4th, 5th, and 6th period note

ARTHROPODS:
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS & CLASSIFICATION

a) General Characteristics & Classification:

Exoskeleton: Arthropods have a hard, chitinous exoskeleton for protection and support.
Segmented Body: The body is divided into distinct segments.s
Jointed Appendages: Arthropods have jointed legs or other appendages.

Open Circulatory System: Hemolymph circulates in the body cavity.

Classification:
Subphylum Chelicerata (e.g., spiders, scorpions).
Subphylum Myriapoda (e.g., centipedes, millipedes).
Subphylum Hexapoda (e.g., insects).
Subphylum Crustacea (e.g., crabs, lobsters).

Morphology and Life Processes:

i) Respiration:
Tracheal System: Insects use a network of tubes (tracheae) for gas exchange.
Book Lungs or Book Gills: Arachnids use specialized respiratory organs.

ii) Feeding:
Mouthparts: Different types of mouthparts adapted for various feeding habits (e.g., biting, chewing, sucking).
Diverse Diets: Arthropods can be herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores.

iii) Mouthparts and Body Segments:

Chelicerates: Chelicerae for feeding (spiders, scorpions).
Myriapods: Mandibles for chewing (centipedes, millipedes).
Hexapods: Varied mouthparts (e.g., biting, sucking) and three body segments (head, thorax, abdomen).
Crustaceans: Mandibles and two pairs of antennae (e.g., crabs, lobsters).

Life Cycle:
2. Metamorphosis and Molting (Complete and Incomplete):
Complete Metamorphosis (Holometabolous): Four stages - egg, larva, pupa, adult (e.g., butterflies, beetles).
Incomplete Metamorphosis (Hemimetabolous): Three stages - egg, nymph, adult (e.g., grasshoppers,
dragonflies).
Molting: Arthropods shed their exoskeleton to grow, a process known as molting or ecdysis.

3. Vectors: (Mosquitoes, Tsetse Fly, House Fly, and Cockroach):

Mosquitoes: Vectors for diseases like malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus.
Tsetse Fly: Vector for African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).
House Fly: Can transmit various diseases by carrying pathogens on their body and mouthparts.
Cockroach: May harbor disease-causing organisms and contribute to the spread of pathogens.

General Characteristics –
Mouthparts, Feeding, Life Cycle, and Transmission of Diseases:
Mouthparts: Specialized for various feeding strategies (e.g., piercing, sucking, chewing).
Feeding: Arthropods have diverse diets, playing crucial roles in ecosystems as herbivores, predators, or
scavengers.
Life Cycle:
Varied life cycles include complete and incomplete metamorphosis.
Transmission of Diseases: Some arthropods act as vectors, transmitting pathogens that cause diseases in
humans and other animals.
Understanding the characteristics and life processes of arthropods is essential due to their ecological
significance, economic impact, and their role as vectors of diseases.

4. Caste System in Social Insects:

Definition: Social insects, such as ants, bees, wasps, and termites, exhibit a caste system where individuals are
specialized for specific roles within the colony.

Types of Castes:
Queen: Reproductive female responsible for laying eggs.
Worker: Sterile females engaged in foraging, nest maintenance, and caring for the young.
Drone: Male insects with the primary function of mating with the queen.

5. Economic Importance of Social Insects:

a) Honey Bees:
Pollination: Bees play a crucial role in pollinating flowering plants, contributing to the production of fruits,
vegetables, and nuts.
Honey Production: Bees produce honey, a valuable food product.
Wax Production: Beeswax is used in various products, including candles and cosmetics.
b) Termites:
Role in Ecosystem: Termites contribute to the breakdown of dead plant material, recycling nutrients in
ecosystems.
Destructive Nature: Some termites are pests, causing damage to wooden structures and crops.
Soil Improvement: Termites enhance soil fertility through their activities.

6. Pests - Economic Importance,

Chemical Control, Biological Control:

a) Economic Importance:
Crop Damage: Pests can cause significant damage to agricultural crops, leading to reduced yields and economic
losses.
Structural Damage: Pests like termites and rodents can damage buildings, wooden structures, and stored goods.
b) Chemical Control:
Pesticides: Chemical substances designed to control or eliminate pests.
Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides: Target specific types of pests or plants.

Advantages: Rapid control, broad spectrum.

Disadvantages: Environmental pollution, non-target effects, development of resistance.
c) Biological Control:
Predators and Parasitoids: Natural enemies of pests can be introduced to control pest populations.
Biopesticides: Microorganisms or their products used for pest control.
Advantages: Environmentally friendly, sustainable, and reduced development of resistance.
Disadvantages: Slower effect compared to chemical control.

Understanding the caste system in social insects and the economic importance of both beneficial and pest
species provides insights into their ecological roles and their impact on agriculture and human activities. The
management of pests is crucial for sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation.

1. Algae:
a) General Characteristics:
Photosynthetic: Algae are primarily autotrophic, using chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Aquatic Habitats: Found in a variety of aquatic environments, including freshwater and marine habitats.
Cell Wall: Often have cell walls made of cellulose.
Diversity: Range in size from microscopic phytoplankton to large seaweeds.

b) Classification:
Groups: Classified into several groups based on pigmentation, cell structure, and storage products.
Major Groups: Green algae, red algae, brown algae, diatoms, dinoflagellates, etc.

c) Phytoplankton (Floating Microbes):

Definition: Microscopic, photosynthetic organisms that drift in water, forming the basis of the aquatic food
chain.
Importance:
Key primary producers, contributing to global oxygen production and carbon dioxide absorption.
d) Green Algae:
Characteristics: Contain chlorophyll a and b, and store starch in chloroplasts.
Habitats: Found in freshwater, damp soil, and symbiotic relationships with fungi (lichens).
Examples: Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Ulva (sea lettuce).
e) Spirogyra Reproduction (Sexual and Asexual):
Asexual Reproduction (Binary Fission): Cell division leading to the formation of two new cells.
Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation): Filaments align, and conjugation tubes form for the exchange of genetic
material.
f) Economic Importance of Algae in Food, Medicine & Industry:
Food Source: Some algae are consumed directly by humans (e.g., Nori - red algae).
Carrageenan: Extracted from red algae, used as a thickening agent in food.
Agar: Derived from red algae, used in microbiological culture media.
Alginate: Extracted from brown algae, used in food processing as a thickening agent.
Phycocolloids: Used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Biofuel Production: Certain algae species are explored for biofuel production.
Understanding the general characteristics, classification, and economic importance of algae is vital, as they play
crucial roles in aquatic ecosystems, provide resources for various industries, and contribute to global ecological
processes.

