Art & Culture by Clear Vision For UPSC - 240614 - 185711

Clea Vision for UPSC
ART & CULTURE

(REVISION NOTES)
Index
Chapter - 1 .........................................................................................................................................2
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Chapter - 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
PAINTINGS IN INDIA
Chapter - 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 41
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
Chapter - 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 48
INDIAN MUSIC
Chapter - 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 54
THEATRES OF INDIA
Chapter - 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 61
INDIAN DANCE FORMS
Chapter - 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 71
INDIAN PUPPETRY
Chapter - 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 74
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INDIA
Chapter – 9 .................................................................................................................................... 102
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH AGES
Chapter - 10 ................................................................................................................................... 106
MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
Chapter - 11 ................................................................................................................................... 110
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
Chapter – 12 .................................................................................................................................. 118
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS of INDIA
Chapter – 13 .................................................................................................................................. 127
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
Chapter - 14 ................................................................................................................................... 130
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS PDF is created by Clear Vision for UPSC, but
some important topics are added from SunyaIAs
Chapter – 15 .................................................................................................................................. 134
material.
INITIATIVES OF UNESCO
Chapter – 16 .................................................................................................................................. 138
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
CHAPTER 17 ................................................................................................................................... 143
HISTORICAL PERSONS
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ART & CULTURE
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Chapter - 1
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
1. Introduction: Architecture  finest expression of human creativity
Classification of Indian Architecture

2. Rig Vedic Culture
 Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare.
 They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them
into many gods.
 Most important God - Indra (thunder). Other gods - Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and
Vayu (wind).
 There were no rituals for temples and idol worship.
 Rig Veda mentions horse-drawn chariots with spoked wheels
3. Harappan Culture
 Used stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and
gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
 Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
 Evidences of horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a terracotta figurine
from Lothal.
4. Harappan Art and Architecture
 Important features:
o Towns - rectangular grid pattern
o Roads - north-south and east-west direction and cut each other at right angles
o Burnt mud bricks used
o Public baths (Eg: Great Bath)
o Advanced drainage system
o Importance given to both personal and public hygiene
o Script – right to left + found on bone rods and jewellery + refers to the people of Meluha
 Harappan Forts: oldest forts in Indian sub-continent

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o The Upper town - fortified; in Kalibangan and Surkotada even lower town was fortified + At
Chanhudaro, fortification was absent completely
o Lower portion of walls of forts built using stones and sun-dried bricks
o Upper portion of walls of forts built using burnt bricks
o Forts provided safety from flash floods, wild animals and robbers.
 Important sites and their findings
 2 rows of six granaries with big platform
 Cemetery (R-37,H)
 Stone symbol of lingam and yoni, mother goddess figure
 Wheat and barley in wooden mortar
om
Harappa
 Copper scale and mirror
(Pakistan)
 Sculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metal
l.c
 Nude dancing girl of stone and a red sandstone male torso.
 Excavators: Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Madho Swarup Vatsa (1926),
Wheeler(1946)
 Great Bath
ai
gm
 Great granary
Mohenjo-daro
 Post cremation burial
(Pakistan)
 Sculpture of bearded priest.
48
 Excavator: RD Bannerji (1922)

 5th largest metropolis of IVC
su
 Fortified citadel, a middle town and a lower town with walls made of
sandstone or limestone instead of mud bricks in other Harappan sites.
va
 Water management system, giant water reservoir, unique water harvesting

system, stadium, dams and embankments.
ha
Dholavira
 Copper smelting remains found: indicate knowledge of metallurgy
(Gujarat)
 Artefacts made of copper, stone, jewellery of terracotta, gold and ivory
at
have been found

 No mortal remains of humans discovered at Dholavira unlike graves at
rm
other IVC sites

 Excavator: JP Joshi
na
 Aka Manchester of Indus valley civilization

Lothal  Dockyard, double burial, rice husk, fire altars, painted jar, modern day
(Gujarat) chess, terracotta figure of horse and ship
 Excavator: SR Rao
Ropar  Dog buried with human oval pit burials.
(Punjab)
Balathal and  Bangle factory, toy carts, bones of camel
Kalibangan  Decorated bricks and lower town.
Surkatoda  First actual remains of horse bones.
(Gujarat)
Banawali  Toy plough, barley grains
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(Haryana)  Oval shaped settlement - Only city with radial streets.

Alamgirpur  Impression of a cloth on a trough.
(UP)
 Key hole skull surgery (trepanation) evidence found at Kalibangan. Bangle
Kalibangan factory, toy carts, bones of camel
 Decorated bricks and lower town
 Early Harappan site located on the left bank of River Sindh.
Kot Diji  A tar is the major object found here
 Statues of bull and mother goddess
 Location: 130 kms south of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh and is the only
harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel.
Chanhudaro  Evidence of factories of various figurines, seals, toys, bone implements.
 It has been interpreted that it was a settlement with lots of artisans and was
an industrial town.
 Mature Harappan site.
 Fortified township. The fortification wall was constructed of stones with
Desalpur
mud filling inside. Many houses were constructed just against the inner
face of the fortification wall.
 Current Developments
o Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat): Earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing and presence
of cattle, water buffalo, goat, cow and sheep found in the area: This could have given rise to
an industrial level of dairy exploitation.
o Bhirrana (Haryana): The oldest discovered IVC site dating back to 7570-6200 BCE + The
antiquities found here include pottery, copper chisels, arrow heads, spear heads, Charred
grains of wheat and barley, female dancing girl (replica of Dancing girl from Mohenjodaro),

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Multi-roomed houses were found at this town, which were made of mud bricks and a circular
structure of baked earth (like a tandoor) was found.
o Recent DNA study at Rakhigarhi: People in the Harappan Civilization have an
independent origin and negates theory of Harappans having ancient Iranian farmer ancestry.
Researchers from Deccan College Pune along with the Central Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) have established that human remains discovered at an ancient site of Rakhigarhi
– a village in the Hisar district of Haryana – date back around 8,000 years.
o IIT Kharagpur study: Decline of Harappan city Dholavira was caused by drying up of
river like Saraswati river and Meghalayan drought.
o Union Budget (2020-21): It proposed to develop iconic sites with on-site Museums at
Harappan sites of Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat) + National Maritime
Heritage Museum at Lothal: India and Portugal will cooperate in the setting up of the
museum (Implemented by Ministry of Shipping with involvement of ASI, State government
and other stakeholder).
5. Mauryan Art and Architecture
 Court Art
 Megasthenes inform us that the city of Pataliputra was surrounded by a
Forts wooden palisade; wooden fort surrounded by a 60-feet deep and 200-yard
ditch to prevent enemy forces from coming close to walls of the fort
 In whole of ancient history, palaces built only during Mauryan age
 Wood - the principal building materialz
 Chandragupta Maurya built a palace with wood in his capital Pataliputra
(associated with archaeological remains of Kumrahar (ruins of pillared hall
and wooden platform) and Bulandibagh (wooden palisade and female
Palaces figures))
 According to Megasthenes, Mauryan palace had a massive central pillared
hall and it was more beautiful than that of palaces at Susa and Ecbatana
(located in Iran)
 Ashoka‘s palace at Kumrahar had a high central pillar and was a 3-storey
wooden structure
 Material: chunar sandstone
 4 parts:
(1) long shaft formed the base
(3) Capital
(2) Abacus
(4) Animal figure was placed
Pillars Ex- Laurya Nandangarh pillar in champaran
 Independently erected pillars of Ashoka:
The shaft of Ashokan pillars was generally
monolithic + 4 lion capital of Sarnath pillar
was adopted as national emblem of India +
Ashoka mostly used Prakrit as a medium in
the pillar inscriptions.
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o Single Lion capital: Vaishali, Sanchi, Laurya Nandangarh pillar.

o 4 lions sitting back to back: Sanchi and Sarnath pillars.
o Bull capital: Second Ramapurva pillar.
o Elephant capital: Sankisa pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
 Similarities between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars: Both pillars are
made of stone, had a shaft and bell-shaped portion, abacus and capital.
 Differences between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars:
o Shaft of Ashokan pillars monolithic; Persian pillars made of stone pieces
joined together.
o Shaft of Ashokan pillars tapered from bottom to top; Persian pillars was
om
cylindrical.
o Bell shaped structure used only at top in Ashokan pillars; bell-shaped
structures were present at both top and bottom.
l.c
 Ashokan inscriptions 1st deciphered by: James Prinsep
 Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions: 7 pillar edicts of Ashoka discovered in
ai
Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, and Mehrauli.
gm
o Pillar Edict I: Asoka's idea of people protection
o Pillar Edict II: Dhamma having greatest number of virtues,
compassion, liberality, honesty, and purity.
48
o Pillar Edict III: Removes sins such as cruelty, rage etc.

o Pillar Edict IV: Addresses the responsibilities of Rajukas.
su
o Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which are prohibited for
slaughtering on certain days.
o Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy of Ashoka
va
o Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka contribution to Dhamma policy.

 Minor Pillar Inscriptions
ha
o Rummindei Pillar: It documents Asoka‘s visit to Lumbini and its

exemption from taxation.
at
o Nigalisagar Pillar (Nepal): Extension of height of Konakamana stupa

to twice its original size.
rm
 Major Pillar Inscriptions

o Sarnath Lion Capital: Erected by Ashoka to commemorate
na
Dhammachakrapravartana.
o Single lion on Vaishali Pillar (Bihar): It has no inscription.
o UP's Sankissa Pillar
o Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar
o Lauriya-Araraj, Bihar
o UP's Allahabad pillar.
 Sohagaura Cu Plate Inscription: in Gorakhpur district of UP + from the
Mauryan period + Brahmi script + records a royal order that the grains
stored in the granary should be carefully distributed. It was discovered in
Sohgaura, a village on the banks of the Rapti River
 Ashoka‘s Major Rock Edicts & their Location

ART & CULTURE
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o Dhauli Rock edict is

located in dhauli hills,
close to 10 kms from
Bhubneshwar in Odisha.
The edicts are engraved on
a large peace of rock,
written in Pali. The rock
edict is located near the
historical sight of the
Kalinga war which is said
to transform Samrat
Ashok.
o Erragudi or Yerragudi
rock edict is located in
Kurnool district in Andhra
Pradesh.
o Jaugada is the second
place in Odisha where
there is a major Ashokan
rock edict. Ashoka‘s inscription in Jaugada is on a rock face about 30 feet
long and 15 feet high.
o Kalsi  between Chakrata and Dehradun on the banks of Yamuna River
in Uttarakhand.
o Shahbazgarhi: The Shahbazgarhi rock edicts are cut into the surface of
two large boulders on the side of a small rocky outcrop in the Vale of
Peshawar. + Dating to middle of the third century BC, they are written
from right to left in the Kharosthi script. + The 14 major edicts recorded
at the site present aspects of Asoka‘s dharma or righteous law. + The
edicts are located beside one of the ancient trade routes connecting the
Vale of Peshawar with the valley of Swat, Dir and Chitral to the North
and the great city of Taxila to the South East.
 Meaning of Symbols:
o Lion: Solar symbol representing Buddha
o Bull: Symbol of fertility
o Elephant: Buddha enters his mothers womb as a white elephant
o Horse: Symbolises Buddha's departure.

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 Stupas were burial

mounds prevalent in
India since Vedic period
 Core of stupa was made
of unburnt brick while
outer surface was made
by using burnt bricks
 Medhi and toran
decorated by wooden
sculptures
 According to Avadana
Sutta, 10 original stupas opened up by Ashoka and distributed their relics
among 84,000 stupas built by him
 Sanchi stupa (MP) - the most famous of the Ashokan stupas
 Sanchi Stupa: aka Mahastupa, it was originally built by Ashoka with bricks
but it was destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga + The stupa was enlarged to
twice of its original size by addition of more layers to its anda by Agnimitra
+ Ornamented gateways known as toranas were added during post-mauryan
Stupa age + The stupa was discovered by General Herbert Taylor in 1818 AD +
Architecture The monuments at Sanchi were included in UNESCOs list of World heritage
sites in 1989
 Shunga dynasty later introduced the idea of torans as beautifully decorated
gateways to stupas. They are carved with patterns showing Hellenistic
influence
 Piprahwa Stupa (Uttar Pradesh) is the oldest one
 Stupas built after death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana
 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path
 Amravati Stupa: It pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika portrayed
with much narrative sculpture. Domical stupa structure covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs.
o The Torana disappeared over time
o Depicts the events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories
o Early phase devoid of Buddha images except in the later stage during the
second and third centuries CE Buddha images were carved upon the
drum slabs and at many other places
o It lies in the gorge of Krishna river
 Popular Art
 During Mauryan period, caves were generally used as viharas by Jain and
Cave Buddhist monks
Architecture  They were marked by a highly polished finish of interior walls and
decorative gateways.
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Barabar caves: cut during the reign of Ashoka; donated to monks of Ajivika
sect
 4 caves in Barabar hill - Lomas Rishi cave,
Sudama cave, karna chaupar cave and
Visvakarma cave
 The caves are simple rectangular halls cut
into the hill
 Level of ornamentation is very low and
walls of caves have glossy finish
Nagarjuni caves: These caves were cut under
om
the patronage of Ashoka‘s grandson Dasaratha
 The caves located in Nagarjuni hill are Gopi
Cave (Gopi-ka-kubha), Bahayak Cave
l.c
(Vadithi-ka-kubha) and Vedantika Cave
(Vapiya-ka-kubha) ai
 The caves divided into two chambers: Front
gm
hall for gathering of worshippers and back
chamber used by monks for their residence
and worship
48
6. Post-Mauryan Architecture
 Cave architecture: Commonly referred as ‗Kirti‘, it reached pinnacle during the post-Mauryan
su
age (200 BC- 300 AD) + The period saw development of Chaityas (place of worship) for the first
time and Viharas (Place of residence for monks and also acted as educational centres).
va
 Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves: 18 caves in Udaygiri hill and 15 caves in

Khandagiri located in Odisha carved under the patronage of Kalinga
ha
ruler Kharavela (193 BC- 170 BC); Hatigumpha inscription refer to

these hills as Kumari parvat and Kumara parvat respectively + The
Cave interiors of the caves are simple without much ornamentation and their
at
Architecture facades decorated with sculptures depicting scenes of court activities,

rm
– Eastern India royal processions, hunting scenes and scenes depicting daily life etc +
Ranigumpha, Ganeshgumpha, Swargapuri- Manchapuri and
Hatigumpha are the most prominent caves in Udayagiri hills + Ananta
na
Gumpha, Ambika Gumpha, Tatowa Gumpha (Parrot caves) and

