor Skill Proficiency from Childhood to
Adolescence" by Lisa Barrett, the evidence for gender-based motor skills are apparent. In
general, boys are more skillful in object control and object manipulation skills.

Components of Development
 Growth – increase in the size of the body or its parts as the individual progresses
toward maturity (quantitative structural changes)
 Maturation – refers to qualitative changes that enable one to progress to higher levels
of functioning; it is primarily innate
 Experience or learning – refers to factors within the environment that may alter or
modify the appearance of various developmental characteristics through the process of
learning
 Adaptation – refers to the complex interplay or interaction between forces within the
individual (nature) and the environment (nurture)

Motor Abilities
The term ability will be used according to its meaning in the area of psychology that
involves the study of individual differences. People who study individual differences are
concerned with the identification and measurement of abilities that characterize and differentiate
individuals.
Individual-difference psychologists also investigate the relationship between abilities and
the performance and learning of skills. In this context, the term ability means a general trait or
capacity of the individual that is a relatively enduring characteristic that serves as a determinant
of a person's achievement potential for the performance of specific skills.
When the term motor ability is used in this context, it refers to an ability that is
specifically related to the performance of a motor skill. It is important to note that some
researchers and practitioners use terms such as "psychomotor ability" and "perceptual motor
ability" to refer to what we will call motor ability.

Abilities as Individual-Difference Variables

The individual differences we observe in the amount of success that people achieve in
the performance of a motor skill depends in large part on the degree to which the person has
the motor abilities that are important for the performance of that skill.
If two people have the same training experiences and amount of practice, but differ in
their levels of the motor abilities important for playing tennis, the one with the higher levels of
the appropriate abilities has the potential to perform at a higher level.
General versus specific motor abilities. In the debate about the relationship of motor abilities,
one viewpoint holds that motor abilities are highly related to each other. The opposite view is
that they are relatively independent of one another. This debate is not commonly pursued in the
current research literature. However, an understanding of the different points of view will help
you apply the concept of motor abilities to motor skill performance achievement.

The general motor ability hypothesis maintains that although many different motor
abilities can be identified within an individual, they are highly related and can be characterized in
terms of a singular, global motor ability.
It holds that the level of that ability in an individual influences the ultimate success that
person can expect in performing any motor skill.
This viewpoint has been in existence since the early part of the last century (e.g., Brace,
1927; McCloy, 1934), having been developed as the motor ability analogue to the then popular
cognitive ability concept of a general intelligence (IQ).
The hypothesis predicts that if a person is highly skilled in one motor skill, then he or she
would be expected to be or become highly skilled in all motor skills. The reasoning behind this
prediction is that there is one general motor ability.
Franklin Henry is generally credited with deriving the specificity hypothesis to explain
results from his research that the general motor ability hypothesis could not explain.
Support for the specificity hypothesis has come from experiments that were reported
primarily in the 1960s. These experiments were based on the common assumption that if motor
abilities are specific and independent, then there will be little, if any, relationship between any
two abilities.

Balance and Timing Abilities

 Balance
- When used in reference to motor skill performance, the term balance refers to
postural stability (see Shumway-Cook & Wollacott, 2011), which involves maintaining
equilibrium while stationary or while moving.
- In other words, balance concerns our capability to stand, sit, or move without falling.
Although sometimes regarded as a single motor ability, balance should be viewed as
comprised of at least two types: static and dynamic.
- Static balance is the maintenance of equilibrium while stationary, such as while
standing, sitting, or kneeling.
- Dynamic balance, on the other hand, is the maintenance of equilibrium while in
motion, such as while walking or running.
- Research evidence also indicates that several relatively independent variations of
static and dynamic balance exist.
- Drowatzky and Zuccato (1967) reported an excellent example of this research many
years ago.
- In this experiment, participants performed six different balancing tasks that generally
have been regarded as measures of either static or dynamic balancing ability.
- The results of the correlations among all the tests showed that the highest correlation
was between two dynamic balance tests, the sideward leap and the Bass stepping
stone test.
- The highest correlation between a static and dynamic balance test was .26 (between
the stork stand and sideward leap). Most of the correlations ranged between .12
and .19.
 - The Drowatzky and Zuccato results are not unique. Other researchers have found
similar results. For example, a study by Tsiglis, Zachopoulou, and Mavridis (2001)
supported the Drowatsky and Zucatto results for various types of dynamic balance.
- The highest correlation between two of three different types of dynamic balance tests
was .22. The two other correlations between the tests were .05 and .13.
- Similar results were more recently reported by Sell (2012) for comparisons between
several static and dynamic balance tests, which involved single-leg standing and
dynamic postural stability tests of varying degrees of difficulty.
- Even highly related static and dynamic balance tests, standing on one leg and
stabilizing the body after landing on one leg, are not highly correlated with each other
(Pau et al., 2015).