Mosses (e.g., Brachymerium and Funaria):

a) General Characteristics:
Bryophytes: Mosses belong to the group of non-vascular plants called bryophytes.
Habitat: Often found in damp and shady environments, such as forests, rocks, or soil.
Simple Structure: Lack true roots, stems, and leaves; instead, they have rhizoids for anchorage.
Water-Dependent: Require water for reproduction as they lack a vascular system to transport water.

b) Reproduction: Alternation of Generations:

Gametophyte and Sporophyte Generations:
Gametophyte: Dominant, independent, and produces gametes (sperm and egg) through mitosis.
Sporophyte: Attached to the gametophyte, dependent on it for nutrients, and produces spores through meiosis.

Life Cycle:
Gametophyte Stage: Haploid (n) moss plant produces male and female gametes (sperm and egg).
Fertilization: Sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid (2n) zygote.
Sporophyte Stage: Zygote develops into a sporophyte, which remains attached to the gametophyte.
Spore Production: Sporophyte undergoes meiosis, producing haploid spores.
Spore Dispersal: Spores are released and dispersed by wind, water, or other means.
Germination: Spores germinate into new gametophyte plants, completing the life cycle.
 Reproduction Strategies:
Asexual Reproduction: Occurs through fragmentation, where parts of the gametophyte break off and develop
into new individuals.
Sexual Reproduction: Involves the formation of male and female gametes and the subsequent fertilization
process.

2. Ferns (i.e., Nephrolepis, Platycerium):

a) General Characteristics:
Vascular Plants: Ferns are vascular plants, containing specialized tissues for water and nutrient transport.
Leafy Fronds: Leaves are typically large, divided into smaller leaflets, and arranged in a spiral pattern.
Rhizomes: Ferns often have underground rhizomes, horizontal stems that produce roots and fronds.
b) Reproduction: Alternation of Generations:
Gametophyte and Sporophyte Generations:
Gametophyte: Haploid (n) and produces male and female gametes (sperm and egg).
Sporophyte: Diploid (2n) and develops from a fertilized egg, producing spores through meiosis.

Life Cycle:
Spore Formation: Spores are produced in sporangia on the underside of fern fronds.
Spore Dispersal: Spores are released and dispersed by wind.
Germination: Spores germinate into small, heart-shaped structures called gametophytes.
Gametophyte Stage: Gametophytes produce male and female gametes.
Fertilization: Sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote.
Sporophyte Stage: The zygote develops into a new fern sporophyte.

c) Economic Importance:
Horticulture: Some ferns, like Nephrolepis (Boston fern), are popular ornamental plants.
Environmental Indicators: Ferns can be used as bioindicators of air quality and pollution.

4. Fungi:
a) General Characteristics:
Eukaryotic: Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with a distinct cell wall.
Heterotrophic: Absorb nutrients from the environment through external digestion.
Hyphal Structure: Consists of thread-like structures called hyphae that form a mycelium.
b) Classification:
Major Groups: Include Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Deuteromycota.
c) Nutrition:
Saprophytic: Decompose dead organic matter.
Parasitic: Obtain nutrients from a host organism.
d) Mode of Life - Parasitic, Saprophytic:
Parasitic: Some fungi cause diseases in plants (blight, smuts, rust) and animals (ringworm).
Saprophytic: Decompose organic matter, recycling nutrients in ecosystems.

e) Diseases that Affect Plants & Humans:

Plants: Blight, smuts, rust.
Humans: Athlete's foot, yeast infections, ringworm, eczema (dishcloth).

f) Economic Importance:
Food: Some fungi are edible (mushrooms) and used in culinary applications.
Medicine: Antibiotics like penicillin are produced by fungi.

Industry: Yeast is used in baking and brewing. Some fungi are used in biotechnological processes.
 g) Reproduction (Sexual & Asexual):
Sexual Reproduction: Involves the formation of spores through sexual processes.
Asexual Reproduction: Involves the production of spores or other structures without the involvement of sexual
processes.
5. Photosynthesis:
a) Definition:
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods
with the help of chlorophyll.

b) Conditions of Photosynthesis:
Light: Photosynthesis occurs in the presence of light.
Chlorophyll: Pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy.
Carbon Dioxide: Absorbed from the atmosphere.
Water: Absorbed through roots.

Temperature: Optimal photosynthesis occurs within a specific temperature range.

c) Leaf Adaptation to Photosynthesis:
Leaf Structure: Thin and flat for maximum light absorption.
Stomata: Small pores for gas exchange.

Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

Vascular Tissues: Xylem and phloem facilitate water and nutrient transport.
a) Light-Dependent Reactions and Light-Independent Reactions:
Light-Dependent Reactions (Occurs in Thylakoid Membranes):

Location: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.

Processes: Capture and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).
Products: Oxygen is released as a byproduct.

Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle - Occurs in Stroma):

Location: Stroma of chloroplasts.
Processes: Utilize ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into
glucose.

Products: Glucose and other carbohydrates are synthesized.

d) Products of Photosynthesis:
Main Product: Glucose (C6H12O6).
Other Carbohydrates: Starch, sucrose, and cellulose.

Oxygen: Released as a byproduct during the light-dependent reactions.

e) Fate of Photosynthetic Products:
Glucose Usage: Used as an energy source for cellular respiration, providing energy for various metabolic
processes.

Storage: Excess glucose is stored as starch in plant cells.