Navamuni gumpha are the most prominent caves in Khandagiri hill
 Ajanta, Karle, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nasik, Junnar and Kondana are the
prominent centres of cave architecture in western India
 23 caves carved between 1st century BCE & 3rd century CE
Cave  Most of them are caves except cave 18, which is chaitya of the 1st
Architecture century BCE
- Western India  Karle caves: It is located in Pune district, Maharashtra + These caves were
cut out in Bhorghat hill built under the patronage of Bhootpal Shresti of
Vaijanti in 2nd century AD during the reign of Satavahana king Pulameyi II +
It is the largest Hinayana Buddhist chaitya (temple) in India + It has massive

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pillars that have figures of males and females, mounted on animals such as
lions, elephants, etc.
 Junar caves: It is the largest cave complex in India, which has around
130 caves + Aka Pandulena
 Bedsa and Kondana caves exhibit transition from wooden architecture
to stone architecture
 Pitalkhora caves are located in Maharastra; these form the oldest of the
rock-cut cave architecture of India and are believed to belong to the
Hinayana period of Buddhism contemporary to Satvahana dynasty
 Pandav Leni Jain Caves: ancient rock cut sculptures complex at
Gomai river around 6 Km north of Shahada, Maharashtra. Pandav Leni
caves are a group of 24 rock-cut caves located in Nashik, Maharashtra,
India.
o They were created during the 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE
and are an important Buddhist architectural site. They are known
for their intricate carvings, frescoes, and sculptures.
o The caves show both Hinayana and Mahayana influence. In the
Hinayana phase, the Buddha is depicted through motifs and
symbols like a throne and footprints, and later on idols of Buddha
are carved out. The site also depicts an excellent system of water
management.
 Stupa Architecture:
o Stupas became larger and more decorative
o Stone was used in place of wood and brick
o Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of
torans as beautifully decorated gateways to
stupas + They are carved with patterns
showing Hellenistic influence
o Examples - Bharhut stupa (Madhya
Pradesh): Tall structures like Mauryan
depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini +

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illusion of three-dimensionality is conveyed with slanted perspective in the relief panels

displaying storytelling + One of the sculptures depicts Lakshmi which is the earliest
representation of the goddess.
7. Gupta Architecture: The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered as
Golden Period of Indian Architecture.
 Cave architecture
 Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh
 Buddhism
Bagha caves  The Bagh Caves are known for their vibrant mural paintings
illustrating various facets of ancient life, including regal
processions, court scenes etc
 Bhagalpur district, Bihar
Mandargiri caves
 Jainism.
 Magnificent image of Vishnu in form of great boar (varaha) is
located at the entrance of these caves.
 Location: Vidisha, MP. It contains some of the oldest Hindu
temples and iconography, related to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism.
 Though it is present north of Tropic of Cancer, it is believed that
historically, on the day of summer solstice, the sun was directly
overhead in this place, making Udhyagiri (Mount of sunrise) a
Udayagiri caves (350- place of worship.
550 CE)  Iconic Varaha Scultpure rescuing the earth symbolically
represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar's tusk is a salient
feature in Udayagiri caves.
 These caves are 20 rock-cut caves belong to Vaishnavism and
Shaivism located in Madhya Pradesh.
 The sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the male boar
rescuing the mother earth presenting bhudevi to boar‘s tusk as
depicted in Hindu mythology is present here,
 They were built under the patronage of Gupta rulers
 23 Buddhist caves; also known as Pandav Leni developed during
1st century AD
Nasik caves
 Belong to Hinayana period: Buddha indicated through use of
motifs and symbols like throne and footprints.
 Aka Montperir caves which belong to Brahmanical religion which
Mandapeshwar caves
was later converted into a Christian cave.
 These are a group of rock-cut caves located in Aurangabad district
of Maharashtra
Ajanta Caves
 29 caves: 4 Chaityas and 25 Viharas
(200 BC- 650 AD)
 Cut into a U- shaped cliff overlooking River Waghora
 Discovered by Captain John Smith in 1819.

ART & CULTURE
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 Features of the caves

o The figures in these caves painted with frescoes and exhibit a
high level of naturalism.
o Outlines painted in red; absence of blue colour in the
paintings is the most remarkable elements.
o Paintings are themed around Buddhism: Life of Buddha and
Jataka stories.
o Early caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism and later caves
belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
o Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave No. 26 and Naga King
om
and his consort in Cave.no 19 are some of the most famous
sculptures.
o Cave no. 10 is the oldest cave and Cave no. 26 is the latest
l.c
caves.
o These caves were included in UNESCO‘s list of World
ai
heritage sites in 1983.
gm
o A grand image of Buddha‘s Mahaparinirvana with numerous
celestial musicians above and sorrowful figures of his
followers is found at Ajanta.
48
 34 caves: Cave No. 1 to 12

belong to Buddhism; Cave No.
su
13 to 29 belong to Brahmanical
religion and Cave No. 30 to 34
belong to Jainism: indicates
va
high level of tolerance

 UNESCOs list of world heritage
ha
sites.
 Features of the caves
at
o Cave No. 16: It is also known as Kailasha temple; portrays

Ellora Caves kailasha mountain (abode of God Shiva) + It is the biggest
rm
(600 AD- 1000 AD) monolithic structure in whole world + The cutting of this
cave commenced in 760 AD under patronage of Krishna I.
na
o Cave No. 10: Vishwakarma cave/Carpenter's cave; it is a

Buddhist Chaitya cave; Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana
Mudra, with a Bodhi tree etched behind him.
o Cave No. 14: Ravan ki khai
o Cave No. 15: Dashavatar temple
o Cave No. 29: Dhumal Lena
o Cave No. 21: Rameshwar temple
o Cave No. 32 and 33: Indra Sabha and Jagannath sabha are
important Jain caves
Elephanta caves  Aka Gharapuri caves
th th
(5 century AD to 8  7 caves  5 belong to Brahmanical religion (Shaivism and

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
century AD) Vaishnavism) and 2 belong to Buddhism.

 Features of the caves
o Images of God Shiva depicted in various forms such as
Trimurti, Maheshmurti and Ardhnarishwara and Nataraja
shiva.
o Ravana shaking the Kailash and Tandav dance of Shiva are
notable sculptures.
o Presence of massive images of ‗dwarapalakas or doorkeepers.
o These caves are included in UNESCO list of World heritage
sites in 1987.
o The caves are constructed using solid basalt rock; older
sculptures have paint splatters.
o Sitabai Temple: It has a vast prayer hall with walls covered
with beautiful sculptures
 Stupa Architecture: Declined during the Gupta period
 Sarnath, Varanasi
 Buddha is claimed to have given his 1st
sermon to his 1st 5 students, led
Dhamek Stupa by Kaundinya, revealing his Eightfold
Path leading to nirvana at the Dhamek
Stupa
 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

o 5 Stages of Development in North India
 Flat roof and square shape
 Portico developed on shallow pillars
 Entire structure built on low platforms
First stage  Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa and
the Vishnu Varaha temples in Eran are
examples of square buildings with flat
roofs and shallow pillared porches.
 Platforms were higher and were covered
ambulatory passageway around
garbhagriha
Second Stage  Example - Parvati temple at Nachna
Kuthara, MP.
 Emergence of Shikara instead of a flat roof

 Panchayatan style was introduced: 4 subsidiary shrines along with
Third Stage
temple of principal deity
 Shikhara, was the most remarkable achievement of this stage

ART & CULTURE
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 Subsidiary shrine placed opposite to

each other giving the ground plan a
crucified shape
 Examples - Dashavatar temple at
Deogarh (U.P) and Durga temple at
Aihole, Karnataka
 Main shrine became more rectangular during this stage of temple

construction
Fourth stage
 Examples - Ter temple at Sholapur and Kapoteswara temple in Cezarla
(Krishna district)
 Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections on
Fifth stage the four cardinal faces
 Maniyar Math shrine in Rajgir, Bihar  sole monument of this form
 Styles of Temple
architecture: The
architectural principles
of temples in India are
described in Shilpa
Shastra. It mentions 3
types of temples in
India: Nagara, Dravida
and Vesara style.
 Nagara style of
architecture: It
came into existence
during 4th century
AD; these temples
are found all over
north India from
Punjab in west to
Bengal and Odisha
in the East + Temples constructed using stones and bricks + Metal was not used in
construction + Kandariya Mahadev temple (Madhya Pradesh), Sun temple at Konark,
Sun temple at Modhera are examples for Nagara style.
 Features of the Nagara temples
 Adhistana/Jagati: Entire temple structure built on raised platform.
 Garbhagraha/Sanctum sanctorum: Main building of temple complex where chief
deities placed.
 Peetha: Seats of deities in Garbhagraha.

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 Antarala: Pillared veranda built in front of Garbhagraha for passageway for

devotees.
 Panchayatan style: It consisted of minor shrines arranged in a crucified ground plan
in relation to the main shrine.
 Mandapas: Presence of assembly halls or mandapas in front of principal shrine.
 River goddess images: Images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were put
outside the garbhagriha.
 No water tanks or reservoirs in the temple grounds in general.
 Shikharas: Latina or rekha Prasad (square at base and walls curve inward to point on
the top), Phamsana (broader base and shorter in height than Latina), Valabhi
om
(rectangular base with roof rising into vaulted chambers).
 Amalaka: Spherical shape on top of Garbhagraha.
 Kalasha: Sacred pot is called as Kalasha which is placed over Amalaka to collect
l.c
cosmic energy; Kalasha surmounted by a flag known as Jhanda.
 No pradakshina path (circumbulatory path) was built.
ai
 Dwarapalas: Images of dwarapalas carved on both sides of the entrance of
garbhagraha
gm
 No boundary walls: The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls in
general.
48
o Sub-schools under Nagara school

 Exterior walls were lavishly decorated
 No use of pillars; Iron girders were used to support the roof
su
 Sikharas were known as rekhadeuls

 Mandapas were known as Jagmohans
va
 Presence of boundary walls

 Sun Temple at Konark: Black pagoda
ha
 Jagannath temple, Bhubaneshwar: It was built by King Anantavarmana

Chodaganga in 12th century AD; only temple in India where Krishna,
at
Balabhadra and their sisters Shubhadra are worshipped together + Wooden

rm
Odisha images replaced with new images every 11 years in a ceremony called as
School Navakalevara.
 Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar:
na
o It was built in 11th century AD by Somvanshi King Yayati I.

o Dedicated to Lord Shiva and is considered as the largest temple of the
city Bhubaneswar (Odisha).
o It is built in red stone and is classic example of Kalinga style of
architecture.
o Lingaraj is referred to as ‗Swayambhu' – self-originated Shivling.
o It signifies syncretisation of Shaivism and Vaishnavism sects in
Odisha.
o Bindusagar lake is located in the north side of the temple
Khajuraho  Both interior and exterior walls - lavishly decorated
School  Erotic sculptures: themes from Vatsyayana‘s Kamasutra

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 3 chambers: Garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa

 Panchayatan style
 Khajuraho Temple: In MP- built between 950-1050 AD by the Chandela
Dynasty
o The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their
power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.
o Hindu and Jain temples.
o Included UNESCO‘s World Heritage Sites in 1986.
o Reported for the first time by Abu Rihan al Biruni in AD 1022 and Ibn
Battuta in AD 1335.
 Kandariya Mahadev temple (Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh): It is
dedicated to God Shiva; an example of panchayatna type of temples + It
has 5 shikaras.
 Chaturbhuj temple (Orccha, Madhya Pradesh): It is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu.
 Vishnu temple located at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
 Chausath Yogini temple near Morena:
o Location: Mitaoli village, Morena district in Gwalior
o Patronage: Kachchhapaghata king Devapala (1055 – 1075).
o Associated religion: It is dedicated to Yognis (the female masters of
yoga) and not the Vaishnava cult.
o Inspiration: The Parliament house was inspired by the circular
Chausath Yogini Temple.
 Chausath Yogini temple, Jabalpur:
o Built by the Kalachuris in the 10th century CE
o Situated near the river Narmada in the Bhedaghat area, between
Dhuandhar falls and Marble Rocks
o The main temple has a mandapa in front and holds the murti of Shiva
and Parvati on Nandi in the sanctum
 Patronage of Solanki Rulers
 Temple walls - devoid of carvings
 Garbhagriha connected with mandapa both internally and externally
 Presence of step tanks known as surya-kund
 Materials - sandstone, black basal and soft marble
Solanki
school  East facing, sun rays fall directly into central shrine
 Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat: Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki
Dynasty in 1026 AD; influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat is
evident.
 Dilwara temple, Mount Abu (Rajasthan): It belongs to Jainism; made of
white marble and built by Solanki minister Vastupala

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o Prominent Nagara temples

 Location: Veraval in the western coast of Gujarat
 1st among the 12 jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva
 A description of the temple by Al-Biruni, an Arab traveller, was so
glowing that it prompted a visit in 1024 by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Somnath  The modern temple was reconstructed with the resolve of Sardar Patel
Temple who visited the ruins of Somnath temple on November 13 1947. Then
President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, did the Pran-Pratistha at the
existing temple on 11 May 1951.
 The present Somnath temple is reconstructed in the Māru-Gurjara style of
Hindu temple architecture
Lhotsava  12th century temple at Ko in Kinnaur region of Himachal Pradesh
Lhakhang
 It lies about 65 km from Leh on the banks of the Indus River.
 Alchi is regarded as one of the most important Buddhist centres in Ladakh
Alchi
and also as one of the monastic jewels of Ladakh.
Monastery or
 There are 5 shrines in the Choskor Temple Complex which has some
Alchi Gompa
splendid wall paintings.
(monastery
and temple  One of its walls features thousands of miniature sized pictures of the
complex) Buddha. Three large sized images made of clay painted brightly are its
focal attraction.
 Since the last 500 years, religion is not practiced in the Alchi Monastery
 The Sree Seetha Ramachandra Swamy shrine at Bhadrachalam, the most
famous temple in the country dedicated to Lord Rama, is situated on the
Bhadrachala left bank of the Godavari river.
m temple  Constructed in the 17th Century by the local Tahsildar, Kancharla
Gopanna, popularly known as Bhakta Ramadas, a fervent devotee of Lord
Sree Rama
 The temple is being built in the Nagara style of temple architecture and
the idol of Ram Lalla will be placed in the sanctum sanctorum.
 The Shri Ram Darbar will be on the first floor and there will be five
mandaps (halls) — Nritya Mandap, Rang Mandap, Sabha Mandap,
Prarthana Mandap and Kirtan Mandap.
 There will be mandirs at four corners of the compound dedicated to Surya,
Ayodhya Bhagwati, Ganesh, Shiv. On northern and southern arms, temples to
temple Annapurna and Hanuman will be built respectively.
 The foundation of the temple has been built with a 14-metre-thick layer of
roller-compacted concrete, giving it the appearance of an artificial rock.
 A 21-foot-high granite plinth has been placed to protect against ground
moisture and no iron has been used anywhere.
 Makrana marble and pink sandstone from Rajasthan, granite stone from
Tamil Nadu and Telangana, and coloured marble from Mandla in Madhya