At the most basic level, we need to consider static balance and dynamic balance as
two independent types of balance ability. The application of the relative independence of
static and dynamic balance to professional practice can be seen in several of the
balance tests commonly used in physical rehabilitation contexts.

 Timing
- As a motor ability, timing is an important component of the performance of many
motor skills. For some skills we need to precisely time our movement initiation with
the movement of an external object, such as hitting a moving baseball or starting a
sprint in track. This type of timing is commonly referred to as external, or anticipation,
timing. For other skills, we time our movements according to our knowledge of time,
which occurs when we walk or jog at a desired pace or when a dancer performs
without music but must maintain a specific rhythm and tempo.
- In the study of individual differences, researchers have held different views about
internal timing as a motor ability. One view proposes that timing is controlled by a
common timing process, much like an internal clock, that provides the musculature
with the rhythmic information needed to produce the continuous timing requirements
of a skill (e.g., Ivry & Hazeltine, 1995).
- One of the ways researchers have tested views about the control of internal timing is
to follow the approach used to test the specificity of motor abilities hypothesis that we
discussed earlier.
- If an "internal clock" controls timing, we would expect a general ability for timing, and
therefore people should perform similarly across a variety of tasks that require
timing.
- On the other hand, if timing is task specific, performance on one type of task should
not predict how well we would perform on a different task.

The "All-Around Athlete"

According to the specificity view, abilities fall somewhere along a range containing low,
average, and high amounts within individuals. Because people differ in a way that is consistent
with a normal distribution scale, we would expect that some people have a large number of
abilities at an average level, and other people have a majority of abilities at either the high or the
low end of the scale.
According to the specificity hypothesis, the person who excels in a large number of
physical activities has high levels of a large number of abilities. We would expect that a person
would do very well in those activities for which the underlying abilities required for successful
performance matched the abilities for which the person was at the high end of the scale.
  In actual fact, the true all-around athlete is a rare individual.
 Typically, when a person shows high performance levels in a variety of physical
activities, a close inspection of those activities reveals they involve many foundational
motor abilities in common.
 We would expect a person exhibiting high levels for a variety of abilities to do well in
activities for which those abilities were foundational to performance.
 However, we would expect average performance if this person engaged in activities for
which those abilities were less important, activities based on other abilities, of which the
person possessed only average levels.

Relating Motor Abilities to Motor Skill Performance

 Uses for tests of motor abilities. Because of the foundational role played by motor
abilities in the performance of motor skills, tests of motor abilities are used for a variety
of purposes. We will consider two of the most common. One use is the prediction of
future performance of a motor skill or physical activity. Tests used for this purpose are
sometimes called aptitude tests.
 A second use of motor abilities tests is evaluation, which may include the evaluation of
the causes of motor skill performance deficiencies or the assessment of the
effectiveness of an intervention program, such as in physical rehabilitation.

The Relationship between Falls among the Elderly and Balance

 A common problem for the elderly is Falling.
 Both clinicians and researchers have determined that among the many reasons for why
the elderly fall, difficulty maintaining balance is one of the primary causes.

Falling Incidence among the Elderly

 35 percent of people aged over 65 years fall at least once a year
 20-30 percent of these falls result in injuries that affect mobility and independence

The Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale (FAB)

 The center of Successful Aging determined that a new test was needed to overcome
specific problems associated with available tests.
 The result was the development of a multidimensional test designed to “identify balance
problems of varying severity in functionally independent older adults and also evaluate
more of the systems.
 The FAB consists of 10 items that require approximately 10-12 min to administer.