Cellular Respiration: Some glucose is converted into ATP through cellular respiration.
Building Biomolecules: Glucose is used in the synthesis of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

f) Macronutrients and Micronutrients: Their Effects in Photosynthesis:

Macronutrients: Essential nutrients required in relatively large amounts.
Nitrogen (N): Important component of chlorophyll, essential for the synthesis of amino acids and proteins.
Phosphorus (P): Involved in energy transfer and storage (ATP and ADP).
Potassium (K): Regulates stomatal opening and closing, essential for enzyme activation.
Micronutrients: Essential nutrients required in smaller amounts.
Iron (Fe): Involved in the formation of chlorophyll.
Magnesium (Mg): Essential component of chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis.

Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu): Act as cofactors for various enzymes involved in photosynthesis.
The availability of nutrients, both macronutrients and micronutrients, is crucial for the optimal functioning of
the photosynthetic process. Macronutrients and micronutrients play specific roles in the synthesis of
chlorophyll, ATP production, and overall plant growth and development.

Flowering Plants:
a) Classification (Monocots & Dicots):
Monocots:
One cotyledon in the seed.
Parallel venation in leaves.
Floral parts in multiples of three.
Vascular bundles scattered in the stem.
Examples: Grasses, lilies.
Dicots:
Two cotyledons in the seed.
Net venation in leaves.
Floral parts in multiples of four or five.
Vascular bundles arranged in a ring in the stem.
Examples: Roses, sunflowers.

b) Success of Flowering Plants:

Adaptations: Flowers for sexual reproduction, fruits for seed dispersal, vascular tissues for efficient nutrient and
water transport, and efficient root systems.
2. Functions of Roots, Stems, Leaves, and Flowers:
Roots:
 Absorption of water and minerals.
 Anchorage and support.
 Storage of food.
Stems:

 Support for leaves and flowers.

 Transport of water, nutrients, and sugars.
 Storage of food.

Leaves:
 Photosynthesis (production of food using sunlight).
 Gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).
 Transpiration (water movement through the plant).

Flowers:
 Reproduction (production of seeds).
 Attraction of pollinators.
 Seed dispersal.
3. Floral Formulae of Flowers:
Flamboyant (Delonix):
Example: ∗50∗50∗50∗50∗∗05∗05∗05∗05∗

Five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and one carpel.

Pride of Barbados (Caesalpinia):
Example: ∗50∗50∗50∗5∞∗∗05∗05∗05∗∞5∗

Five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and one carpel with numerous ovules.
Rattle Box (Crotalaria):
Example: ∗50∗50∗5∞∗5∞∗∗05∗05∗∞5∗∞5∗
Five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and one carpel with numerous ovules.

3. Types of Plant Tissues:

Meristematic Tissue: Actively dividing cells for growth.

Permanent Tissue:
Simple Tissues: Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
Complex Tissues: Xylem and phloem.
4. Root System: a) Types:

Taproot System: Main root with lateral branches (e.g., carrots).

Fibrous Root System: Numerous thin roots of similar size (e.g., grasses).

b) Regions of Root Tip:

 Root Cap: Protection of the growing tip.
 Meristematic Region: Cell division.
 Elongation Region: Cell elongation.
 Maturation Region: Differentiation and root hair formation.

c) Functions and Structures of Root Hairs:

Functions: Increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals.

Structures: Tubular outgrowths of epidermal cells.

5. Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves - Tubers:

Modified Roots (Tubers): Enlarged, fleshy structures used for storage.

Example: Sweet potatoes.
Understanding the classification, functions, and structures of flowering plants provides insights into their
diversity and adaptations for survival and reproduction.
Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves:
- Bulbs:

Structure: Swollen underground storage structure.

Examples: Onion bulbs, tulip bulbs.
Function: Stores nutrients for the plant.
- Tendrils, Runners:
Tendrils:
Structure: Slender, coiling structures.
Function: Aid in climbing and support.
Runners (Stolons):

Structure: Horizontal stems above the ground.

Function: Asexual reproduction and spreading.
6. Leaf Classification and Arrangement on Stem:

Leaf Types:
 Simple Leaves: Single blade.
 Compound Leaves: Divided into leaflets.
 Arrangement on Stem:
 Alternate: One leaf per node.
 Opposite: Two leaves per node.
 Whorled: Three or more leaves per node.

7. Germination:

 Types (Epigeal and Hypogeal):

 Epigeal Germination: Cotyledons emerge above the soil surface.
 Hypogeal Germination: Cotyledons remain below the soil surface.
 Conditions Necessary for Germination:

 Water: Hydration activates enzymes.

 Oxygen: Needed for aerobic respiration.
 Temperature: Suitable for enzyme activity.
 Light (in some cases): Initiates growth.

8. Types of Pollination and Agents of Pollination:

Types of Pollination:
Self-Pollination: Pollen transfer within the same flower or between flowers of the same plant.
Cross-Pollination: Pollen transfer between flowers of different plants.

Agents of Pollination:

 Wind: Anemophily (e.g., grasses).

 Animals: Zoophily.
 Insects: Entomophily (e.g., bees, butterflies).
 Birds: Ornithophily (e.g., hummingbirds).
 Other Animals: Mammals, reptiles.

9. Observing the Process of Transpiration through Experiments:
Experiment Setup:
 Potometer: Measure water uptake by a plant.
 Cobalt Chloride Paper: Detects humidity changes.
 Gas Pressure Method: Measures water loss indirectly.
 Conditions for Transpiration Experiment:
 Adequate Light: Stimulates stomatal opening.
 Controlled Environment:
Minimize external factors.
Healthy Plant: Ensure the plant is actively transpiring.
These topics cover various aspects of plant anatomy, physiology, and reproduction, providing a comprehensive
understanding of plant structure and function.

Explain the process of zygote and embryo

Types of Pollination:

Self-Pollination:
Definition: Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same
plant.

Advantages: Ensures fertilization but may limit genetic diversity.

Examples: Peas, tomatoes.

Cross-Pollination:
Definition: Transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a different flower, either on the
same or another plant.

Advantages: Enhances genetic diversity, promoting adaptability.

Examples: Apples, cherries.

Agents of Pollination:
 Wind (Anemophily):
 Characteristics: Small, lightweight, and abundant pollen. Flowers lack showy petals.
 Examples: Grasses, conifers.