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Pradesh have been used for the construction.
om
 Dravidian style of temple architecture
l.c
o Stages of Development
 Mahendra Style
ai
 1st stage of Pallava temple architecture basically rock-cut temples; temples were
known as Mandapas.
gm
 Narasimha style
 Mandapas were divided into 3 rathas: Dharmaraja ratha (biggest one), Draupadi ratha
48
(smallest one)
 Rajasimha style
 Beginning of development of real structural temples + Emerged under patronage of
su
Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha + Example - Shore temple at Mahabalipuram and

Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram
va
 Nandivarman style
 The temples are comparatively smaller in size + The features are almost similar to
ha
Dravidian style
o Features of Dravidian style of temple architecture:
at
 Dravidian temples are surrounded by high boundary walls

 High entrance gateway
rm
known as the gopurams

 Panchayatan style:
principal temple and four
na
subsidiary shrines
 Presence of only one
vimana on top of the
main temple; subsidiary
shrines do not have
vimanas
 Prakaras: Dravidian
temples are enclosed within multiple concentric walls or enclosures called prakaras.
These walls delineate the temple complex, housing smaller shrines, halls, and additional
structures within their confines.
 Assembly hall connected with garbhagriha by a tunnel called antarala

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 A covered circumbulatory path was built around Garbhagraha for devotees

 The presence of water tank (Theerthams) inside the temple enclosure
 Ex- Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore built by Raja Raja I, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi temple, Tamil Nadu,
Airavatesvara temple etc.
o Mahabalipuram
 Mahabalipuram contains rock-cut rathas, sculptured scenes
on open rocks like Arjuna‘s penance, the caves of
Govardhanadhari and Mahishasuramardini, the Jala-Sayana
Perumal temple (the sleeping Mahavishnu or Chakrin at the
rear part of the Shore temple complex). It is more linked to
the Vaishnavites.
 Ratha temples: These are monolithic monuments cut out of
live hills; it appears that these temples are mobile though
they are not in reality.
 Sapta Pagoda: It is located in Mahabalipuram; are cut during reign of Pallava king
Narasimhavarman I in 7th century AD.
 They comprise of Dharmaraja ratha, Draupadi ratha, Arjuna ratha, Bhima ratha, Nakula-
Sahadeva ratha, Ganesh ratha, Pindari ratha and Valaiyan kuttai ratha
 Arjuna ratha is famous for images of Shiva and Draupadi ratha for images of Goddess
Durga
 The entire assemblage collectively was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1984
 Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu; massive
open-air relief carved out on two monolithic rock boulders; all deities of heaven are
depicted here; main depiction is bearded man worshipping God Shiva.
 Shore Temple: It was built probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as
Rajasimha (Pallava ruler) who reigned from 700 to 728 CE
 it is built of cut stones rather than carved out of caves
 It has two shrines, one dedicated to Shiva and the other to Vishnu
 Built in Dravidian style characterized by a pyramidal kutina-type tower that consists
of stepped stories topped by a cupola.
 Vesara school of art: It is also known as Karnataka school of architecture flourished under later
chalukya rulers in mid-17th century AD + It combined features
of both Nagara and Dravidian school + Emphasis on vimana
and mandapa, open ambulatory passageway + Prominent
example is Dodda Basappa temple at Dambal, Durga temple at
Aihole.
 Nayaka school of art: Also known as Madurai school it
flourished under the Nayaka rulers between 16th centuries and
18th centuries AD + Presence of Prakarns or huge corridors in
the portico + Meenakshi temple in Madhurai has the tallest
gopuram in the world + The temple structure was filled with
intricate carvings + The Nayaka style did incorporate elements
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from earlier Dravidian architecture while adding larger and more intricate gopurams and
sculptures
 Vijayanagar school: Walls of the temples are highly decorated with carvings and geometrical
patterns + Gopurams were built on all the sides + More than one mandapa built in each temple;
central mandapa were known as Kalyan Mandap (halls used to celebrate divine marriage or other
ceremonies) + Amman Shrines, which were shrines dedicated to the god‘s bride or wives +
Concept of secular buildings inside the temple premises was also introduced + Important
examples are Vittalaswami temple, Lotus Mahal, Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and
Parvati temples at Chidambaram and Varadraja and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram.
o Hampi: It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located near Hospet town in Karnataka on
south bank of Tungabhadra river.
 Name derived from Pampa which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose
banks the city is built.
 Virupaksha temple - Main shrine is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Lord Shiva.
 Stone Chariot- Iconic monument located in front of Vijaya Vittala Temple in Hampi,
Karnataka dedicated to Garuda, the official vehicle of Lord Vishnu
 Hoyasala art: It developed from 1050- 1300 AD in the Karnataka region with prominent seats at
Belur, Halebid and Sringeri + Multiple shrines built around a central pillared hall + Shrines led
out in shape of stellate pattern + Soft sope stone was the main building material + More
emphasis on fecoration through sculptures + Best example is Hoyasaleshwara temple at Halebid.
 Pala school: This style of architecture developed in Bengal region between 8th and 12th century
AD under Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty + Influence of both Buddhism and Hinduism can be
seen + Buildings had a sloping roof popularly known as ―Bangla roofs‖ + Burnt bricks, clay was
the principal building material used + Highly lustrous finish + Best example is Siddhesvara
Mahadeva temple in Barakar.
 Hemadpanthi school: popularized by Hemadri Pandit, also known as Hemadpant, a minister of
Yadava Dynasty of devagiri during the 13th Century in Maharashtra, and incorporated black
stone and limestone, which were readily available. It also got the status of World Heritage
Site.The Ambreshwar temple at Ambernath near Mumbai, the Gondeshwar temple at Sinnar near
Nashik, and the Aundha Nagnath temple in the Hingoli district are a few examples of the
Hemadpanthi style.
 SUN TEMPLES:
 Location: bank of the river Pushpavati.
 Built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Solanki
dynasty in 1026 AD.
Modhera Sun  The temple complex has 3 components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine
Temple, Gujarat hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir.
 The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has
steps to reach bottom and numerous small shrines.
 Influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat is evident
 It was constructed by the Eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Deva I in
Sun Temple,
about 1250 A.D.
Konark
 Aka 'BLACK PAGODA' due to its dark colour and used as a

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
navigational landmark by sailors to Odisha.

 It is carefully oriented towards the east so that the first rays of sunrise
strikes the principal entrance.
 The temple is built from Khondalite rocks
 7th-century AD Sun Temple at Arasavalli in Andhra Pradesh, India.
 Built by king Devendra Varma, ruler of the Kalinga Dynasty.
 One of the oldest sun temples in India.
Arasavalli Sun  The walls in the temple are inscribed saying the creator of the temple
temple was the ruler Devendra Varma, stating it was built in the time period
known to them as the 7th century.
om
 It takes in architectural skills of Vishwakarma Brahmins or Maharanas
of Odisha
l.c
 Martand Sun temple, Kashmir
 Katarmal Sun Temple, Uttarakhand
Other Sun
ai
 Dakshinarkaa temple Gaya, Bihar
 Bhramanya temple, Unao, MP
gm
temples in India
 Surya Prahaar temple, Assam
 Suryanar Kovil Temple at Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu
48
 Suryanarayana temple at Arasavalli, Andhra Pradesh

 Amarkantak: It is one of the major pilgrimage centers for Hindus located in the hills of Maikal
in Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh.
su
o This holy place bordering Chhattisgarh has a meeting point of the hills of Vindhya, Satpura,
and Maidar, whose view is astonishing.
va
o It is a unique heritage area commonly known as ―Tirthraj‖ or ―The King of pilgrimage‖.

o It is the place where the Vindhya and Satpura ranges merge and where the Narmada and Son
ha
river get birth.

 Jyotirlinga:
at
 It is a Hindu temple dedicated to God Shiva located in Khandwa in

Indian state Madhya Pradesh.
rm
 It is one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.

 It is on an island called Mandhata or Shivapuri in the Narmada river at
na
Khandwa district in Madhya Pradesh.

Omkareshwar  It is a Hindu pilgrimage site; one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines
of Shiva located on Mandhata Island on banks of Narmada River in
Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh.
 The temple dates back to the Krita Yuga.
 River Narmada flows here around the Mandhata hill in the form of an
Om (Omkaram)
 Mallikarjuna Temple or Srisailam Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated
to the deity Shiva located on Nallamalla hills.
Srisailam
 It is referred to as one of the twelve Jyothirlingas of Lord Shiva.
 Inscriptional evidence from the Satavahana dynasty place the temple to

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
be existent from the 2nd century.

 The veerasheromandapam and paathalaganga steps constructed during
the time of Reddi Kingdom.
 The temple complex houses many halls; the most notable is the Mukha
Mandapa built during the Vijayanagar period
8. Indo-Islamic Architecture
 Introduction: After the establishment of Turkish rule in India: Indian architecture elements +
Islamic elements = Indo-Islamic architecture.
 Features of Indo-Islamic architecture:
o Introduced use of minars around mosques and mausoleums.
o Mortar was utilized as a cementing agent.
o Avoided use of human and animal figures.
o Usage of calligraphy and arabesque method as means of decoration.
o Heavy usage of principles of geometry
o Intricate jaali works: signify importance of light in Islamic religion.
o Use of water in the premises of constructions in form of courtyard pool and small drains.
Charbagh style of gardening: square block was divided into four adjacent identical
gardens.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Used Pietra-dura technique for inlay of precious stones and gems into stone walls.
o Foresighting technique : inscriptions appear of same size from any place.
o Arches and Domes (Arcuade style): Arches were introduced to India by Qutb al-Din Aibak
during the year 1206 + Domes were introduced by the Turks during the 1500s by Persian
architects + Minarets were introduced by Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak
 Architectural achievements of Delhi Sultans

 Qutb-ud-din-Aibak:
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque - in 1195 AD at
Delhi; material procured by demolishing Hindu
and Jain temples
o Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer
o Started construction of Qutub minar dedicated to
sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar kaki,
could only finish basement, 3 more storeys
Slave added by Iltutmish and 5th and the last storey by
Dynasty Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
 Iltutmish:
o He constructed his tomb near Quwwat-ul-Islam
mosque
o Built Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shamsi Idgah, Gandha
k ki Bawali and Jama masjid at Baduan.
 Balban:
o He constructed his tomb at Delhi (true arch was used for the first time)
o 1st sarai built in 1266 with largest being built during Tughlaq period

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 From 1290 until 1320 AD, the

Khilji Dynasty ruled and
developed the Seljuk
architectural style.
 Red sandstone was the main
building material + Technique of
Khilji laying bricks as headers and
Dynasty stretchers was invented which
increased the strength and
stability of monuments.
om
 Alauddin Khilji: He constructed Jamat-i-khana mosque at Dargah of
Nizam-ud-din Auliya + He also constructed Alai Darwaja in 1311 near
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Hauz-i-Khas and fort of Siri to protect the people
l.c
of Delhi from external invasions such as Mongols
 Features: Lavish display of ornaments and richness replaced by puritanical
ai
simplicity + Introduced sloping walls known as Salami and four-centered
gm
arch + Grey stone and red sandstone used largely in construction of buildings
+ Pentagonal and octagonal layouts introduced in construction of buildings +
Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was first pentagonal building and tomb of
48
Khan-i-Jahan Telangani was the first octagonal building.

Tughlaq
 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq: He built the city of Tughlaqabad which is
Dynasty
su
pentagonal in design.
 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq: He built the fortress of Adilabad and city of
va
Jahan Panah.
 Firoz shah tughlaq: He built Kushk-i-Sikhar and Kotla Firoz Shah + He
ha
also laid foundation of cities like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and

Firozpur
 Only tombs were constructed during this period
at
 Emergence of double domes was a significant aspect of architecture at this

rm
time
Lodi
 A sloping verandah provided support.
Dynasty
 Sikandar Lodi founded the Lodi Gardens and the city of Agra.
na
 The first double dome was used in the construction of tomb of Sultan
Sikander Lodi in Delhi
 Mughal Architecture Features
o Mix of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural styles.
o Building materials - red sandstone and white marble.
o Charbagh gardens with noticeable bulbous domes, thin turrets at corners, large entrances,
magnificent calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and royal
halls supported on pillars.
o The arches, chhatri, and other forms of domes were extremely popular in Indo-Islamic
architecture, which was further developed by the Mughals.
 Architectural achievements of Mughal rulers
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 The Kabuli Bagh Mosque of Panipat and Jama masjid of Sambhal

Babur
 He brought Charbagh style of architecture to India
 He constructed the city of Din Panah at Delhi in 1533 AD
Humayun  Humayun Tomb built by his widow Haji Bega Begam
 Double dome in developed form was used for first time in Humayun tomb
 The golden age of Delhi began in 1556 when Akbar came to the throne of
Delhi
 Popularised "Tudor arch" (four centered arch).
 Agra Fort: It has 2 gateways called Delhi gate and Amar Singh gate +
Principle of construction based on the use of beam and bricket.
 Fatehpur Sikri:
o Tomb of Salim Chishti - erected in 1581 AD at Sikri; white marble
o Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid are also part of the imperial complex
o Panch Mahal - 5-storey edifice built of columns that is based on the
Persian badgir idea (wind-catcher)
o Ibadat Khana where Akbar would meet with religious authorities to
address issues.
o Buland Darwaza: It was built in 1601 A.D. by Akbar to commemorate
Akbar his victory over Gujarat.
 40-meter red sandstone edifice
 It is the main entrance to the palace at Fatehpur Sikri, a town which
is 43 km from Agra.
 It is known as gate of magnificence, is the highest gateway in the
world and is an example of Mughal architecture.
 It incorporates almost all the essential features of Akbar‘s
architectural traditions: red sandstone, stone carvings, and relief by
inserting white marble.
 Inspired by Timurid architecture.
 Material: red and buff sandstone, decorated by white and black
marble and is higher than the courtyard of the mosque.
 Shaikh Salim Chishti (1478-1572) khanqah is located near the
present-day World Heritage site of Fatehpur Sikri
 The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula was built by Nurjahan at Agra
Jahangir
 Pietra Dura technique of decoration was used for the first time in his tomb
 He constructed a fort at Agra: Shish mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas,
Moti Masjid, Nagina masjid and Musamman Burj are located in this fort
Shah Jahan  White marble was used on a large scale in construction of monuments
 He also constructed the city of Shahjahanabad, Taj Mahal, Qila Mubarak
(Red Fort) in Delhi and Shalimar Bagh in Lahore
 He has constructed Moti Masjid which is located inside the Red Fort and
Aurangzeb
Badshahi mosque in Lahore in 1674
Shershah  He built Purana Qila at site of Dinpanah and mausoleum at Sasaram which