Test Items Systems and/or evaluated

1. Stand with feet together and eyes Sensory systems and strategies
closed (somatosensation, vision), internal
representations, musculoskeletal
components, neuromuscular synergies

2. Reaching forward to object Sensory systems (vision), neuromuscular

response synergies, musculoskeletal
 components, anticipatory mechanisms

3. Turn in full circle Sensory systems and strategies (vestibular,

vision), neuromuscular synergies,
musculoskeletal components

4. Step up and over Sensory systems and strategies (vision,

somatosensation), anticipatory and adaptive
mechanisms, neuromuscular synergies,
musculoskeletal system

5. Tandem walk Sensory systems and strategies (vision,

somatosensation), neuromuscular synergies,
musculoskeletal components

6. Stand on one leg Sensory systems (vision), anticipatory and

adaptive mechanisms, musculoskeletal
component

7. Stand on foam with eyes closed Sensory systems and strategies (vestibular),
internal representations, neuromuscular
synergies, musculoskeletal components

8. Two-footed jump Neuromuscular synergies, musculoskeletal

components, anticipatory and adaptive

9. Walk with head turns Sensory systems and strategies (vestibular,

vision), neuromuscular synergies, adaptive
mechanisms

10. Reactive postural control Neuromuscular synergies, adaptive

mechanisms, musculoskeletal system

A taxonomy of motor abilities.

• From the results of extensive batteries of perceptual motor tests given to many people,
Fleishman developed a “taxonomy of human perceptual motor abilities” (Fleishman,
1972; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984).

• The goal of the taxonomy was “to define the fewest independent ability categories which
might be most useful and meaningful in describing performance in the widest variety of
tasks” (Fleishman, 1967, p. 352).

• included two broad categories of human abilities in the perceptual motor and physical
domains: perceptual motor abilities and physical proficiency abilities.

Ability category Definition Ability category test and

 Related motor skill example

Multilimbed coordination Ability to coordinate Complex coordinator task:

movements of a number of Person simultaneously
limbs simultaneously controls two levers, one with
each hand, and two pedals,
one with each foot, in
response to signals

Control precision Ability to make rapid and Rotary pursuit task: Person
precise movement keeps a handheld stylus in
adjustments of control contact with a small disk
devices involving single arm- embedded in phonograph-like
hard or leg movements; tumtable as it rotate at 60 rpm
adjustments are made to
visual stimuli

Response orientation Ability to make a rapid Visual discrimination tasks,

selection of controls to be e.g.., choice reaction time
moved or the direction to task: Person responds as
move them in quickly as possible when one
of several visual signals
illuminates

Reaction time Ability to respond rapidly to a Visual or auditory simple

signal when it appears reaction time task: Person
responds as quickly as
possible to a visual (light) or
auditory (a buzzer) signal

Speed of arm movement Ability to rapidly make a Purdue Pegboard task:

gross, discrete arm Person picks up and
movement where accuracy is assembles small peg,
minimized washer, and collar units and
inserts them into small holes

Rate control Ability to time continues Manual aiming task: Person

anticipatory movement holds a pencil and rapidly
adjustments in response to makes a dot in a series of
speed and/ or direction very small circles
changes of a continuously
moving target or object

The physical proficiency abilities identified by Fleishman are as follows:

 (1) static strength, the maximum force that a person can exert against ex ternal objects;

(2) dynamic strength, the muscular endurance used in exerting force repeatedly;

(3) explosive strength, the ability to mobilize energy effectively for bursts of muscular effort;

(4) trunk strength, the strength of the trunk muscles;

(5) extent flexibility, the ability to flex or stretch the trunk and back muscles;

(6) dynamic flexibility, the ability to make repeated, rapid trunk-flexing movements;

(7) gross body coordination, the ability to coordinate the action of several parts of the body
while the body is in motion;

(8) gross body equilibrium, the ability to maintain balance without visual cues; and

(9) stamina, the capacity to sustain maximum effort requiring cardiovascular effort.

We should not consider Fleishman’s lists to be exhaustive inventories of all the abilities
related to motor skill performance, because Fleishman wanted to identify the smallest number of
abilities that would describe the tasks performed in the test battery. Although he used hundreds
of tasks to identify those abilities, the inclusion of additional types of tasks besides those
Fleishman used could lead to the identification of other motor abilities. For example, Fleishman
did not include the following abilities in his two lists:
 Static balance—The ability to maintain postural stability on a stable surface or when not
engaging in locomotor activities (e.g., standing on the floor while reading a book)
 Dynamic balance—The ability to maintain postural stability on a moving surface or
when engaging in locomotor activities (e.g., walking on a sidewalk)
 Visual acuity—The ability to see clearly and precisely (e.g., reading a street sign)
 Visual tracking—The ability to visually follow a moving object (e.g., watching the flight
of a ball that is thrown to you to catch)
 Eye-hand or eye-foot coordination—The ability to perform skills requiring vision and
the precise use of the hands (e.g., correctly typing a sentence on a keyboard) or feet
(e.g., kicking a penalty kick in soccer)

Relating Motor Abilities to Motor Skill Performance

Shows how we can analyze complex motor skills by a process known as task analysis in
order to identify the abilities that underlie any motor skill. For example, to serve a tennis ball
successfully, a player must perform certain components of that skill properly.