Advantages: Efficient for large populations but less precise than other methods.
Animals (Zoophily):
Insects (Entomophily):

Characteristics: Brightly colored flowers, sweet scent, nectar guides.

Examples: Bees, butterflies, moths.
Birds (Ornithophily):

Characteristics: Brightly colored, tubular flowers, often lacking scent.

Examples: Hummingbirds.

Other Animals:
Characteristics: Usually not intentionally pollinating but may transfer pollen incidentally.
Examples: Bats, rodents.
Water (Hydrophily)

Characteristics: Pollen is released into the water, and currents carry it to female flowers.
Examples: Aquatic plants like seagrasses.
Advantages: Suitable for plants growing in aquatic environments.

Seed Germination in Flowering Plants:

Definition: Seed germination is the process where a dormant seed begins to grow and develop into a new plant.

Conditions Necessary for Germination:

 Water: Hydration is crucial to activate enzymes and metabolic processes.
 Oxygen: Essential for aerobic respiration during germination.
 Temperature: Suitable temperature for enzyme activity.
 Light (in some cases): Some seeds require light for germination.

10. Types of Fruits and Fruit/Seed Dispersal:

Types of Fruits:
 Simple Fruits: Develop from a single ovary. (e.g., apple, cherry)
 Aggregate Fruits: Develop from multiple ovaries in a single flower. (e.g., strawberry)
 Multiple Fruits: Develop from the ovaries of multiple flowers. (e.g., pineapple)

Fruit and Seed Dispersal:

 Wind Dispersal: Seeds equipped with structures like wings or hairs to be carried by the wind.
 Animal Dispersal: Seeds often enclosed in fruits that attract animals. Dispersed through feces or
attachment.
 Water Dispersal: Seeds designed to float or be carried by water currents.
 Explosive Mechanisms: Some fruits burst open to release seeds.
 Gravity Dispersal: Seeds fall to the ground and rely on gravity for dispersal.

11. Plant Hormones and Their Functions:

 Auxins: Stimulate cell elongation, promote root development, and inhibit lateral bud growth.
 Gibberellins: Promote stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering.
 Cytokinins: Stimulate cell division, delay senescence (aging), and promote lateral bud growth.
 Abscisic Acid (ABA): Inhibits growth, promotes seed dormancy, and regulates water balance.
 Ethylene: Stimulates fruit ripening, promotes leaf and flower senescence.

12. Transport System in Plants:

 Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
 Phloem: Transports sugars (sap) from leaves to various parts of the plant.
 Transpiration: Process of water movement through the plant, driven by evaporation from leaf surfaces.

13. Process of Excretion in Plants:

 Oxygen: Released during photosynthesis.
 Carbon Dioxide: Released during respiration.
 Water: Excreted through transpiration.

14. Plant Growth and Development:

Growth: Increase in size or mass due to cell division, elongation, and differentiation.
Development: Progressive and coordinated changes leading to the mature plant structure.

15. Gaseous Exchange in Plants:

 Photosynthesis: Takes in carbon dioxide (CO2) and releases oxygen (O2).
 Respiration: Takes in oxygen (O2) and releases carbon dioxide (CO2).
 Stomata: Small pores on leaves for gas exchange.
Understanding these processes provides insights into the life cycle, growth, and functioning of flowering plants,
essential for their survival and reproduction

10. Plant Hormones and Plant Growth:

 Primary and Secondary Growth in Plants:
 Primary Growth: Lengthening of roots and shoots due to cell division in apical meristems.
 Secondary Growth: Increase in girth or thickness due to lateral meristems (vascular cambium and cork
cambium).

 Measurement of Growth in Plants:

 Height Growth: Measured vertically.
 Diameter Growth: Measured laterally.
 Dry Weight: Measure of overall biomass.
 Leaf Area: Measurement of the total leaf surface area.

 Nastic and Tactic Movements in Plants:

 Nastic Movements: Non-directional responses to stimuli, e.g., opening and closing of flowers.
 Tactic Movements: Directional movements in response to a stimulus, e.g., growth towards light
(phototropism).

11. Transport System in Vascular Plants:

 Movement of Water and Minerals Through Plants:
 Root Uptake: Absorption of water and minerals by root hairs.
 Root Pressure: Pushes water up the xylem.
 Transpiration Pull: Water movement due to evaporation from leaves.

 Movement of Organic Materials from Leaves to Roots:

 Phloem Transport: Translocation of sugars from leaves to roots.
 Source to Sink: Movement of sugars from regions of production (source) to regions of storage or use
(sink).

12. Excretion in Plants:

 Excretory Products of Plants:
 Oxygen: Released during photosynthesis.
 Carbon Dioxide: Released during respiration.
 Water: Released through transpiration.
 Alkaloids, Tannins, Resins, Acids, Gums: Secondary metabolites with protective functions.

13. Pressure Flow Hypothesis and Cytoplasmic Streaming of Translocation:

Pressure Flow Hypothesis: Explains the movement of sugars through the phloem, driven by differences in
pressure.
Cytoplasmic Streaming: Movement of cytoplasm within plant cells, aiding in the transport of nutrients and
organelles.

14. Transpiration: Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
 Cooling effect on the plant.
 Creates a negative pressure for water uptake.
 Facilitates mineral transport.
 Disadvantages:
  Water loss from the plant.
 Requires a continuous water supply.

15. Environmental Factors Affecting Transpiration:

Temperature: Higher temperatures generally increase transpiration rates.
Humidity: Higher humidity reduces transpiration.
Wind: Increases the rate of transpiration by removing water vapor from leaf surfaces.
Light: Influences stomatal opening and transpiration rates.

16. Physiological Factors Affecting the Rise of Water in Xylem:

Root Pressure: Pushes water up the xylem from the roots.
Transpiration: Pulls water up due to evaporation from leaves.
Cohesion-Tension Mechanism: Water cohesion and tension within the xylem vessels contribute to water
movement.
Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and the walls of the xylem vessels.
Water Potential Gradient: Water moves from areas of higher potential (root cells) to lower potential
(atmosphere).