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Suri represents harmonious combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas

9. Regional Architecture
 Regional Architecture in India during Medieval Age
 Aka Sharqi style
Jaunpur  Atala Mosque was completed by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
school of  Jhanjhari mosque was erected by Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi in honour of
architecture Hazrat Said Sadr Jahan Ajmali
 Jami Masjid of Jaunpur was built by Hussain shah.
 It is characterized by large-scale use of bricks and rare use of stone +
Bengal school
Adina Masjid at Pandua was built by Sikandar Shah
of architecture
 Lotan Masjid was built by Yusuf Shah at Gaur.
 The usage of various colored stones and marbles was the most
conspicuous element of the structures
 The structures had big windows, possibly as a consequence of European
influence
 Aka Pathan School of architecture
 Man-made reservoirs known as 'baulis' were built
Malwa school  The introduction of the batter system by the Tughlaqs improved the
of architecture situation
 It is one of the finest specimen of environmental adaptation of the period
due to following feature: -Large windows to keep the buildings well
ventilated and rooms (probaly european influence) +Lightly arched
pavilions, which made the buildings airy and allowed them to remain
cool during the heat+ Baulis (artificial water reservoirs) in the premises
 Example - Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.
 It was developed under the patronage of Adil Shah
 He built a variety of mosques, and tombs notable for 3-arched facades,
bulbous domes, and cornices
Bijapur school
 The structures were reinforced with iron clamps and a thick plaster of
mortar. The walls were adorned with intricate sculptures
 Example - Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur.
 The city of Ahmedabad was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1414 AD
Gujarat school  Jami Masjid at Ahmedabad was built by Ahmed Shah
 Sultan Mahmud Begarha built a city and palace citadel at Champaner.
 The city of Nauraspur was founded by Ibrahim Adil shah of Bijapur +
City of Hyderabad was founded by Md. Quli Qutub Shah
Bahamani
 Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur is the largest dome
school
 The city of Ahmednagar was founded by Ahmed Shah of Nizam Shahi
dynasty
 Regional Architecture in India during British Age
Bara  Built by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula in 1784 at Lucknow to provide food to
Imambara the famine stricken subjects of the Nawab.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
No pillars or beams were used to support the roof.

During Muharram, Shia muslims mourn at this shrine.
The complex includes large Asafi mosque, tomb of Asaf-ud-daula and a
step-well.
 The main hall within the Bara Imambara, called the 'hall of audience' or
'Asfi mosque,' is a remarkable architectural feat due to its massive
unsupported arched ceiling, a feature that contributes to its grandeur and
structural peculiarity.
 The architecture reflects maturation of Mughal design.
 Instead of stones and marble, brick and lime were used.
om
 Stucco ornamentation (gajkari) was used to decorate the monuments,
giving it a deep relief effect even on flat walls.
l.c
 Mother of pearl and shells deposited in lake beds were used in the stucco
ornamentation to give a shine finer than marble.
ai
 Renowned for its Bhool Bhulaiya, a labyrinth of intricate passages and
staircases, adding to its architectural uniqueness and intrigue
gm
 Built under the patronage of Nawab Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784 in Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
 Aka Turkish Gate.
48
 It is an imposing gateway which was built under the patronage of Nawab

Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784.
su
 It is believed that the gate is called Rumi gate, simply because it was
Rumi Darwaza
modelled after the gateways of then Constantinople or Modern Istanbul.
va
 The architectural style of the Rumi Darwaza is completely in sync with

the Nawabi architecture of Lucknow, and its significantly different from
ha
the Mughals.
 Material: bricks coated with lime, while the Mughals often used red sand
at
stone
10. Modern Indian Architecture
rm
 Iberian architectural style

 Imported the notion of 'patio homes' and the 'Baroque style
na
Portuguese  To produce a dramatic impact, it featured an extensive, complex, and

Influence theatrical design
 The Sé Cathedral in Goa, which was built in 1619 AD, is one of the most
prominent structures
 The French brought with them the concept of urban city planning +
The Cartesian grid layouts were used to build the French colonies of
French Puducherry and Chandernagore + They established the notion of faceless
Influence architecture, which is characterized by facade devoid of embellishment +
Puducherry's Sacred Heart Church and Chandannagar's Sacred Heart
Church are two examples
British  Indo-Gothic style: Constructions were extremely large and walls are thinner

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Influence + Pointed arches and use of large windows + The churches had a crucified
ground plan + Examples include Victoria Memorial in Kolkata and Gateway
of India in Mumbai.
 Neo-Roman style: Anonymous constructions, focus on circular buildings,
overuse of oriental motifs to realise western architectural designs + Concept
of upturned dome as can be seen in Supreme court and Rashtrapati Bhavan.
 Indian Parliament: foundation stone laid in 1921, by Duke of Cannaught;
designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens & Sir Herbert Baker
11. Post-Independence architecture
 Architect of the Poor
 Revolutionized mass housing concept in Kerala
Laurie Baker  Introduction of the concept of filler slab construction to reduce steel and
cement consumption
 Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangements.
******

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Chapter - 3
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
1. Sculptures of Harappan civilization
 Introduction: Highly advanced; materials used are stone, terracotta, metal and bronze alloy
to make sculptures; both secular and religious elements present; female goddess figurines are
abundant; stones such as Limestone, alabaster and steatite used.
 Stone sculptures
o Bearded priest (Mohenjadaro): It is made of steatite; shawl in trefoil pattern covers the
left shoulder; right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace; appearance as
of Greek style.
o Dancing Girl: The dancing girl made of steatite is found at Harappa.
o Male Torso: Red sandstone was used; legs are broken and head attached to the neck and
shoulders through socket openings.
 Copper and Bronze sculptures: Lost wax method used to make sculptures: made both solid
and hollow figures.
o Bronze Dancing girl (Mohenjadaro): Oldest bronze sculpture in whole world; stand in
tribhangi posture of Nataraja; Ernest Mackay discovered it; full of expression and bodily
vigour; girl is naked wearing only a necklace and bangles; figure is lanky, thin and
rhythmic in character.
o Bull from Mohenjo-Daro: Bull massiveness and the charge's wrath are vividly depicted;
seen standing to the right with his head cocked; cord is wrapped around the neck.
o Bronze sculptures of Buffalo and Ram (male sheep) found at Mohenjadaro.
o Bullock cart and Ikka made of Bronze found at Harappa and Chanhudaro.
o Bronze bull with head raised found at Mohenjadaro.
o Copper dog and bird found at Lothal
o Daimabad hoard: Four bronze objects Elephant, two-wheeled chariot, buffalo and
rhinoceros were found; southernmost limit of Harappan civilization.
 Terracotta sculptures: Less sophisticated compared to metal and stone figures; majority are
cult objects and toys; red colouring on clay employed commonly; most frequently depicted
animal was Unicorn; others include rhinoceros, elephant, monkey, turtle, dog and sheep.
o Mother Goddess: Found at Mohenjadaro; wearing a loin robe and a girdle; adorned with
jewelry dangling from her large breast; distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped
headpiece with a cup-like protrusion on either side.
o Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
o Animal resembling horse found at Mohenjadaro.
o Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals etc
o Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes; more realistic in
Gujarat sites and kalibangan.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
om
l.c
 Harappan seals: Discovered by General Alexander Cunningham in 1853 AD; maximum
number of seals found at Mohenjadaro; Steatite was the most common material; seals are
ai
made of copper, ivory, shell, agate, faience and terracotta.
o Copper seals found only at Jhukar (sind), Lothal (Gujarat) and Desalpur (Gujarat).
gm
o Dimensions varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch; most seals are quadrilateral in shape; square
and rectangular shaped seals found most commonly.
48
o Symbols such as circles, crosses, dots, swastikas and leaves of peepal tree were depicted.
o Elephant, bull, tiger, rhinoceros, antelope and crocodile were depicted; Unicorn was
most frequently depicted; fish was most common zoomorphic sign; cow was not depicted
su
on seals.
o Inscriptions in pictographic script, written in right to left; seals primarily used for
va
commercial purposes and might have also used as amulets.

 Important seals
ha
o Pashupati Mahadev seal: It is made of steatite found at

Mohenjadaro; yogi-like figure sitting in cross-legged
at
surrounded by elephant and tiger on right side; rhinoceros

and buffalo on left side; two antelopes below the seat of
rm
figure.
o Bull seal and seal depicting Mother Goddess with plant
na
growing from her womb found at Mohenjadaro.

o A seal depicting rhinoceros found at Amri (Sind).
o Seal depicting Garuda with snake in his claws found at Harappa.
o Seals are not discovered at Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
 Pottery during Harappan period
o Red and Black pottery: It is among the oldest pottery used in India; pots are black from
inside and outer body is red in colour (inverted firing method); river sand mixed with clay
to make pottery; mostly wheel turned, organic resins applied to their outer surface.
o Discovered for first time at Atranjikhera; Harappans were the first to use BRW pottery.
o Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were recurring themes.
o Usage: Plain pottery used for household purposes; miniature vessels for decorative
purposes; perforated potteries used for straining liquor.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Ornaments and Beads

o Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings.
o Girdles, earrings and anklets worn only by women.
o Beads are made from Cornelian, Amethyst, quartz, steatite etc.: evidence from factories
in Chanhudaro and Lothal.
o Cemetery found at Farmona in Harappa where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
2. Sculptures during Mauryan age
 Dr. Coomarswamy divides Mauryan sculptures into Court art and Popular art.
 The pillars and their capitals are considered court art.
Sarnath (Uttarpradesh) Four lions
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Four lions
Rampurva (West champaran district, Bihar) Bull and single lion
Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar Single lion
Lumbini, Nepal Horse capital (Hiuen Tsang mentions about
it in Xuanzang)
Sankisa, Uttarpradesh Elephant capital
 Popular art includes the Manibadra Yaksha found at Parkam and the Yakshini figure from
Besnagar.
 Yakshini at Didarganj: in sandstone with a polished surface; right hand is holding a chauri
(flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered. { Yakshas are male figures, and yakshinis are their
female counterparts. They were believed to be spirits that inhabited trees, mountains, rock
mounds, rivers, and oceans. Their prevalence in sculpture, usually in association with natural
elements, is considered a sign of widespread nature worship in the early historic period (6th–3rd
century B.C.E.). They are objects of worship related to all three religions Jainism, Buddhism and
Hinduism.}

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Dhauli Elephant: Located in Puri district, Odisha; only front half of elephant visible:
elephant walking out of rock; carved over the Edicts of Asoka, including the two expressly
intended for Kalinga.
 Facades of Lomus Rishi cave: located in the Barabar hills near Gaya, Bihar; front is adorned
with a semicircular chaitya arch that serves as the entrance; For Ajivika sect, Ashoka
patronized the cave.
 Kanganahalli: It is about 3 km from Sannati, Karnataka.
o Stone sculptured slab bearing the name Ranyo Ashoka. This was the first inscribed portrait of
Ashoka (surrounded by female attendants and queens) that was unearthed from the ruined
Buddhist stupa.
3. Sculptures during Post -Mauryan age
 Gandhara school: Flourished in north western parts of Indian
subcontinent; also known as Greeco-Indian school of art.
o Known for its use of bluish-grey sandstone and later school used mud
and stucco.
o Shakas and Kushanas were patrons (Not Indo-Greeks).
o Secular elements were absent; associated with Buddhist religion.
o Important sites are Taxila, Bamiyan and Begram.
o Characteristic features:
 Roman influence: Realistic representation of human beings; hair
in wavy curls; wearing a Roman toga like dress.
 Greek influence: Protruding eyes, portrayed with a moustache, mechanical rigidy in
expression and emphasis on depiction of physical beauty: like those of Apollo, the
Greek god of beauty.
 Bharhut sculptures: narrative panels are shown with fewer
characters; availability of the space is utilized to the
maximum by the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives
as well as single figures of the Yakhshas and
Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to the chest; Examples
include sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2,
and Jagayyapetta.
 Mathura school
o Flourished in and around the Mathura region; oldest school which emerged in 2nd century
BC.
o Locally found white spotted red sandstone was used.
o Initially Brahminical figures of god such as Shiva, parvati, Vishnu,
Surya, Balarama was made; first to make sculptures of Buddha.
o Secular elements were present: headless figure of Kanishka at
Mathura; figures of trees and animals; figures of kanishka, Vima
kadphises found in Mat village.
o Important sites are Mathura city, Mat village and Kankali tila.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Seated in yogic posture (padmasana posture) and involved in meditation.

Emphasis on depicting inner beauty (calmness).
Upper half of body half covered; yakshinis, Buddhas and Boddhisatvas portrayed;
physical mass of female sculptures; dealt with Shaiva and Vaishnava themes: Shiva
depicted as Ardhanarishvara and Umamaheswara.
 Striking use of symbolism in images E.g: Shiva is shown through linga and
Mukhalinga.
 Buddha shown in Abhaya Mudra (gesture of fearlessness).
 Buddha shown surrounded by Boddhisatvas: Padmapani holding a lotus and
Vajrapani holding a thunderbolt.
om
 Amaravati School
o Developed in Amaravati and Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh under patronage of
Satavahana, Ikshvaku and Vakataka rulers.
l.c
o White marble was the most common material.
o Foreign influence was absent completely.
ai
o Secular elements: Large number of female figures in various postures; kings, queens and
gm
princes and palaces also made.
o Important sites are Vengi, Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunakonda and Jaggayyapeta.
o It never declined: got assimilated with Pallava and Chola schools of sculpture; spread
48
into Sri Lanka and South-East Asian countries.

 More emphasis on use of dynamic images or
su
narrative art; excessive use of Tribhanga posture.

 Focus on depiction of feminine beauty; female
va
figurines made in various gestures and postures.