Uses for tests of motor abilities

- Because of the foundational role played by motor abilities in the performance of
motor skills, tests of motor abilities are used for a variety of purposes. We will
consider two of the most common. One use is the prediction of future performance of
a motor skill or physical activity. Tests used for this purpose are sometimes called
aptitude tests. For example, the military and industry use tests of motor abilities in
 their batteries of tests to select people to train for or work in specific jobs (e.g., Chan,
2005).
- A second use of motor abilities tests is evaluation, which may include the evaluation
of the causes of motor skill performance deficiencies or the assessment of the
effectiveness of an intervention program, such as in physical rehabilitation. For
example, therapists and athletic trainers use motor abilities tests to assess patients’
rehabilitation progress and determine the types of functional activities the patient
may be ready to undertake. Another common evaluation use of motor abilities tests
involves the assessment of motor development in infants and young children. For
both prediction and evaluation uses of motor abilities tests, the key to success is the
development and use of valid and reliable tests.

NEUROMOTOR BASIS FOR MOTOR CONTROL

THE NEURON
The basic component of the nervous system is the nerve cell, which is called a neuron.
Neurons in the nervous system number in the billions. These functional units, which vary in size
from 4 to 100 microns, provide the means for receiving and sending information through the
entire nervous system. Although there are several types of neurons, most share a similar
general three-part structure: the cell body and two processes, which are called dendrites, and
the axon.

Types and Functions of Neurons

The most convenient way to classify neurons is according to their function in terms of
sending and receiving information (i.e., neural impulses) to, from, and within the central nervous
system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord. There are three functional
classesTypes and Functions of Neurons The most convenient way to classify neurons is
according to their function in terms of sending and receiving information (i.e., neural impulses)
to, from, and within the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal
cord. There are three functional classes.

 Sensory neurons.
- In their role of receiving information from various sensory receptors in the body,
sensory neurons function much like transducers in electronics in that they receive a
neural signal and then convert it to an electrical signal that can be transmitted along
the neural pathways and received by the CNS. The unique structural characteristic of
 sensory neurons is that they are unipolar; that is, they have only one axon and no
dendrites.
- The Seven Senses: (1) Sight/ Vision, (2) Hearing/ Auditory, (3) Smell/ Olfactory, (4)
Taste/ Gustatory, (5) Touch/ Tactile, (6) Vestibular/ Movement, (7) Proprioception/
Body Composition

 Motor neurons.
- Two types of motor neurons influence the control of movement. Alpha motor neurons
are found predominantly in the spinal cord. Sometimes referred to as motor horn
cells, they emanate from the horn of the spinal cord and have many branching
dendrites and long branching axons that connect directly with the skeletal muscle
fibers. Gamma motor neurons supply a portion of the skeletal muscle called
intrafusal fibers.

 Interneurons.
- These specialized neurons originate and terminate in the brain or spinal cord. They
function as connections between axons descending from the brain, and they
synapse on motor neurons and axons from sensory nerves and the spinal nerves
ascending to the brain.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists
of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the
origin of control over body movement. Like a central computer, it interprets information from our
eyes (sight), ears (sound), nose (smell), tongue (taste), and skin (touch), as well as from internal
organs such as the stomach.
The spinal cord is the highway for communication between the body and the brain. When
the spinal cord is injured, the exchange of information between the brain and other parts of the
body is disrupted.

The cerebrum.
The cerebrum consists of two halves, known as the right and left cerebral hemispheres,
which are connected by a sheet of nerve fibers known as the corpus callosum. Both
hemispheres are covered by what is commonly pictured in photographs as an undulating,
wrinkly, graycolored surface called the cerebral cortex. This covering is a thin tissue of nerve
cell bodies called gray matter. The gray matter is about 2–5 mm thick and, if un folded, would
cover about 20 sq ft. The folding results in ridges (each ridge is called a gyrus) and grooves
(each groove is called a sulcus).