17. Gaseous Exchange:

a) Concentration Gradient: Movement of gases from areas of high concentration to low concentration.
b) Structure and Function of Stomata:
Structure: Pores on the leaf surface.
Function: Regulate gas exchange and water loss.
c) Structure and Function of Lenticels:
Structure: Spongy areas on stems.
Function: Facilitate gas exchange in woody stems.

18. Explanation of Metabolic Equations:

d) C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Heat energy: Cellular respiration in aerobic conditions.
e) C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Heat: Fermentation, a form of anaerobic respiration.

20. Types of Respiration Compared:

f) Facultative Aerobic: Organisms can switch between aerobic and anaerobic respiration based on oxygen
availability.
g) Facultative Anaerobic: Organisms that can perform anaerobic respiration but switch to aerobic respiration
in the presence of oxygen.
Understanding these factors and processes is essential for grasping how plants adapt to their environment,
exchange gases, and carry out metabolic activities for energy production.

1. Virus:

Definition:
A virus is a microscopic infectious agent that requires a host cell to replicate and can cause a variety of diseases
in plants, animals, and microorganisms.

a) General Characteristics:
Viruses are non-cellular entities, consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat
called a capsid.
They lack cellular machinery for metabolism and reproduction and are obligate intracellular parasites.
Viruses are highly diverse and can infect all forms of life, including animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and
archaea.
They have specific host ranges and can cause a range of diseases, from mild infections to severe illnesses.
b) Composition of Viral Structure:

Genetic Material: Can be either DNA or RNA, but not both, which carries the instructions for viral replication
and protein synthesis.
Protein Capsid: Surrounds the genetic material and provides protection. It may have various shapes, such as
helical, icosahedral, or complex.

Envelope (Optional): Some viruses have an outer lipid membrane called the envelope, derived from the host
cell membrane, which aids in viral entry into host cells.
Spike Proteins: Project from the surface of some viruses and facilitate attachment to host cell receptors.

2. Classification:
DNA Viruses:
Viruses with DNA as their genetic material. Examples include Herpesviruses, Adenoviruses, and
Papillomaviruses.
RNA Viruses:
Viruses with RNA as their genetic material. Examples include Influenza virus, HIV, and Measles virus.

3. Common Viral Diseases:

Cold: Caused by various viruses, including rhinoviruses and coronaviruses, leading to symptoms like sore
throat, runny nose, and cough.
Flu (Influenza): Caused by influenza viruses, resulting in fever, body aches, cough, and respiratory symptoms.
Mumps: Caused by the mumps virus, leading to swollen salivary glands, fever, and fatigue.
Chickenpox: Caused by the varicella-zoster virus, resulting in itchy skin rash, fever, and flu-like symptoms.
Rabies: Caused by the rabies virus, leading to neurological symptoms, aggression, and eventual death if
untreated.

Polio: Caused by the poliovirus, resulting in paralysis and potentially life-threatening complications.
HIV/AIDS: Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), leading to progressive immune system failure
and AIDS.

4. Life Cycle of a Virus:

a) Lytic Cycle:
Attachment: Virus attaches to host cell receptors.
Penetration: Virus enters the host cell.
Replication: Viral genetic material is replicated, and new viral components are synthesized.
Assembly: New viral particles are assembled.
Release: Host cell lyses, releasing new viral particles to infect other cells.

b) Lysogenic Cycle:

After penetration, viral DNA integrates into the host cell genome (provirus).
The provirus replicates along with the host cell DNA during cell division.
Under certain conditions, the provirus can switch to the lytic cycle, leading to the production of new viral
particles.

5. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):

Modes of Transmission:
Sexual contact (vaginal, anal, or oral sex) with an infected individual.
Vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth.
Sharing contaminated needles or syringes.

Prevention:
 Abstinence or mutual monogamy with an uninfected partner.
 Correct and consistent use of barrier methods such as condoms.
 Regular testing and treatment of infected individuals.
 Vaccination (where available) against certain viral STIs like HPV (Human Papillomavirus).

Nutrition this is the process by which living organisms obtain food.

Modes of Nutrition
The following diagram gives a summary of the main modes of nutrition living organisms.

There are two main modes of nutrition namely autotrophic and heterotrophic.
Autotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism makes its own food. Organisms that carry out
autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs. Those that use energy from sunlight to make food are called
phototrophs or photoautotrophs (e.g. green plants) while those that use energy from chemical reactions to make
food are called chemotrophs or chemoautotrophs (e.g. nitrifying bacteria).

Heterotrophic nutrition is where an organism takes food present in the bodies of other organisms. It includes
parasitic, saprophytic and holozoic nutrition. Organisms that carry out heterotrophic nutrition are called
heterotrophs.

Parasitic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism known as the parasite lives and feeds off another
organism called the host, often causing harm such as disease, physical injury or even death in the process. The
parasite is always smaller than the host. There are two types of parasites which are exoparasites (those that live
on external surfaces of the body e.g. lice) and endoparasites (those that live inside the body e.g. tapeworms and
roundworms)

Saprophytic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism called the saprophyte feeds on dead and
decaying organic matter known as the substrate. The saprophyte feeds by secreting extracellular digestive
enzymes from its hyphae. These enzymes hydrolyze the substrate and the saprophyte absorbs the end products.
Examples : Mucor and Rhizopus.
Structure of Mucor and Rhizopus

The bodies
of Mucor and Rhizopus are made of threads called hyphae. A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. Horizontal
hyphae are called stolons; root like hyphae are called rhizoids while those that bear spore cases (sporangia) are
called sporangiophores. Each spore case contains numerous spores. Spores are microscopic structures produced
asexually which are capable of germinating under favourable conditions.

Saprophytes are important in the following ways:

They decompose dead organic matter, thereby preventing accumulation of dead bodies
They play a role in the recycling of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen
Some saprophytes are used as food e.g. mushrooms.
Some saprophytes such as yeast are important in brewing and baking.

Holozoic Nutrition is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a specialized tube called the alimentary
canal and involves five stages namely ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. Ingestion is
the intake of food into the mouth; digestion is the breaking down of food; absorption is the uptake of soluble
food into the blood stream; assimilation is the usage and incorporation of food in living cells; egestion is the
removal of undigested foods from the body through the anus.