 Physical and worldly aspects highly
ha
developed; characterized by naturalistic and

sensual appeal.
at
 Life-size figures were made (more than 16 feet

in height)
rm
 Sanchi sculptures: Four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from life of
the Buddha and the Jataka; figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire
na
space; symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha and Manushi Buddhas or the
past Buddhas; siege of Kushinara, Buddha‘s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with details
 Buddhist gestures and postures
o Padmasana mudra: cross-legged; common way of sitting during rituals and ceremonies.
o Abhaya mudra: Indicates fearlessness
o Dhyana mudra: also known as Samadhi mudra; facilitates cleansing human consciousness
of any impurities.
o Namaskara mudra: Also known as Anjali mudra; evokes greeting with utmost respect and
adoration.
o Bhumisparsa mudra: calling mother earth to witness the truth; represents unshaken belief
and commitment.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Varada mudra: boon granting mudra and represents compassion and liberation.
o Karana mudra: warding off the evil gesture.
o Vajrapradama mudra: unshakable self confidence
o Vitarka mudra: evokes energy of teaching and facilitates intellectual discussion.
o Dharmachakra mudra: continuous flow of energy of cosmic
order.
4. Gupta Sculpture
 Characterized by use of cream coloured sandstone and use of
metal.
 Halo around Buddha was intricately decorated.
 Human figure is pivot of Gupta sculpture; ideal is based
upon an explicit understanding of the human body in its
inherent softness and suppleness; elaborate draperies,
jewellery, etc.
 Synthesis between symbolism of post-mauryan and nudity of
early medieval age.
 Sultanganj Buddha: Made of copper which is 7.5 feet portrayed in
Abhaya mudra.
 Great Varaha figure at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh)
 Mehrauli iron pillar represent pinnacle of genius
5. Medieval school of sculpture
 Pallava sculpture
o Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at
Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu; massive
open-air relief carved out on two monolithic
rock boulders; all deities of heaven are
depicted here; main depiction is bearded man
worshipping God Shiva.
 Chola Bronze sculpture: Devoid of
ornamentation yet elegant and expressive;
created using Cire Perdue; union of Shiva and
Parvati is very ingeniously represented in the Ardhanarishvara murti in a single image;
most important sculpture is Nataraja.
o Nataraja
 Shiva shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara, the
demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg.
 Raises his left hand in Bhujangatrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is
kicking away the veil of maya.
 His four arms are outstretched and the main right hand is posed in Abhayahasta.
 The upper right hand holds the damura to keep on the beat tala.
 The upper left hand carries a flame while the main left hand is held in the Dolahasta
and connects with the Abhayahasta of the right hand.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala mala which surrounds
the entire dancing figure.
 Earliest known Natraja sculpture was excavated at Ravana Phadi Cave during early
Chalukya rule. However it reached its peak under cholas.
 Under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, the first fully three
dimensional stone carving of Natraja emerged.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Audav/Odava raga: This raga is a 'pentatonic' raga with five notes.

 Shadava raga: It is a 'hexatonic' raga with six notes.
 Sampurna raga: It is a 'heptatonic' raga with seven notes.
o Three categories on the basis of their originality
 Shuddha raga: Retains its original nature and form even if any element of other raga is
present in it.
 Chhayalag raga: The nature and form of this raga changes when elements of any other
raga are present in it.
 Sankeerna raga: It has a combination of elements of two or more ragas.
Music Raga Season Associated Time of Day Emotions Produced
Raga Hindol Spring Dawn time Sweet and soft love
Raga Bhairav Autumn Morning time Tranquility
Raga Megh Rainy Mid-day time Bravery
Shri Raga Winter Evening time Satisfaction
Raga Deepak Summer Night time Compassion
Raga Malkauns Winter Midnight time Intense love
 Tala: It is the rhythm element of music + It is a sequence of beats performed by singers using
hands and fingers at fixed time cycles + Most common variety of tala used in Carnatic music is
Adi tala + It is intricately related to Lasya (repetitive nature of any activity)
 Rasa: These were created to elicit emotional responses in both the performer and the audience.
Rasas are the emotions that are evoked by singing and playing instruments + Originally, there
were eight rasas, but later 'shanta' rasa was added, bringing the total to nine rasas.
3. Progress in Music and Dance during Ancient age
 Communal dance scenes at Bhimbetka cave paintings: Indicate the practice of dance by people
during Mesolithic period.
 Images of Dancing girl found at Harappa (made of steatite) and Mohenjodaro (made of bronze)
indicate dance was practiced by Harappans + Harappans ware of musical instruments; Seals
found at Lothal depicts Harp-like musical instrument.
 Hymns of Samaveda have been set to musical tones; hymns chanted by Udgatri priests during
rituals and ceremonies + Gandharva veda (Upaveda of Samaveda) deals exclusively with music.
 Panini Ashtadhyayi: Developed music on scientific basis and gave it a classical bent; 7 swaras
represented through 7 letters.
 Samudragupta is depicted playing Veena in his coins.
 Women like Amrapali was famous for their expertise in music and dance.
 Ilango Adigal mentions in the silappadi kaaram that the basic musical ideas were developed by
the ancient Tamils as early as the first century AD.
 Mahendra Verma(7 century) mentioned all contemporary Carnatic musical facts
in Kudumiyamalai inscriptions.
4. Progress in Music during Medieval Age
 Delhi Sultanate period
o Amir Khusrau invented 19 ragas of which Khayal, Tarana and Qawwalis were most
important; also invented Tabla and Sitar by combining Veena (Indian) and Tambura
(Iranian).
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Ragdarpan translated from Sanskrit language into Persian language during the reign of Sultan
Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
o Lahjat-i-Sikandari was written under patronage of Sikander Lodi.
o A treatise titled Ghunyat-ul-Munya was compiled in Persian at instance of Malik
Shamsuddin Abu Raja.
o Sufi saint Pir Bodhan was a great musician of this age.
 Mughal period
o According to Abul Fazl, Akbar patronized and loved music in all forms.
o It is considered that Ragh Megh performed by Tansen could cause rainfall any season and his
raga Deepak could set candles alight.
o Kathak dance was also patronized by Akbar.
o Aurangzeb himself was a proficient player of Veena; After Aurangzeb banned singing and
dancing in his court, only instrumental music was allowed.
o Tuhfatul-Hind written by Mirza Muhammad Ibn Fakhruddin Muhammad.
o Sadarang and Adarang were great patrons of music during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah.
 Development in Regional kingdoms
o Sharangadev (musician in court of Yadava ruler of Devagiri Singhana) wrote Sangeet
Ratnakar.
o Lochan Kavi wrote Raag Taringini in 11th century.
o Haripal Dev composed Sangeet Sudhakar which deals with both forms of Indian classical
music- Hindustani and Carnatic music.
o Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur invented Kalwanti Khayal, Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu
bhairavi and also devised Jaunpurit raga.
o Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior wrote a book titled Man Kautuhal on music.
o Earliest available treatise written in South India is Svaramela-kalanidi of Kondavidu‘s
Ramamatya in Andhra Pradesh.
o Vijaya Vithala temple with its 56 carved pillars emitting musical notes is located in Hampi.
o Somanatha wrote Ragavibhoda in 1609 AD.
5. Folk Music traditions
Music styles Important Features
 ‗Rasiya‘ word is derived from the word rasa (emotion)
Rasiya Geet  It flourished in Braj, sacred land of Lord Krishna‘s charming leelas.
(Uttar Pradesh)  It is closely woven into the very fabric of daily life and day to day chores
of its people.
 It is sung in the chaitra month during the festival – ‗Lotia‘.
Lotia
 Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash filled with water from
(Rajasthan)
ponds and wells.
Pandavani  Themes: Tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two
(Chhattisgarh) episodes are chosen for the night‘s performance.
 It is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and
Mando
both social injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in
(Goa)
Goa.
Chhakri,  It is a group song form of Kashmir‘s folk music.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Kashmir  It is sung to accompany noot (earthen pot) rababs, sarangi and tumbaknari.
 Amir Khusrau created Qawwali through fusion of Persian and Indian
musical traditions.
 It is devotional in nature & sung in a group with solo voice against a
chorus.
 Qawwali music tradition traces its roots back to the Chishti Sufi order,
one of the major Sufi orders in India. This musical form evolved as a
devotional expression within the Chishti order, primarily in the Indian
subcontinent.
Qawwali  Chishti Sufis emphasized the use of music, poetry, and song as a means to
om
reach spiritual heights and connect with the divine. Qawwali,
characterized by its soulful melodies, repetitive phrases, and rhythmic
l.c
patterns, became a prominent expression of this devotion.
 Lyrics of Qawwali songs often convey themes of love, spirituality, and
ai
the union with the divine, drawing from various sources including Sufi
poetry, especially the works of mystic poets like Rumi, Hafiz, and Amir
gm
Khusrow.
 It is a recital of a religious mythological story with music.
Harikatha  Themes taken from epics, Puranas and lives of saints.
48
 It is the most popular medium of religious instruction in South India.

 It is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of
su
Tappa camel riders in the Punjab.

(Punjab)  It is characterized by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic
va
and rapid notes.

 It is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra.
ha
 Narratives are odes in praise of an individual hero or an incident or place.

Powada
 The chief narrator is known as the Shahir.
(Maharashtra)
at
 The tempo is fast and controlled by the main singer who is supported by
others in chorus.
rm
 It is a highly dramatic form of ballad.

Burrakatha
 A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is played by the main performer while
(Andhra Pradesh)
na
reciting a story.
 It is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha.
Daskathia
 The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the
(Odisha)
―Das‖, the devotee.
 These are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both for their
Bihu Songs literary content and for their musical mode.
(Assam)  They are blessings for a happy new year and the dance is associated with
an ancient fertility cult.
Chai hia  During the Chapchar Kut festival a special occasion for singing and
(Mizoram) dancing is called ‗chai‘ and songs are known as ‗chai hia‘.
Teej Songs  It is celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
(Rajasthan)  The theme of the songs sung during this festival revolve around the union
of Shiva and Parvati, the magic of monsoon, greenery, peacock dance etc.
6. Classical Music
 Hindustani Music: It came into existence in 13th century due to assimilation of elements of
Persian Music with traditional Indian music.
o Important Features: Six primary ragas are Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and
Megh + Ragas used to strictly observe the time theory + It has a highly formalized grammar,
dictated by textual as well as oral tradition + Leisurely introductory section (alap) followed
by solfege and fast section with fast melodic phrases and rhythmic play + Musical
instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin + Main styles are
Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri etc.
o Dhrupad: Performed by a solo singer
 Mridang is used during its performance rather than the Tabla
 Oldest vocal style
 Greater emphasis on music rather than words
 Chanting of Om, Chhand and Parbandh
 Main exponents - Swami Haridas and Tansen
 Udaipur, Gwalior and Banaras are major Gharanas.
 Musicians – Baiju Bawra (at the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat)
o Khayal: It evolves out of Qawwali singing style + It is flexible in nature and provides scope
for improvisation + Amir Khusrau invented it + It is more romantic and delicate than
Dhrupad + Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela patronized it in his court.
o Thumri: It is romantic as well as devotional in nature, famous for sensuality + Themes revolve
around a girl‘s devotion and love for Krishna + Lyrics are usually in UP dialects of Hindi called
Awadhi and Brij Basha + Poorab style and Punjab style are its two main branches.
o Tappa: It originated from folk songs of camel riders of Punjab + It is a crisp and highly
volatile in nature + It was originated by Mian Ghulam Nabi shori + The word Tappa stands
for jumping, bouncing and skipping.
o Ghazals: It is a product of Persian influence composed of independent couplets + These are
essentially poetic compositions in Urdu depicting love + The Golconda and Bijapur rulers
encouraged this tradition of Urdu. Some important patrons of Ghazal and Urdu were Nusrati,
Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah and Wali Dakhini.
o Tarana: It is a vocal form of Hindustani music invented by Amir Khusrau + It uses poetry that is
full of powerful words + It is characterized by use of meaningless syllables in a very fast rendition.
o Carnatic Music: It is indigenously developed style of classical music + It is strongly kriti-
based + Unity of raga, tala and shruti; equal importance to melody and rhythm + Even
balance between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of compositions of great masters) and
creativity + Important compositions: Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam, kritanam,
kriti, pada, javali, pallavi etc
o Pallavi: This portion is often repeated in each stanza + It is considered to be best part of
Carnatic composition called Ragam Thanam Pallavi where artist has scope for improvisation.

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o Gitam: It is the simplest type of composition with an easy and melodious flow of music + It
is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end + Theme of the song is usually
devotional + Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha.
o Jatiswaram: It is noted for its rhythmical excellence + In some cases the Pallavi and
Anupallavi are sung to jatis and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis.
o Varnam: It is a complete composed piece, designed to show the characteristic phrases and
melodic movements of a raga and is usually performed at the beginning of a concert.
o Ragamalika: This is concluding part of Pallavi + Soloist is allowed to freely indulge in
improvisation.
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
It originated in North India; influenced by Arab, It originated in South India and has no foreign
Persian and Afghan traditions. influence.
No strict adherence to unity of raga, tala and Sruti. Unity of raga, tala and Sruti in every piece.
Prevalence of number of sub-styles called gharanas Only one particular prescribed style of
– Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur and Indore Gharanas. singing.
More importance to vocal than instruments. Equal importance to vocal and instruments.
There are six major ragas There are 72 ragas.
Instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sita and Veena, Mridangum and Mandolin.
Santoor.
Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Ustad Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Alla Khan etc. Shyama shastri (Trinity of Carnatic music)
7. Music Communities of India
Music Community State
Langha (Muslim tribal community) Gujarat and Rajasthan
Manganiar Rajasthan
Bauls West Bengal
Bhopa Rajasthan
Jogi Rajasthan
Muria tribes Madhya Pradesh
Moken tribes Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Idu Mishmi tribes Arunachal Pradesh
Kamar community Chattisgarh

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Chapter - 6
INDIAN DANCE FORMS
1. Introduction: Earliest evidence of dance found in community dancing at Bhimbetka and sculpture
of Bronze dancing girl of Harappan civilization + First formal mention of dance is found in Bharata
Muni‘s work Natya Shastra (compiled in 2nd century AD) + Bharat Muni describes dance as most
‗complete art‘ encompassing music, sculpture, poetry and drama.
2. Associated story: When Lord Brahma was requested by God to create a pastime, he combined
aspects of 4 vedas and created a fifth Veda Known as Natya Veda.
3. Aspects of Dance
 Two basic aspects according to Natyashastra:
o Lasya: It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya + It is symbolic of the feminine features of
dance as an art form.
o Tandava: This is symbolic of the male aspects of dance + More emphasis on rhythm and
movement.
 As per Abhinaya Darpan, Nandikeshwara, an act has been broken into 3 elements:
o Nritta- It refer to basic step of dance, performed rhythmically but devoid of any expression
or a mood.
o Natya- It means dramatic representations and refer to the story that elaborated through
dance.
o Nritya- Nritya refer to sentiment and emotions related to dance.
4. Classical Dances: Dances performed inside sanctum sanctorum of temples during rituals and
ceremonies were called Agama Nartanam + Dances performed under patronage of kings in courts
were called as Carnatakam.
Fig: Various Postures of Classical Dances

5. Classical dance forms in India
 Presently there are eight classical dances that are recognised by Sangeet Natak Akademi along
with the Union Ministry of Culture. These are:
o Bharatanatyam from Tamil Nadu
o Kuchipudi from Andhra Pradesh