What is the Cerebral Cortex?

• The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain that is associated with our highest
mental capabilities. The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter (neural
tissue that is made up of neurons), with between 14 and 16 billion neurons being found
here.
• Although the cerebral cortex is only a few millimeters in thickness, it consists of
approximately half the weight of the total brain mass. The cerebral cortex has a wrinkled
appearance, consisting of bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci.

Frontal Lobes
 • The largest lobes of the cerebral cortex are the frontal lobes. These are located at the
front of the brain behind the forehead.
• The frontal lobe’s functions primarily involve ‘higher’ cognitive functions such as
decision-making, conscious thought, problem-solving, and attention.
• The frontal lobes are believed to be where our emotions and behaviors are controlled, so
are activated when in social situations so that we may act socially appropriately.
• Frontal Lobe Structures: Premotor Cortex, Motor Cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Broca’s Area
• The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for the ‘higher’ brain functions of the frontal
lobes, including decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and emotion regulation.
• This area has also been found to be associated with the social skills and personality of
humans.
• The motor cortex is critical for initiating motor movements, as well as coordinating motor
movements, hence why it is called the motor cortex.
• Each area of the motor cortex corresponds precisely with specific body parts. For
instance, there is an area which controls the left and the right foot.
• Another region of the frontal lobes worth mentioning is Broca’s area. This region is
located in the dominant hemisphere of the frontal lobes, which is the left side for around
97% of humans.
• This region is associated with the production of speech and written language, as well as
with the processing and comprehension of language.

Damage to the Frontal Lobes

• Paralysis
• Changes in mood
• Attention deficits
• Atypical social skills
• Difficulty problem-solving
• Lack of impulse control/ risk-taking
• Loss of spontaneity in social interactions
• Reduced motivation
• Impaired judgment
• Reduced creativity

Occipital Lobes
• This information is then encoded into different visual data such as color, motion, and
orientation.
• This region is also responsible for object and face recognition, assessing depth and
distance, as well as being able to map the visual world. It was once believed that the
occipital lobes’ only function was in controlling visual fields.
• It is now known this region serves other functions and is able to communicate with other
brain regions.
• Occipital Lobes Structures: Lateral Geniculate Body, Secondary Visual Cortex, Primary
Visual Cortex

Primary Visual Cortex

• This section is also known as Brodmann area 17, or visual area V1. The primary
visual cortex receives sensory information from the retinas of the eyes, then
transmits information relating to location, spatial data, motion, and the colors of
objects in the field of vision.
 • This information gets transported via two streams: the dorsal and ventral
streams. The visual cortex is divided into six areas depending on the function
and structure of each area, referred to as V1, V2, V3, V4, and V5.

Secondary Visual Cortex

• This section is also known as Brodmann area 18 and 19, or visual area V2. This
is the area immediately surrounding the primary visual cortex.
• It receives information from the primary visual cortex for further organization of
visual input. It also passes information to visual areas V3, V4, and V5.

Ventral Stream
• The secondary visual cortex also encompasses the ventral stream, which allows
information to flow to temporal lobe structures to enable us to process what
objects are.
• Without the ventral stream, we would still be able to see normally, but without the
conscious awareness or understanding of what we are seeing.

Lateral Geniculate Bodies

• The lateral geniculate body is part of the thalamus and acts as a sensory relay
system. Raw information coming from the outer part of the retinas enters this
area for processing before being sent to the primary visual cortex.

Lingula
• The lingula is also responsible for processing vision, through gathering
information about what is in the field of vision from the side half of the retina.
Together with the help of the lateral geniculate bodies, the lingula creates spatial
awareness and gives depth to the visual information.

Dorsal Stream
• The dorsal stream allows information to flow from the occipital lobes to the
parietal lobes, in order for us to process where objects are located. The dorsal
stream connects to both the V1 and V2 regions, allowing these areas to send
information about the size and shape of objects in our field of vision.