Symbiosis/Mutualism: This is an association between two different species of organisms where each species
benefits the other. Examples of mutualism are: The association between ruminants and the microbes which are
found in their guts. The ruminants provide a habitat and gather food which is used by the microbes.

NUTRIENTS
A nutrient is any substance which provides the body with any or all of the following:
Energy
Material for growth
Protection against diseases
Proper functioning of the body

CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS
There are seven classes of nutrients namely: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, mineral salts, vitamins and
roughage.

CARBOHYDRATES
These are nutrients that are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are a source of energy. Lack of
carbohydrates in diet leads to marasmus. They are commonly obtained from plants. There are three classes of
carbohydrates, namely monosaccharaides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and make up the building blocks of carbohydrates. They are
also called simple sugars. Groups of monosaccharides include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses and
so on. The hexoses are the most famous and include fructose, glucose and galactose The common name,
occurrence and use of each of them are given in the following table.
Monosaccharide Common Natural Uses
name occurrence
Glucose Blood In honey and Main substrate of respiration
sugar blood
Fructose Fruit In fruits, nectar Attracts and rewards to animals that
sugar and honey pollinate flowers and disperse seeds
Galactose In milk Source of energy for young mammals
A disaccharide is made of two monosaccharide units chemically combined by condensation.
Disaccharide Common Natural occurrence Uses Constituent
 name Monomers
Lactose Milk sugar Milk Source of Glucose and
energy for Galactose
young
mammals
Maltose Malt sugar Germinating seeds Source of Glucose units
energy for only
germinating
seeds
Sucrose Cane/table Stored in sugar cane, beet Form in which Glucose and
sugar root and onions plants transport Fructose

NOTE:All monosaccharides and disaccharides are collectively called sugars. A sugar is a carbohydrate which
has the following characteristics:
soluble in water has a sweet taste is crystalline.

Some of the sugars are also known as reducing sugars This is because they can reduce Cu2+ ions to Cu+ ions.
All monosaccharides and disaccharides except sucrose are reducing sugars. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made of more than two monosaccharides chemically combined by
condensation. Common polysaccharides include starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Starch is the main storage carbohydrate in plants. Excess glucose in plants is converted to starch and stored in
cell structures called amyloplasts.

Starch is suited for the role of storage molecule in the following ways:

 It is insoluble in water; hence it cannot be lost from storage cells;

 It has no osmotic effects
 It is relatively unreactive
 It is compact and does not take up much space;
 It is easily hydrolysed by enzymes when glucose levels are low. The main sources of starch are cereal
seeds and tubers, though all plants generally are a source of starch.

Glycogen is the main storage carbohydrate in animals. In humans, when there is excess glucose in the blood,
the hormone insulin produced by the pancreas causes cells in the liver and muscles to convert the excess
glucose into glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles. The human body can store about 400g of
glycogen (roughly 300g in the muscles and 100g in the liver).

When glucose levels are low in the blood, the hormone glucagon produced by the pancreas causes muscle and
liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose. Glycogen is sometimes called animal starch because its
characteristics are similar to starch. It differs from starch by being more branched, making it less dense and
easier to digest than starch.

This is one reason why animals have a faster metabolic rate than plants.

Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate found in cell walls of plants. It has a high tensile strength (does not stretch
easily), thereby protecting plant cells and preventing lysis when there is excessive osmotic inflow of water.
Animals cannot digest cellulose on their own because they do not secrete the enzyme cellulase which digests
cellulose. Those that depend on plant diets have symbiotic relationships with microbes which secrete cellulase.
However, cellulose is still useful as roughage which stimulates peristalsis and prevents constipation.
Lipids
These are nutrients made of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However the amount of oxygen in
lipids is less than the one found in carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and organic
solvents such as acetone, benzene and chloroform. Edible lipid s include oils and fats. Oils are liquid at room
temperature while fats are solid at room temp.
The building blocks of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids. Each molecule of a fat comprises one molecule of
glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.

Uses of Lipids
Water proofing- certain organisms such as ducks secrete lipids which prevent their bodies from getting wet with
water
Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from the body
Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids which can be
synthesized from fats and oils
Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of carbohydrates in the body
is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Sources of lipids include vegetable oils and animal fats.

Proteins
All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Most of them also contain sulphur or phosphorous
and a small number of them contain metals such as iron (haem oglobin) and magnesium (chlorophyll). The
building blocks of proteins are amino acids.

There are twenty amino acids commonly found in living organisms and theses may be divided into two groups
namely essential and non-essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are those that the body cannot synthesize
but must be part of the diet. Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can synthesize and so are not
required in the diet
.
Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to make molecules known as peptides. A peptide molecule consisting
of two amino acids is called a dipeptide while one with more than two is called a polypeptide. Most proteins are
polypeptides. Sources of proteins include meat, fish, milk, eggs and legume seeds such as beans, ground nuts,
pea’s etc.

Uses of proteins
 Growth and repair of body tissues
 They are important for making body chemicals such as hormones, enzymes, antibodies, antitoxins,
hemoglobin, keratin, melanin, collagen, actin and myosin
 Water
  It is an inorganic molecule made of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, its chemical formula is
 H2O.

Uses of Water
 It is a universal solvent- where substances needed by the body are dissolved and transported
 There more Gegulation- water is a coolant when the body gets hot and also helps distribute body heat
from active organs
 Digestion- involved in chemical breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones- also called
hydrolysis.
 It is a component of body fluids- saliva, blood, and lymph e.t.c
 It is a participant in metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis.
 It makes up the hydrostatic skeleton in some organisms such as worms.
 It prevents constipation (difficult defecation due to dryness and hardness of faeces).

 If water is lacking in the body, an organism suffers from dehydration. In humans insufficient water can
also lead to constipation.

Mineral Salts
These are inorganic substances and are required by the body in small amounts and their absence causes serious
deficiency diseases. They are absorbed into the body in the form of ions (charged particles formed when an
atom gains or loses electrons). They function as enzyme activators. Examples of mineral salts are calcium and
iron.