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o Kathakali from Kerala

o Mohiniattam from Kerala
o Odissi from Odisha
o Manipuri from Manipur
o Kathak from Uttar Pradesh
o Sattriya from Assam
The five classical dances of India are considered to be the mystic manifestation of the metaphysical
elements of nature (Panchatatva) in the human body. These include Odissi (element of water),
Kuchipudi (element of earth), Mohiniattam (element of air), Bharatnatyam (element of fire) and
Kathakali (element of sky or aether).
 Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
o Also known as Dance of an Enchantress, Nangai
natakam, Dasiyattam and Tevitichiyattam.
o Important Features: It is essentially a solo dance
performance by women which focuses on
expression of feminine moods and emotions + It is
characterized by graceful, swaying body movements
with no abrupt jerks + Importance is given to the
hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial
expressions + Emphasizes on lasya style of recital,
feminine in nature; movements resemble waves of
sea and swaying of coconut, palm trees and paddy
fields + The element of air is 62acrifice62 through a Mohiniattam performance.
o Musical instruments used: Cymbals, veena, Idakka, Mridangam, drums, flute, etc
o Costumes: White and off white in colour with gold brocade.
o Famous proponents: Gopika Varma, Sunanda Nair, Jayaprabha Menon and Sunanda Nair.
 Kathakali (Kerala)
o Also called as ‗ballad of the east‘, it is essentially an
all-male troupe performance which is a blend of
dance, music and acting.
o Important features: Themes drawn from stories
narrated in the epics and the puranas + It represents
eternal conflict between good and evil + Emphasizes on
representation of rasa through eye and eyebrow
movements + An element of sky or ether is represented
+ Elaborate head gear and facial makeup: Green colour
(nobility and divinity), red colour (indicate royalty),
black colour (evil and wickedness) + performed in open air premises + A continuous sound
of drums, maddala performed during the dawn, culminates the whole performance +
Characters broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika
o Instruments used: Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shanku.
o Famous proponents: Rita Ganguly, Gopinath, Krishna Prasad, Ramankutty Nair.
 Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

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Chapter - 8
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INDIA
1. Religion of prehistorical period
 Graves provide earliest evidence of religious life: oldest graves found at Kurnool (upper
paleolithic site, Andhra Pradesh) indicate religious aspects of dead bodies.
 Bhimbetka paintings of Mesolithic age express people worship in super-natural powers.
 Relics from Inamgaon (Neolithic site) tell us about belief of life beyond death and ancestral worship.
2. Religion of Harappan civilization
 Mother Goddess was chief deity; male deity called Pashupati Shiva also worshipped.
 Bull was held sacred; tree worship such as pipal tree practiced.
 Great Bath indicates water worship was also common.
 Fire worship is in practice as indicated by fire altars at Banawali and Lothal.
 Believed in the idea of life after death.
3. Early vedic religion
 Vedic religion characterized by personification of forces of nature; followed naturalistic
polytheism.
 Yajnas and Sacrifices played an important role.
 Predominance of male gods; considered gods as living beings and attached human attributes.
 Henotheistic in nature: people believe in multiple deities but one particular deity considered
supreme on one particular occasion.
 Important gods: Indra (God of strength, thunder), Agni (God of fire and intermediary between
god and humans), Soma (wise god, inspires poets to compose hymns), Varuna and Mitra;
female goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Raka, Sinivali, Saraswati etc.
 Purpose of religion: not worshipped for spiritual upliftment of people but for grant of material gains.
4. Later vedic religion
 Religious ceremonies are guided by spiritual objectives.
 Early Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their importance; prevalence of domestic hearth
(Dhumaketu); new gods such as Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati came into prominence.
 concepts of transmigration of soul and karma emerged.
 Sacrifices assumed both public and private character; specialists became important for
performance of sacrifices.
 Agnihotra sacrifice to be performed daily by the head of a dvija household.
 Vajapeya Sacrifice, connected with attainment of power and prosperity; contained a ritual
chariot race.
 Ashvamedha Sacrifice: associated with claims of political paramountcy and incorporated
several fertility rites as well.
 Rajasuya sacrifice was the royal consecration ceremony.
 Growing importance of priests: Hotri priest (associated with Rig veda), Adhvaryu priest
(Yajurveda), Udgatri priest (74acrific).

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● Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana is a major Jain text composed largely by

Acharya Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakutas
 Contribution of Jainism
o Preached Non-violence toward all living beings.
o Growth of Prakrit & Kannada language. Vardhaman Mahavir preached in ‗Ardha-
Magadhi‘ language, the language of the common man.
o Introduced new philosophy – syadvada.
o Art & architecture – Statue of Gommateshwara (Shravanbelagola), temples of Khajuraho
and Mt. Abu. Tiger cave of Udayagiri and Indira Sabha cave of Ellora.
o Jainism contributed to the growth of the trading community (both Jainism and Buddhism
supported lending activities).
o Jainism went a long way in creating a healthy society. Mahavir preached against the caste
system. With end of caste system in society the grip of higher caste over the lower caste
ended.
o Jainism became popular among the traders and merchants. It fostered brotherhood among
them which gave rise to guild system in future.
Jainism & Buddhism
o Jainism helped a lot in the growth of charitable institutions. Its influence on the kings and
other people was abiding.
Similarities in Jainism & Buddhism Difference between Jainism & Buddhism
 Both the Buddhist and the Jaina  Jainism recognised the existence of god while
systems were nontheistic. Buddha Buddhism did not.
was agnostic (one who ignores god),  Jainism does not condemn the Varna system
while Mahavira denied god as the while Buddhism does.
creator of the Universe and  Jainism gave prominence to lay followers, while
considered gods, if any, as Buddhism relied mainly on Sangha and its monks
subordinate to Jaina teachers,  Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul
 Both were protest movements i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
against some practices of Vedic  Jainism was confined to India, but survived in it.
religion or Brahmanism, though not Buddhism spread rapidly to foreign lands, but
against its essence. died in India
 Both were opposed to the caste  Jainism preserved the metaphysical discussions of
system but could not eliminate it, nor the Brahmins, but Buddhism avoided them.
did they aim to do so.  Buddhism prescribes a middle path while
 Both accepted the doctrines of Jainism advocates its followers to live life of
karma and rebirth. complete austerity.
 Both renounced worldly life and  Salvation: In Jainism, nirvana could be attained
sought salvation. only after death of an individual and emphasis
 The founders of both belonged to the on Karma marga; In Buddhism, it can be
Kshatriya varna. attained within one‘s lifetime and emphasis on
 Both used language of common Jnana marga.
people to preach their religions.  Jainism believed in rigorous ascetism whereas
 Salvation known as Nirvana in both Buddhism discarded rigorous ascetism.
cases.  Jainism gave prominence to lay followers;

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SUFISM
 Both opposed caste system and whereas Buddhism relied mainly on sangha and
rejected varna order of Brahmanical its monks.
religion  Jainism is atheistic in nature; whereas Buddhism
is agnostic in nature.
 Jainism believed in transmigration of soul i.e.
reincarnation while Buddhism does not
7. Sufism
 Sufi Movement in India
o Introduction: Sufism represented a liberal form of Islam + The word ‗Sufi‘ derives its
name from Arabic word ‗Suf which means wool; Muslim saints who wore garments
om
of coarse wool were called as Sufi saints + It developed first in Iraq; first Sufi saint
was Begum Rabia of Bashera + Sufi work Kashf-ul-Mahjub written by Abul Hasan
al Hujwiri, aka Data Ganj Baksh.
l.c
o Features related to Sufism
 Sufi saints were assimilatory in their outlook: adopted many Hindu ideas such as
ai
practice of bowing before Sheikh (saint), offering water to visitors and shaving head of
gm
new entrants + concept of Anal Haq inspired from vedantic concepts like Tat Twam Asi
and Aham Brahmasmi (I am the supreme being).
 Emphasized upon leading a simple life and stress on inner purity; They did not
48
emphasize celibacy and did not renounce world completely.

 It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher- student); self-discipline was considered an essential
su
condition to gain knowledge of God.

 Monastic organization of Sufis was called as Khanqah: Pir was the head of Khanqah,
successor was called as Wali and disciples known as Murids.
va
 Fana (Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah), Zikr-tauba (remembrance of god all the
time), Sama (spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts).
ha
 Sufis main theme is Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Unity of Being): there exists no difference

between god (creator) and people (created).
at
 Wahadat ul-shujud (Unity of appearance): God and creation are not same rather, the
latter is a shadow of the divine name and attributes when they are reflected in mirrors of
rm
their opposite non-beings.

 Sufism evolved into the process of heart purification (tasfiyat al-qulub): they are
na
dubbed as ahl-I-dil (master of the heart).

 Salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following his commands and
by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad.
 Sufi orders classified into Ba-Shara (those whol followed shariat) and Be-shara (those
who did not follow shariat).
 Maximum number of orders were found in Afghanistan.
 Some literary works: Sayyid Murtaza wrote Yoga Qalandar, Abdul-wahid wrote
Haqqiq-i-Hindi and Mulla Daud wrote chandayan.
o Stages of Sufism
 1st stage: Khanqah : Period- 10th century; also called age of golden mysticism.
 2nd stage: Tariqa: Period-11th to 14th century; when Sufism was institutionalized.

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 3rd stage: Tarifa: From 15th century onwards; Sufism became a popular movement.
o Chisthi order
 Khwaja Abdul Chisti of Herat was the founder of Chisthi order.
 Khwaja Muin-ud-din chisti brought it to India; Ajmer was his centre.
 It belongs to Ba sharia order; it was liberal in its outlook and did not accept gifts from
the state.
 Concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujud was preached by them.
 Life of poverty and asceticism was advocated by them.
 Practice of Pas-i- Anfas (control of breath), meditation, Chilla (40 days of tough ascetic
exercises) were associated with this sect + Sama (recital of holy songs) was practiced by
them.
 Nizamuddin Auliya was called sidh/perfect due to yogi breathing exercises.
 Nadasampradaya was followed which meant burying disciples near as one family.
 Sheikh Farid-ud-din Masud (known as Baba Farid and Ganj-i-Shakar) popularized Chisti
order all over India.
 Other famous saints were Sheikh Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar kaki, Sheikh Nizam-ud-din
Auliya, Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, Sheikh Salim and Sheikh Nizamuddin Faruqi.
o Suhrawardi order
 Founded by Sheikh Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi but responsibility to get in India was
upon shoulders of Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya.
 It belongs to Ba-shara order and orthodox in nature.
 Multan was the main centre of this order.
 They have accepted the service of the state and lead a luxurious life and participated
actively in the politics.
 Important saints: Sheikh Jalal-ud-din Tabrezi (established a Khanqah and a Langar),
Amir Hussain (wrote Zad-ul-Musafirin), Sheikh Ruknuddin and Sheikh Jalaluddin
Bukhari.
o Firdausi order
 It was founded by Badruddin Samarqandi; it was the only Sufi order which
was founded and developed within India.
 They practiced arduous ascetic activities in forests and tried to liberate Islamic
law.
 Maktubat and Malfuzat were authored by Sheikh Sharfuddin Maneri.
o Qadiri order
 Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani was its founder; this is the first mystic sect among Sufis.
 It was the most secular Sufi 94acrifi. Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) followed this
order.
 Shah Niamatullah Qadiri and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani popularized it in India.
o Kubrawiyya order
 Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani carried it to the Kashmir region.
 Believed in philosophy of Wahadat-ul-Shuhud.
 Sultan Sikandar of Kashmir was disciple of Mir Muhammad.
o Naqshbandi order
 It was founded by Sheikh Biqabullah; introduced into India by Sheikh Pirsai.
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 This order opposed liberal religious policies of Akbar; Aurangzeb followed

this order
 Sheikh Niyamtulla was the greatest scholar of this school.
o Miscellaneous
 Kulah-Daran: Sayyids put on a pointed cap (Kulah) and they were known as Kulah –
Daran.
 Qalandars: Qalandars were wandering dervishes. They were against Ba Shariya sufi
saints and criticized them for adopting lavish lifestyles and political posts.
8. Religion and Philosophy During Medieval Age
 Bhakti Movement (14th -16th centuries): It was a religious reform movement which
emphasized single-minded intense devotion to God + The earliest evidence of Bhakti can be seen
in hymn addressed to god Varuna in Rig Veda.
o Features of Bhakti movement: Idea of peaceful co-existence was propagated by Bhakti
saints + Believed in oneness of god, took positive elements from both Hinduism and Islam +
Condemnation of idolatry + Followed the system of Guru and Shishya + Strict moral
rectitude and rules of Bhakti saints + Relationship between god and man is through love and
worship rather than through performing any rituals + Rejected caste distinctions and believed
in equality of all humans + Use of local languages for preaching.
o Nirguna Bhakti: Nirguna saints believe invisible formless god, without attributes + Poetry
was Jnana-shrayi + Major Nirgun saints were Guru Nanak, Ravidas and Kabir.
o Saguna Bhakti: Saints believe God with form and attributes + Poetry was Prema-shrayi, or
with roots in love + Major Saguna saints were Tulsidas, Surdas and Mirabhai.
o Ulatbansi Mystics: used Sant Bhasha + Kabir also used.
 Prominent Bhakti Saints
o Ramananda (1300 AD- 1411 AD): He was the bridge between Bhakti movement of south
India and north India; Founder of Sant-parampara in north India + Introduced cult of Rama
and Sita instead of Narayana as objects of worship + His literary works include Gyan-lila and
Yog-cintamani (Hindi), Vaisnava Mata Bhajabhaskara and Ramarcanapaddhati (Sanskrit) +
Dhanna (a jat), Sena (barber), Raidas (cobbler), pipa (Rajput), 95acri (a weaver) were among
the disciples + First bhakti saint to have women as disciples- Padmavathi and Sursari.
o Kabir (1440 AD- 1510 AD): He is considered the greatest among the disciples of
Ramananda + Believed in the idea of one god; rejected both vedas and Quran + Denounced
idol-worship and religious superstitious beliefs + He composed a large number of poems:
Important works are Sakhis, Bijak, Sabads, Basant, Mangal, Holi and Rekhta + His poems
are called Banis (utterances) compiled in Bijak.
o Ravidas (1398 AD- 1540 AD): He was the founder of Raidas Panth + Cobbler by profession
+ many hymns composed by him were listed in Guru Granth Sahib.
o Dadu Dayal (1554 AD- 1603 AD): He was a disciple of Kabir + Founded Brahma-
Sampradaya and established Nipakh Sampradaya + Established a sect known as Dadu-
Panthis + Sundara Vilasa which deals with various philosophical systems was written by
him.
o Guru Nanak (1469 AD- 1538 AD): He was born at Talvandi village in Pakistan + Believed
in Nirguna (attribute less) and Nirankar (formless) god + Founder of Sikh religion and the
first Guru of ten Sikh Gurus + Preached middle path between extreme asceticism and free
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satisfaction of senses + He started langar (free community kitchen) and system of Guru
Gaddi + He composed hymns and sang with the help of instrument called Rabab played by
his attendant Mardana + He promoted ―Tauhid-e-wazidi‖.
o Chaitanya (1485 AD – 1534 AD): Considered as an incarnation of Krishna by his followers
and founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal + Propounded the doctrine of Achintyabheda
Bhedavada + invented Kirtan style of music + founded Gaudiya sect + Popularized the
chanting of Hare Rama, Hare Krishna + He wrote Siksastakam, a Sanskrit work on his
philosophy.
o Mirabai (1498 AD- 1546 AD): She was a devotee of Lord Krishna + She composed
religious songs (bhajans) in Rajasthani language and Braj Bhasha.
om
o Tulsidas (1532 AD- 1624 AD): Devotee of Lord Rama and depicted Rama as incarnation +
He composed Ramcharit Manas (narration by Shiva to Parvati), Kavitawali, Gitawali, Vinay
patrika, Dohavali, Krishnavali and Krishan-Gitavali.
l.c
o Surdas (1479 AD- 1584 AD): He was a contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar and
disciple of Vallabhacharya + Sahitya Lahri, Sursagar and Sur sarawali were composed by
ai
him + Showed intense devotion to Radha and Krishna.
o Sankaradeva (1449 AD- 1568 AD): He was instrumental in spreading the Bhakti cult in
gm
Assam + His philosophy was known as Eka Sarana Dharma (neo-vaishnavite movement) +
Founded many sattras (monasteries) and Mahapurushiya Dharma + He invented Sattriya
48
classical dance + His most famous work is Kirtana Ghosha, written in a simple language
understood by the masses.
 Alvars and Nayanars (5th to 10th centuries AD): Tamil poet saints who propagated Bhakti
su
movement in South India.