Parietal Lobes
• This region is especially important for integrating the body’s sensory information, so we
can build a picture of the world around us.
• The parietal lobes allow us to perceive our bodies and integrate somatosensory
information such as touch, pressure, and temperature.
• This area can also allow us to coordinate our movements in response to the
environment through spatial mapping and attentional functions.
• Parietal Lobe Structures: Superior Parietal Lobule, Precuneus Region (Medial surface of
cerebral hemisphere), Somatosensory Cortex, Inferior Parietal Lobule

Somatosensory Cortex
• The somatosensory cortex’s main overall function is to receive and process
sensory information from the entire body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.
• The sensory information is carried to this area of the brain via neural pathways to
the spinal cord, brain stem and thalamus, which then project to the
somatosensory cortex.
 Inferior Parietal Lobe
• The inferior parietal lobe is located at the lower end of the parietal lobes (inferior
meaning ‘below’ or ‘lower’ in anatomical terms).
• This region is concerned primarily with language, mathematical operations, and
body image. It is also important for spatial attention, visuomotor, auditory
processing, and has been suggested to be involved in the perceptions of
emotions through facial expressions (Radua et al., 2010).

Superior Parietal Lobe

• In contrast to the inferior parietal lobe, the superior parietal lobe is situated at the
top of the lobe (superior meaning ‘above’ in anatomical terms).
• This region is concerned with spatial orientation and sensorimotor integration. It
also receives a lot of visual and sensory signals from the hands.

Precuneus
• The precuneus is located on the medial (middle) surface of the parietal lobes.
Because of this, it makes it one of the least accurately mapped areas of the
cortex.
• Functioning neuroimaging suggests that the precuneus is involved in tasks such
as visuo-spatial imagery (being able to analyze, perceive, and manipulate visual
patterns and images), episodic memory retrieval (reliance on the reactivation of
sensory information that was present when encoding and processing a memory),
and the ability to take first-person perspectives.

Temporal Lobes
• The temporal lobes, which are the second largest lobe of the cerebral cortex, are
associated with memory, hearing, emotion, and some aspects of language.
• The left temporal lobe, which is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with
comprehending language, memorizing verbal information, forming speech, and learning.
• The right lobe, however, is associated with memorizing non-verbal information,
recognizing information, and determining facial expressions. The temporal lobes depend
on both sensory input from the environment, as well as input from other brain regions.
• Temporal Lobe Structures: Limbic System Region, Wernicke’s Area, Auditory Cortex,
Superior Temporal Gyrus, Middle Temporal Gyrus, Inferior Temporal Gyrus

Superior Temporal Gyrus

• ‘Superior’ in anatomical terms means ‘to the top’. A ‘gyrus’ (or plural: gyri) is a
ridge on the surface of the brain.
• The superior temporal gyrus is situated at the top of the temporal lobes, located
somewhat above the ears. The superior temporal gyrus is an area of the
temporal lobe which contains other areas with specialized functions.

Auditory Cortex
• The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing auditory
information, is located within the temporal lobe.
• The auditory cortex is a part of the superior temporal gyrus which essentially
receives input from the ears and analyses it.
• Once it has done this, the cortex then filters out unnecessary information, and
passes on the relevant information to be processed and understood.
 Limbic System
• The temporal lobe is a significant part of the limbic system. The limbic system is
a group of structures deep within the brain involved in processing and regulating
emotions, memory and motivation.
• One of the substructures, the hippocampus, is a seahorse shaped area, essential
in the formation of new memories.

Wernicke’s Area
• Wernicke’s area is believed to be situated in the back part of the temporal lobe,
frequently found in the left hemisphere.
• It takes its name from Carl Wernicke, who worked with patients who had
language impairments, in order to distinguish separate regions for language
comprehension and production.

Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

1. Sensory areas - cerebral cortex receive sensory information from the senses and
environmental stimuli.
2. Motor areas – involved in the regulation and initiation of voluntary movement.
3. Association areas – integrating information from these brain regions, often adding more
complexity to their functions.