Calcium
This is a mineral salt important in the following ways:
Formation of strong bones and teeth
Conduction of nerve impulses
Contraction of muscles
An activator of certain enzymes
Sources of calcium include milk, eggs, meat and bones.
Calcium deficiency leads to a condition known as rickets (the formation of weak and deformed bones)

Iron
It is a mineral salt which is important in the formation of hemoglobin. Iron deficiency leads to
Anemia. Sources of iron include meat, green vegetables and fruits.

Iodine
Important in the formation of hormone called thyroxin produced in the thyroid glands. This hormone controls
metabolic reactions such as respiration.
Sources include iodized salt, sea foods, water. Iodine deficiency leads to goiter (swelling in the neck) and
stunted growth (dwarfism).

Phosphorus
Important in the formation of chemical substances called adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). It is also responsible for the formation of strong bones and teeth. Souces include meat

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules required by the body in small amounts and their absence leads to deficiency
diseases. They function as co-enzymes. There are two groups of vitamins, namely water soluble (those that
dissolve in water i.e. B and C) and fat soluble vitamins (those that dissolve in fats i.e. A, D, E and K)
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
This is a water-soluble vitamin important for the formation of connective tissues of the body. Vitamin C
deficiency leads to a disease called scurvy (characterized by swollen and bleeding gums, poor healing of
wounds and painful muscles). Sources of vitamin C include fresh vegetables and fruits. Vitamin C tends to get
destroyed by over-cooking and long periods of storage.

Vitamin D
It is a fat soluble vitamin which is required in the absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorous.
Deficiency of vitamin D leads to rickets. Sources of vitamin D include fish liver oil, milk and eggs. The skin is
also able to synthesize this vitamin when exposed to sunlight.

Roughage
This is the indigestible part of the diet made of cellulose. It adds bulk to faeces and stimulates peristalsis (wave
like motion) along the alimentary canal, thereby preventing constipation. Lack of roughage leads to constipation
(difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces). The other name for roughage is dietary fibre.
Sources include maize, unpolished cereals, fruits etc.

PLANT NUTRITION

Photosynthesis This is the process by which green plants manufacture glucose/ starch/ carbohydratesc from
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light energy absorbed by chlorophyll. Oxygen is produced as a by
product. This process takes place in leaves and may be summarised by the following word and chemical
equations:

Word Equation

Chemical Equation

The products for photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released out of the plant while some of
it is used for respiration.

The glucose formed is metabolically active and takes part in the following reactions:

 Some of it is used for respiration

 Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell walls
 Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesise amino acids
 Some of it is converted to sucrose in order to be transported
 Some of it is converted to fats and oils
 Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
 The excess is converted to starch for storage

LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS

LIGHT REACTION- during this stage light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecules
into oxygen and hydrogen. This is called photolysis. Oxygen diffuses into the atmosphere while hydrogen
procedes into the dark stage.
DARK REACTION- during this stage hydrogen from the light reaction combines with carbon dioxide forming
glucose.

These factors that need to be present for photosynthesis to take place are carbon dioxide, water, sunlight and
chlorophyll. Those that also affect the rate of photosynthesis are called limiting factors of photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide enters the plant by diffusing through small openings in the leaf called stomata (singular =
stoma).

Water enters the plant through the roots by osmosis and moves up the plant through xylem vessels. Light energy
(mainly solar energy) is captured/trapped and stored by a green pigment called chlorophyll found in the
chloroplasts. During photosynthesis, this solar energy is transformed into chemical energy. Since
photosynthesis is an enzyme-catalysed reaction, its rate gets affected by all factors that affect enzyme activity.

Leaf Structure
External Structure

Internal Structure (Cross Section)

Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis
 Thin lamina for easy penetration of light
 Large surface area to capture as much light as possible
 Presence of veins/vascular bundles to supply the leaf with water (the xylem) and to transport end
products of photosynthesis (the phloem)

 Presence of stomata for entry of carbon dioxide and exit of oxygen

 Presence of chloroplasts to absorb light energy for photosynthesis. The highest concentration of
chloroplasts is found in the palisade cells, followed by the spongy cells and finally the guard cells.

The Importance of Photosynthesis

 It produces food for all organisms directly or indirectly
 It maintains the balance (equilibrium) of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by using carbon
dioxide from animals and producing oxygen for animals.
 1t produces vast amount of energy in woods. Peat. Coal etc.

Applications of photosynthesis in Greenhouses

 A greenhouse is an enclosure with walls of transparent glass or plastic where plants are grown. By
having transparent walls, light and heat are allowed to reach the plants. In some green houses, plants are
supplied with artificial light from electric bulbs. The walls minimize escape of heat from the greenhouse
thereby keeping temperatures high inside the greenhouse for optimum enzyme activity. Sometimes the
greenhouse is artificially supplied with carbon dioxide.
These factors make a green house more productive than an open piece of land.

Plant Storage Organs

The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are mainly stored in
seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified plant organs, some of which are
discussed below.

 Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) tuber
 Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum)
 Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. onion (Allium sp)
 Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger
 Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.
 Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected by a testa.

Mineral Nutrition in Plants

Plants require several elements in order to grow properly. These elements are absorbed by the roots from the
soil in the form of mineral ions. There are two groups of elements needed by plants for proper growth namely
major elements and minor elements.

Major elements are required by plants in large quantities. Three examples of major elements are nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium (NPK). Minor elements are needed by the plant in small quantities. Examples of
mineral ions needed by plants are magnesium and nitrates
.
Magnesium
This forms part of the chlorophyll molecule.
Deficiency causes chlorosis which is characterised by yellowing of leaves beginning from the bottom of the
plant.
Nitrogen
This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO- ) or ammonium ions (NH+ ).important for
synthesis of proteins and amino acids. Deficiency leads to stunted growth, weak stems and yellowing of leaves.

Potassium
Potassium is important for flowering and fruit formation, ion transport and catalyst it is absorbed in the form of
potassium ions (K+). Deficiency of potassium causes poor flowering and fruit formation.

Phosphorous
It is absorbed in the form of phosphate ions (PO3- ). It is
4 important for the formation of Nucleic acids and ATP.
Deficiency leads to purple leaves, stunted growth and poorly developed roots.