o Alvars: Devotees of Lord Vishnu + Divya Prabandha is the compilation of the hymns of the
va
Alvars saints + Important saints were Andal (only female Alvar; Known as Meera of the
south), Thirumazhisai Alvar, Nammalwar and Kulasekara.
ha
 Nalayira Divyaprabandham - known as Tamil Veda

o Nayanars: They are the devotees of Lord Shiva + Tirumarai is the compilation of hymns of
at
Nayanars by the highest priest of Raja RajaCholaI, Nambiyandar Nambi + Important saints
were Tiru Neelakanta, Viralminda, Karaikkal ammaiyar etc.
rm
 Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a
Shiva temple.
na
9. Shaivism
 Shaivas believe that Shiva is the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that
is.
 Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools,
including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda)
perspectives.
 Sub-sects in Shaiva tradition: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, Kashmir Shaivism, Siddha
Siddhanta, Lingayata and Shiva Advaita
 Kapalika
o Tantric, non-Puranic form of Shaivism in India.
o The word is derived from kapāla, meaning ―skull‖, and Kāpālika means the ―skull-men‖.

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o Extinct sect of Shaivite ascetics devoted to the Hindu god Shiva dating back to the 8th
century CE, which traditionally carried a skull-topped trident (khatvanga) and an empty skull
as a begging bowl.
o Other attributes - revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva by emulating his behavior and
characteristics, smeared their body with ashes from the cremation grounds, wore their hair
long and matted, and engaged in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol
10. Vaishnavism
 Vaishnavites lead a way of life promoting differentiated monotheism, which gives importance to
Lord Vishnu and His ten incarnations.
 Its beliefs and practices, especially the concepts of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga, are based largely on
the Upanishads, and associated with Puranic texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, and the Padma,
Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas.
 In Vaishnavism Lord Vishnu is considered as the supreme being.
 The cause, sustainer and destroyer of all worlds. Vishnu is considered both in the form and as the
formless infinite one.
 Sub-sects in Vaishnava tradition: Lakshmi sampradaya, Brahma sampradaya, Rudra sampradaya,
Kumara sampradaya.
 Vaishnava Acharyas
o Ramanuja (1017 AD- 1137 AD): Earliest exponent of Bhakti movement
 Means to achieve salvation - Karma and Bhakti
 Grace of god more important than knowledge for salvation
 Propagator of Vishishtadwaitavada or qualified monism – There exists a plurality and
distinction between Ātman (soul) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality)
 Sanskrit language used to preach
 Literary works - Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita Bhashyam.
o Nimbarkacharya (1090 AD – 1162 AD): He was a contemporary of Ramanuja and a telugu
Brahman + Propounded the doctrine of Dwaita Advaitvada (dualist monism): world and
souls were different from god (Brahma) but soul could not exist without Brahmas support.
o Madhavacharya (1238 AD- 1317 AD): He expounded the philosophy of Dwaitvad: God
Brahma and individual soul are two distinct realities + He founded Brahma cult and argued
that knowledge leads to Bhakti which leads to salvation + Believed that liberation is possible
only through the grace of God + Wrote a book called as Anuvyakhyana.
o Vallabhacharya (1479 AD- 1531 AD): He propounded the doctrine of Shuddhadwaita (pure
non-dualism) + Founder of Rudra Sampradaya, philosophy known as Pushti marg + He
wrote Subodhini and Siddhant Rahasya + He worshipped Krishna under the title Srinathji.
 Maharastra Dharma
o Jnaneshvara (1271 AD- 1296 AD): He belonged to Varkari sect which worshipped Vithoba,
an incarnation of God Krishna + Pandharpur was main sect of varkari sect + Wrote books
known as Jnaneshvari, Changadeva prashasti and Amratanubhava and composed Abhangas +
Believes that divine order and moral order are one and the same and are inherent in the
universe itself.
o Eknath (1533 AD- 1599 AD): He popularized Vedanta philosophy + His works include
many religious songs called Abhangas, Owees, and Bharuds.

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o Tukaram (1598 AD- 1650 AD): His teachings included in his numerous Abhangas + He
made popular the Vithoba cult + Composed devotional songs on Vithalswamy called
as Abhangs + Preached the message of equality and universal brotherhood.
o Ramdas (1608 AD- 81 AD): He was associated with Dharkari sect, composed Dasa Bodha
and Spiritual guide of Shivaji + His literary works include Karunashtakas, Dasbodh,
Chaturthman, Manpanchak, Janaswabhawgosavi, etc.
11. Rise and Development of Sikhism
 Introduction: The word ‗Sikh‘ in the Punjabi language means ‗disciple‘ + Guru Nanak was the
founder of Sikhism, origin in the Punjab region + It was monotheistic in nature + Tradition of
Gurus is associated with Sikhism + Sikhism was well established by the time of Guru Arjan Dev
(1581-1606 AD).
 Philosophy of Sikhism
o There is only one God and is the same God for all people of all religions.
o Soul undergoes through cycles of births and deaths before it reaches the human form.
o Path to salvation does not require renunciation of the world but living the life of a
householder and earning an honest living.
o It condemns rituals such as fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage, superstitions, idol worship.
o 3 duties: Nam Japna (keeping god in mind at all times), Kirt Karna (earning an honest living)
and Vand Chhakna (sharing one‘s earnings with others).
o Avoidance of five vices: Lust, covetousness and greed, attachment to things of this world,
anger and pride.
 Sikh Gurus
o Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD): He was the founder of Sikhism; belong to Bhakti saint of
Nirguna school + He established Sikh Sangats (association) + He emphasized the equality of
women and rejected the authority of the Vedas + He was the contemporary of Mughal
emperor Babur. He was born at Talvandi village in Pakistan. He believed in Nirguna
(attribute less) and Nirankar (formless) god. Founder of Sikh religion and the first Guru of
ten Sikh Gurus. Preached middle path between extreme asceticism and free satisfaction of
senses. He started langar (free community kitchen) and system of Guru Gaddi. He composed
hymns and sang with the help of instrument called Rabab played by his attendant Mardana.
He promoted ―Tauhid-e-wazidi‖
o Guru Angad (1538-1552 AD): His original name was Lehna + He invented a new script
known as Gurumukhi + He divided Sikh‘s spiritual empire into 22 Manjis or Gadiyan + He
compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru Granth Sahib.
o Guru Amar Das (1552- 1574 AD): He introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for
the Sikhs + Established Manji and Piri system of religious missions for men and women
respectively + completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the custom of Sati and purdah
system + He asked his disciples to lead family life and preach Sikh religion + He was the
contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar.
o Guru Arjan Dev (1581- 1606 AD):
 5th guru
 Founded Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar
 Completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib (Golden temple) at Amritsar
 Composed Guru Granth Sahib (Adi Granth) in 1604
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 Founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal Sahib

 Organized collection of spiritual tribute through agents known as masands
 Executed by Emperor Jahangir because he blessed Jahangir‘s rebellious son Khusro.
o Guru Hargobind (1606-1645 AD): He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev; known as soldier
saint + He adopted a new policy of Miri and Piri which transformed Sikhs into soldier-saints
+ He has built Akhal Takht (Throne of almighty) and fortified Amritsar + He shifted the
headquarters of Sikhism to Kiratpur + He 99acrifice a small army and became the first Guru
to take up arms to defend the faith.
o Guru Har Rai (1645- 1661 AD): He accepted the Guruship at a young age of 14 years + He
taught simplicity and devotion to God by the means of love and self-sacrifice + He blessed
om
Dara shukoh and helped him in escape after battle of Samugarh + He avoided conflict with
Emperor Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts to missionary work.
o Guru Harkishan (1661- 1664 AD): He was the youngest of all the gurus; installed at the age
l.c
of five + He was contemporary of Aurangazeb.
o Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664- 1675 AD): He composed 116 shabads and 15 ragas; many of
ai
his compositions are included in Guru Granth Sahib + He established the town of Anandpur
+ He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler
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Aurangazeb and he was consequently persecuted for this.
o Guru Govind Singh (1675-1708): He started Khalsa Panth (an organization of Sikhs) in
48
1699, changing the Sikhs into a saint-soldier order for protecting themselves + He translated
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas into Punjabi language + He was styled as Sacha
Padshah (veritable sovereign) + He introduced the titles of Singh and Kaur, Panj Piyare (five
su
beloved warriors) and Panj kakke (5 Ks) + He also introduced a new rite named Pahul
(initiation ceremony into Khalsa brotherhood).
va
 Important Gurudwaras
o Akal Takhat Sahib (Eternal Throne) : foundation was laid by Guru Hargobind.
ha
o Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib: Brithplace of Khalsa, founded by Guru Gobind Singh, situated
at Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.
at
o Takht Sri Damdama Sahib: Guru Gobind Singh stayed here for about a year and compiled
the final edition of Guru Granth Sahib, also known as the Damdama Sahib Bir in 1705.
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o Takht Sri Patna Sahib: Located at Patna, Bihar.

o Takht Sri Hazur Sahib: Located at Nanded, Maharashtra.
na
o Nankana Sahib (Pakistan): Birth place of Guru Nanak Dev.

o Gurudwara Darbar Sahib (Kartarpur, Pakistan): Guru Nanak Dev spent the last 18 years of
his life.
 Current Developments
 Kartapur Corridor: It connects the Darbar Sahib Gurdwara in Pakistan with the Dera Baba
Nanak shrine in Gurdaspur district in Punjab + It will facilitate visa-free movement of Indian
pilgrims + It was built to commemorate 550th birth anniversary celebrations of Guru Nanak
Dev, founder of Sikhism.
12. Schools of Philosophy
Goals for Life Meaning Treatise
Artha Economic means Arthasastra

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Dharma Regulation of social order Dharmasastra

Kama Physical pleasures Kamasutra
Moksha Salvation Several texts on Darshana
 Introduction: All the schools agreed that man should strive for fulfillment of four goals.
 Samkhya/Sankya school of philosophy
o It is considered as oldest philosophical tradition; founded by Kapila Muni.
o Shashti- tantra written by Kapila muni is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (soul or mind)
and prakriti (matter, energy).
o Does not believe in existence of god; nature or prakriti responsible for creation and
evolution of world.
o Later, Purusha introduced as an element (4th century AD): now, creation of universe
attributed to both Prakriti and Purusha.
o Purusha is associated with consciousness and cannot be changed.
o Recognizes existence of Tatvas (25 elements) which created the universe.
o Believes in doctrine of three gunas:
 Tamas (darkness): obscurity, ignorance, and inertia
 Rajas (passion): energy, emotion, and expansiveness
 Sattva (goodness): illumination, enlightening knowledge, and lightness.
o Believes in theory of Satkaryavad (cause for every action)
o Salvation can be attained through acquisition of real knowledge: acquired through
perception (pratyaksha), hearing(shabda) and inference (anumana).
o existence of an infinite number of similar but separate purushas, none superior to any other.
o Belived in karma and transmigration of soul.
o Advaita Vedanta derives its base from this school.
o The body consists of the higher functions of buddhi(consciousness), ahamkara (I-
consciousness), manas (mind as coordinator of sense impressions), and prana (breath).
o Ishwar Chandra wrote Samkhyaharika on Samkhya philosophy.
 Yoga school of philosophy
o Sage Patanjali was founder of this sect; closely related to the Samkhya school of
Hinduism.
o Core philosophy: Yogic techniques control body, mind and sense organs: thus considered
as a means of achieving mukti.
o Patanjali‘s Yoga sutras were principal text of school.
o Salvation can be attained through physical training (Ashtanga yoga) and meditation; yoga leads
to full realization of the gulf between purusha and prakriti, and therefore liberation from suffering.
o Believes in existence of god; god is not creator but an exalted soul which exists in eternity.
o Om is considered as a sacred symbol.
o Practice of Yoga includes: Yama (Restraint from violence and theft) + Niyama (building
habits like contentment, purity etc.) + Prathyahara (choosing an object) + Asana (good
posture) + Pranayama (breath control) + Dharana (focused attention on an object) +
Dhyana (meditation)+ Samadhi (concentration).
o Raja Bhoja wrote a commentary called Yoga sutra vritti on Yoga sutra.
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 Nyaya school of philosophy