CEREBRAL CORTEX DAMAGE

• Frontal lobe injury symptoms can include one or more of the following: memory issues,
personality changes, issues with problem-solving, difficulties with working memory,
inattentiveness, emotional deficiencies, socially inappropriate behavior, behavioral
changes, aphasia, weakness, and paralysis.
• Common causes of damage to this area of the cortex include traumatic brain injuries or
neurogenerative diseases such as dementia.
• A literature review investigated the frontal lobe’s association with schizophrenia and
found that many patients had differences in grey matter volumes and functional activity
in their frontal lobes, compared to those without the disorder (Mubarik & Tohid, 2016).
• Parietal lobe injury symptoms can include one or more of the following: issues
generating memories, agraphia, difficulties with mathematics, numbness, disorientation,
poor hand-to-eye coordination, and left-side neglect.
• Damage to parietal lobes could be due to a stroke, disease, tumor, or injury to the area.
It has been found that there were reduced grey matter volume of the parietal lobes in
those diagnosed with schizophrenia (Zhou et al., 2007).
• Temporal lobe injury symptoms can include one or more of the following: hearing
difficulties, memory issues, difficulty recognizing faces and objects, language
impairments (such as Wernicke’s aphasia), difficulties with selective attention, and
difficulties with understanding language.
• A common cause of temporal lobe damage is epileptic seizures in this region but can
also result from stroke or trauma. It was found by researchers that impairments with
attention within the temporal lobes are associated with developmental dyslexia (Voldois
et al., 2019).
• It has also been suggested that early signs of Alzheimer’s disease may be noticed within
the temporal lobes (Lowndes & Savage, 2007).
• Occipital lobe injury symptoms can include one or more of the following: varying types of
blindness, word blindness, difficulty perceiving more than one object at once, difficulty
recognizing objects by sight, and hallucinations involving vision.
 • Damage to the visual cortex can cause total blindness. This region has been examined
to see if it is related to schizophrenia in any way (Onitsuke et al., 2007).
• In a study, it was discovered that those with chronic schizophrenia had reduced grey
matter volumes in the visual association cortex, implying that some of the visual deficits
experienced by those with schizophrenia can be attributed to the occipital lobes.
• Sensory area symptoms of injury can include one of more of the following: difficulties
perceiving touch, difficulty recognizing one’s own body, failure to recognize objects by
touch, phantom limb pain, inability to taste food and issues with processing auditory
information.
• Motor area symptoms of injury can include one or more of the following: speech
impairments, motor-learning deficits, impairments in self-initiated movements, inability to
associate a motor response to a visual cue, issues with social cognition, and clumsiness
of body movements.
• Association area symptoms of injury can include one or more of the following: inability to
recognize familiar faces, issues with forming procedural and episodic memories,
distorted thinking, personality changes, lack of spatial awareness, and attentional
difficulties.

CEREBELLUM
 The cerebellum (which is Latin for “little brain”) is a major structure of the hindbrain that
is located near the brainstem. This part of the brain is responsible for coordinating
voluntary movements. It is also responsible for a number of functions including motor
skills such as balance, coordination, and posture.
 The cerebellum is the largest structure of the hindbrain and can be found in the back
portion of the skull below the temporal and occipital lobes and behind the brainstem.
 When looking at the brain, the cerebellum looks much like a smaller structure separate
from the brain, found beneath the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum
consists of a cortex covering white matter, as well as a ventricle filled with fluid. It is also
divided into two hemispheres like the cerebral cortex.

There are two main parts of the cerebellum:

• Cerebellar cortex: A layer containing folded tissue containing most of the cerebellum's
neurons
• Cerebellar nuclei: The innermost part of the cerebellum containing nerve cells that
communication information from the cerebellum

USES AND FUNCTIONS

• The cerebellum receives information from other regions of the brain and nervous system
including the brain stem, spinal cord, and cerebrum.
• Plays important role in coordination, posture, and balance, as well as in speech and a
number of important mental processes.

IMPACT OF THE CEREBELLUM

1. Coordinating the body’s voluntary movements
2. Mental functions
3. Balance and Posture
4. Motor learning
5. Unsteady gait: Walking unsteadily or clumsily
6. Vertigo: The dizziness sensation of spinning, swaying, or tilting.
 7. Anxiety disorders: A category of disorders including panic disorder and social anxiety
disorder
8. Autism spectrum disorder: A developmental condition that causes impairments in social
interactions and communication
9. Dyslexia: A disorder that makes it difficult to process speech and results in problems
with reading, writing, and spelling
10. Schizophrenia: A psychotic disorder characterized by distorted perceptions, thoughts,
emotions, and beliefs that are not connected to reality.

CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT THE CEREBELLUM

1. Ataxia: The loss of control of voluntary movement
2. Cognitive impairment: A reductio in conscious mental activities, including thinking,
learning, memory and concentration
3. Dystonia: Involuntary contraction of muscles that normally work in cooperation so that a
body part is held in an usual and often painful position as a result
4. Tremors: Involuntary, rhythmic contraction of muscles that can lead to shaking
movements in the hands, legs, face, head, or vocal cords