Effects of Sulphur dioxide Pollution on Plant Nutrition

Sulphur dioxide is emitted in industrial and exhaust fumes which are released into the atmosphere. It dissolves
in rain water forming sulphuric acid which falls as acid rain.

The effects of acid rain on plant growth are:

It dissolves away the waxy cuticle, thereby increasing the rate of transpiration and causing the leaves to wilt and
die. This stops or reduces the rate of photosynthesis, leading to death of the plants.
It damages the root hairs, thereby reducing the rate of water and mineral uptake.
In certain European countries, entire forests were wiped out after the industrial revolution due to increased
emission of sulphur dioxide.

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Animals carry out holozoic nutrition. This is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a specialized tube
called the alimentary canal or digestive system and involves five stages namely ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion.

Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.

Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of digestion, namely physical digestion and
chemical digestion.
Physical digestion is the break down of large pieces of food into smaller ones. In humans, this process is
carried out by teeth in the mouth. It increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and
makes food easy to swallow.
Chemical digestion is the break down of large molecules of food into smaller ones by enzymes. It makes
absorption of food more efficient
Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living cells. Egestion is the removal of
undigested food from the body through the anus.

The Human Alimentary Canal

 Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
 Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and jejunum.
 Digestion in the Mouth

The following events occur after food has been ingested into the mouth:
Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the break down of large pieces of food into smaller ones by teeth. It
increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.
Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands. Saliva is a mixture of water, mucus, the enzymes
salivary amylase and lysozyme in a slightly alkaline medium. The water helps in cooling food that is too hot
and warming up food that is too cold so that its temperature is favourable for enzyme action. It also softens food
for easy chewing e.g. it is easier to chew biscuits after they have been moistened by saliva. The mucus
lubricates food for easier swallowing.

The slightly alkaline PH is favourable or optimum for the activity of salivary amylase. Salivary amylase starts
the digestion of cooked starch to produce maltose. However, only small amounts of starch are converted to
maltose in the mouth because food stays for a short time in the mouth. Amylase does not work in the stomach
because the PH there is acidic.

Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus

While food is being chewed, the tongue mixes it with saliva. Later, the tongue works with the palate (top of the
mouth) to roll the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called a bolus, in readiness for swallowing.

Swallowing and Peristalsis

Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus. During
swallowing, the food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis. Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and
relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave-like manner in order to move food along the
alimentary canal.

Peristalsis is illustrated in the following diagram:

Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead of the bolus, circular
muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract.
Digestion in the Stomach
The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance of the stomach is
guarded by the cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.

The following events take place in the stomach;

Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Pepsin
breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates milk by converting the soluble protein caesinogen
into an insoluble form called casein. This delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin
to digest milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen and prorennin,
respectively.

Hydrochloric acid activates them into active enzymes and sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It also kills
some bacteria and hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach against
the acid and pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the wall of the stomach to form
a paste called chyme.
Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes; carbohydrates are kept for
about one hour; proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.

Digestion in the Duodenum

The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas. The liver secretes bile which is
temporarily stored in the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains sodium
hydrogen carbonate, bile salts and bile pigments. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and
then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. The bile salts emulsify fats thereby
increasing the surface area for the action of lipase. Emulsification is the break down of large drops of fats into
small droplets.

Bile pigments have no digestive function but add colour to the faeces.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, trypsin, lipase and
pancreatic amylase. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline
pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat
molecules to fatty acid and glycerol. Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.

Digestion in the Jejunum

This secretes Intestinal Juice (succus entericus) which contains Lactase, maltase, sucrase and peptidase. Lactase
breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose. Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Sucrase breaks down
sucrose to glucose and fructose. Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids. Digestion is completed in the
Jejunum.

The ileum and Absorption

 The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in the
following ways:

 The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
 It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.
 It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli which further increase the
surface area for absorption.
 Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation of monosaccharides and amino
acids
 Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.
Diagram of a Villus
Assimilation of Digestive end Products
After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the blood to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein.

The food is then assimilated as follows:

Assimilation of Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose and Galactose)
Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular) respiration. If it is in excess, the excess is converted to
glycogen which is stored in the muscles and the liver. However the human body stores limited amounts of
glycogen i.e. about 400g (300g in the muscles and 100g in the liver). If there is still some excess glucose, it is
converted to fat and stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the
brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. These processes are influenced by a hormone called insulin which is
secreted by the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are assimilated in the same way as glucose.

Assimilation of Amino Acids

Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the body. Excess amino acids are deaminated by
the liver. Deamination is the process by which the amino group of an amino acid is removed and eventually
converted to urea by the liver. Ammonia is an intermediate during deamination and is highly toxic. It is quickly
converted to urea which less toxic. The remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbon skeleton may be
converted to glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis. Urea is toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. It
is carried from the liver by blood and is removed from the body by the kidneys by the process of excretion.

Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids

Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the following uses in the body:
Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from the body
Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids which can be
synthesized from fats and oils
Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of carbohydrates in the body
is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the brain,
heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin is responsible for insulation while the fat around
delicate organs cushions the organs against shocks.

Large Intestines
These are made of the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The caecum is the point where the ileum is linked to
the large intestines. It has a projection at the base known as the appendix, which has no known use in the human
body and is considered a vestigial organ. The colon carries out absorption of water from the faeces while the
rectum stores faeces temporarily before they are egested and continues the absorption of water.

Functions of the Liver

The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and performs a wide range of functions including the
following:
 Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important in
 emulsification of fats.
 Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.
 Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances e.g. hydrogen
peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase in the liver. Excess intake of
alcohol frequently can lead to a condition called cirrhosis (hardening liver tissue, leading to loss of
function)
  Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby regulating the levels of
blood sugar. Manufacture of red blood cells in babies
 Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
 Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and albumin.
 Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
 Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.

Common Ailments of the Liver

Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis viruses.
Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.
Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake of alcohol.

Common Ailments of the Alimentary Canal

Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral ions from the body. It is
caused by intake of food or drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens cause inflammation of
the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.
Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces, resulting from insufficient roughage
and water in diet. It may also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum.

THE END