o Sage Gautama was founder of this school; Nyaya sutras is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and
experience + considered as a technique of logical thinking.
o Salvation can be attained through acquisition of knowledge through:
 Pratyaksha (perception)
 Anumana (inference)
 Upamana (comparison)
 Shabda (verbal testimony)
o four sources of invalid knowledge: memory, doubt, error (false certainty),
and hypothetical argument.
o attaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation.
 Vaisheshika school of philosophy
o Uluka kanada was founder; Kanada sutras is the principal text.
o Emphasis on material elements or dravya and naturalism; also known as school of
atomism.
o accepted two means to knowledge such as perception and inference.
o Universe is made up of 5 fundamental atomic elements: Earth, air, water, fire a nd
ether (akash).
o Believes in dualism of matter and soul.
o Prashastapada wrote commentary called Padartha dharma sangraha.
o Laws of karma guide the universe.
o all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu(atoms), and one‘s
experiences are derived from the interplay of substance, quality, activity,
commonness, particularity and inherence.
 Mimamsa/Purva Mimamsa/Karma Mimamsa school of philosophy
o Sage Jamini was founder of this school; Jamini sutras is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: emphasis on power of yajnas and mantras in sustaining the
activities of the universe.
o Vedas are considered infallible, eternal and self-existent by this school.
o Vedic rituals essential to attain salvation.
o It is associated with Akhyativad (existence of illusion is not accepted).
o Kumarila Bhatta is the prominent scholar associated with Mimamsa school.
 Vedanta/Uttar Mimamsa school of philosophy
o Badarayana was founder of this school; Brahma sutra is the principal text.
o Monistic school of philosophy: only reality is Brahman.
o Three fundamental Vedanta texts are Upanishads, Brahma sutras and Bhagavadgita.
o Believes in transmigration of the self (samsara)
o Self (atman) is agent of karma: recipient of consequences, of action.
o Sub-branches are Advaita, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Shuddhadvaita and
Achintya Bheda Abheda.
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 Uchchedavada (Annihilationism): Founded by Ajita kesakamblin + It believed in

materialistic philosophy+ everything ends with death + do not believe in idea of sin+ charvaka
school emerged out of it.
 Ajivikas: Established by Nanda vachcha+ Makkhaliputa Gosala was its third religious
chief+ also referred as Sudra sanyasins+ It is based on philosophy based on Niyati (destiny)+
rejected theory of karma+ did not believe in efficacy of human efforts+ practiced complete
nudity and rigorous practices+ King Bimbisara was follower of this sect+ atheistic in nature.
 Charvakas/Lokayatas: Also known as Barhaspatya+ Barhaspatya sutras is primary
literature+ believes in enjoying luxuries of life (Eat, drink and merry) + monks also known as
Nastika shiromani+ emphasized water, fire, air and earth are only fundamental elements+ there
om
is no rebirth, no soul, no god and no karma+ pratyaksha (perception) was only way of
acquiring valid knowledge+ rejected vedas as ultimate source of knowledge.
 Anichchitvada: Sanjay Vetiputta was founder of this sect+ doctrine of non-denial and non-
l.c
approval of existence of anything+ emphasizes that nothing is certain in this world.
 Akrittavada/Asasvatavada: Pakuda Katyayana was founder+ seven elements constitute the
ai
universe- light, sorrow, happiness, earth, water, air and life+ It got merged with Ajivikas sect+
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Vaishesika school of philosophy emerged from it.
 Parivrajaka/Bhikshus: The word Parivrajaka means ‗roaming ascetic‘. They were seekers of
truth who wandered from one village to village and forest to forest. The famous parivrajakas
48
were Gautama Buddha, Makhkhali Goshala, Vardhamana Mahavira etc.

 Shramana: Shramana refers to seeker who performs acts of austerity, ascetic etc. They
su
disregarded the higher status of Brahmans and lived in monasteries near villages and towns
denying caste distinctions.
va
******
ha
at
rm
na
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Chapter - 11
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
1. Introduction: Indian literature broadly divided into religious literature such as Vedas, Puranas,
Epics etc and secular literature such as Arthashastra, Rajatarangini etc.
2. Literature During Vedic Age
 Vedas: The word ‗Veda‘ signifies knowledge + They are collection of hymns, charms and
prayers revealed by Lord Brahma to sages+ Oldest known works of literature+ Also known as
Shruti literature (knowledge received by sages through hearing) and Nitya (timeless and
universal in nature) + Compiled around 3000 BC- 1000BC + There are four major vedas and
each veda has 4 sub-parts- Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
 Rigveda
o It is the oldest among four vedas and oldest literature of Indo-Europeans.
o Focuses on world prosperity and natural beauty+ Most of hymns lay emphasis on themes
of life, death, creation and for seeking soma.
o Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 Mandalas (2nd, 3rd,
4th, 5th, 6th and 7th mandalas are the oldest).
o First Mandala is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni.
o Gayatri mantra is part of 3rd Mandala of Rigveda: Composed by Vishwamitra dedicated
to god Savitr.
o 9th Mandala : All hyms dedicated entirely to Soma.
o Purusha Sukta hymn is present in 10th mandala of Rigveda.
o Chief deity is Indra+ other gods are Agni, Varuna, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu; female
goddesses like Usha (Goddess of dawn), Prithvi (Goddess of earth) and Vak (Goddess of
speech) also mentioned.
o The Universe devised from Prajapati, the principle basis of creation.
o Hotri priests were associated with Rigveda.
o Aitareya Brahmana (first reference of origin of kingship) and Kaushitaki Brahmana are
part of Rigveda.
o Varna System, Four-fold division of society, ‗Sudra‘, Gamester‘s Lament also find
mention in Rig Veda.
o Thirty manuscripts from Rigveda are accepted into UNESCO‘s Memory of the World
Register.
 Yajurveda (worship of ritual knowledge)
o Collection of hymns used by priests during rituals and ceremonies; originally recited by
Adhvaryu priests; also called as Vajasaneyi 110acrifi and Taittiriya Samhita.
o Shukla Yajur Veda contains only mantras+ It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva
recensions.
o Krishna Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) – it includes mantras as well as prose
explanations+ It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions.
o Upaveda of Yajurveda is Dhanurveda
o Oldest example of prose literature of Indo-Europeans.
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o Taittiriya Brahmana and Satapatha Brahmana (reference to Upanayana, agricultural

rituals) are part of Yajurveda.
o Taittiriya Upanishad, Brihadaranyka Upanishad (first reference to transmigration of
soul), Isa Upanishad are part of Yajurveda.
 Samaveda
o Hymns mostly taken from Rigveda Samhita arranged according to needs of musical
notation; Also known as book of chanters.
o Earliest literary reference about origin of Indian music.
o Udgatri priest was associated with samveda.
o Panchavimsha Brahmana, Jaminiya Brahmana, Chhandogya Upanishad belongs to
om
Samaveda.
o Upaveda of Samaveda is Gandharva veda.
o It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times+
l.c
Recensions (Shakhas) are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya (Talavakara).
 Atharvaveda/Brahma veda ai
o It is the latest veda and a collection of spells, charms and magic+ purpose is to keep away
gm
evils, gain material success and making new friends.
o Focuses on peace and prosperity and treatment of several ailments.
o Paippalada and Saunakiya recensions are part of it+ also deals with black and white
48
magic.
o First reference to word ‗Gotra‘ found in Atharvaveda
o Sabha and samiti mentioned as twin daughters of Prajapati.
su
o Gopatha Brahmana and Mundaka Upanishad (phrase Satyameva Jayate mentioned)

belong to it.
va
o Silpaveda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.

 Brahmanas
ha
o These are prose explanations of the Samhita portions and give explanations of sacrificial
rituals and their outcome.
at
o Advocate Karma marga (path of rituals) for attainment of salvation.

o Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it:
rm
 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas to Rig Veda.

 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda
na
 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda

 Gopath Brahmana, Jaimaniya Brahmana and Panchvish Brahmana to Atharva Veda
 Aranyakas
o Also called as Forest books, they constitute the philosophy behind ritual sacrifices.
o Emphasis on meditation and opposed to sacrifices and rituals.
o They are concluding portion of the Brahmanas and interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
 Upanishads
o They constitute last part of vedas: also known as Vedanta (end of vedas).
o Contain philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the body, and universe+ concept of atman and
Brahman.
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o Early Upanishads written in prose such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya

Upanishad+ Later Upanishads such as Kathopanishad written in verse form.
o Believe in efficacy of Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation.
o Tradition was part of guru-shishya 112acrifice.
o Monotheistic elements are predominant: Brahma considered as ultimate reality of
universe.
o Believes that individual soul is identical with supreme soul and his realization leads to
salvation.
o Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
o Upanishads emphasize efficacy of ‗Jnana Marga‘ to attain salvation; Brahm considered as
originator of universe;
o Mundaka Upanishad contains Satyameva Jayate; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains first
reference of transmigration of soul; Chandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashrams and
anuloma and pratiloma marriages.
o Katha Upanishad
 Belongs to the Yajur Veda, consists of two chapters, each of which has three sections.
 It employs an ancient story from the Rig Veda about a father who gives his son to death
(Yama), while bringing out some of the highest teachings of mystical spirituality.
 There are some passages common to the Gita and Katha Upanishad.
o Aitareya Upanishad
 The Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda.
 It is the purpose of this Upanishad to lead the mind of the 112acrifice away from the
outer ceremonial to its inner meaning.
 It deals with the genesis of the universe and the creation of life, the senses, the organs,
and the organisms.
 It also tries to delve into the identity of the intelligence that allows us to see, speak, smell,
hear, and know.
 Recensions (Shakhas)
o Rig Veda- Shakala shakha is the only surviving recension of the Rig Veda.
o Sam Veda- Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya (or Talavkara)
o Yajur Veda- Recensions of Shukla (also known as Vajasaneya) Yajur Veda are
Madhyandina and Kanva + Black school represented by the Kathaka, Kapishthala,
Maitrayani and Taittiriya recensions.
o Atharva Veda- Shaunaka and Paippalada are the recensions of the Atharva Veda.
 Vedangas: mean limb of veda; composed to facilitate proper understanding of vedas.
o Nirukta vedanga deals with etymology.
o Vyakarana vedanga deals with grammar.
o Shiksha vedanga deals with phonetics.
o Chhanda vedanga deals with science of metres
o Jyotish vedanga deals with astronomy.
o Kalpa vedanga deals with ritual portion
 Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for performance of sacrifices and rituals.
 Grihya Sutra –It includes rituals pertaining to Samskaras such as Upanayana (initiation),
Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
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 Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals Dharma.

3. Literature during Post-Vedic age
 Sutra Literature: These are created by reorganizing hymns in short forms + They are 4 in
number:
o Srautasutra used by priests during rituals and ceremonies.
o Sulvasutra deals with methods of making fire altars
o Grihyasutra deal with rules and regulations of householders
o Dharmasutra was book of the rulers.
 Puranas
o These consist of narrative stories about the creation of universe and illustrate till supposed
destruction of the universe.
o Mostly written in Sanskrit with few in vernacular languages.
o Period of Composition: Overlap to some extent with Vedas, but their composition stretched
forward into the 4th-5th centuries CE.
o Total of 18 major puranas; important ones include Bhagvata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni,
Garuda, Padna and Matsya.
 Upa- Puranas
o Sarga: primary creation of the universe.
o Pratisarga: recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
o Manvantaras: reigns of the various Manus.
o Vamsha: genealogy of gods and rishis.
o Vamshanucharita: history of Solar (Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.
 Dharmashastra: Sanskrit texts which deal about morality and religious duty + They provide
guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and righteous conduct.
Eg – Vaishyas‘s duty is to engage in trade + It refers to fulfilment of Purusharthas such
as Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha; It is further subdivided into:
o Dharmasutras (600-300 BCE)
o Smritis (200 BCE – 900 CE)
o Tikas and Bhashyas
 These are based on ancient Dharmasūtra texts, which emerged from the literary tradition
of the Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva) composed in 2nd millennium BCE to the
early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE
 The hymns of Ṛigveda are one of the earliest texts composed in verse.
 The Brāhmaṇa which belongs to the middle vedic period followed by the vedāṇga are
composed in prose.
 The basic texts are composed in an aphoristic style known as the sutra which literally
means thread on which each aphorism is strung like a pearl.
4. Literature During Mauryan Age
 Arthashastra: This book is written by Kautilya in Grantha script+ It deals with politico-
administrative and a book on statecraft+ It is divided into 15 Adhikaranas (parts) and 150
prakaranas (chapters)+ Bhattasvamin wrote a commentary on it called as Pratipada-
Panchika.
5. Literature During Post-Mauryan Age
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Author Book Main Theme

Nagarjuna Satasaharika, Prajnaparamita Deals with Mahayana Buddhism
and Madhyamika karika
Milinda panha Discussion between Nagasena and Indo-Greek
ruler Menander
Ashvagosha Sariputra-prakarana It mainly deals with Buddha‘s life.
Visuddhimagga Buddhaghosa It is a collection of Theravada teachings
Charaka Charaka Samhita It deals with medicine
Patanjali Mahabhashya Commentary on Panini‘s treatise Ashtadhyayi.
 Panini (520-460 BC): Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of
om
phonetics, phonology, and morphology
o He is considered the founder of the language and literature
o Astadhyayi (Astaka)  around the 3rd-4th century BC; it consists of 8 chapters, each
l.c
subdivided into quarter chapters
o Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar
ai
6. Literature During Gupta Period
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Author Works Main Theme
Dramas: Abhijnana Shakuntalam:
 Abhijnana Shakuntalam  Story of king Dushyanta, and Shakuntala.
48
 Malavikagnimitram Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvasiyam  Love story of Sunga king Agnimitra (son
su
of Pushyamitra Sunga) and Malvika

Epics:  Mentions that Pushyamitra Shunga
va
 Raghuvamsa performed Rajasuya sacrifice

 Kumarasambhava Vikramorvasiyam
ha
 Love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and

Kalidasa (court of of
Poetry: Urvashi in Sanskrit.
Chandragupta II
 Ritusamhara Raghuvamsa
at
(Vikramaditya))
 Meghaduta.  Sanskrit epic poem narrating genealogy
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of Lord Rama‘s Raghu Vamsa beginning

with King Dileep up to Agnivarna.
Ritusamhara
na
 Mentions the feelings, emotions and

experiences of lovers in six seasons.
Meghaduta
 It is a poem around Yaksha, who is
subject of Lord Kubera.
Asanga Sutralankara It deals with Yogacara school of Buddhism
Sushruta Sushruta Samhita It deals with surgical branch of medicine.
(Father of Surgery)
Abhidammakosa It deals with a wide range of philosophical,
Vasubandhu cosmological, ethical, and salvational
doctrine.
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Mrichchakatikam Love story of Charudatta of Ujjain and

Shudraka
courtesan Vasantasena.
Kiratarjuniyam Describes the combat between Arjuna and
Bhairavi
Kirat (Lord Shiva) at Indrakeeladri Hills
Mudrarakshasa and Mudrarakshasa: It describes how
Devichandraguptam Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne
after defeating Nandas.
Vishakadatta Devichandraguptam: It is a Sanskrit
political drama narrating king Ramagupta
surrendering his queen Dhruvadevi to a
Shakas.
Vatsyayana Kamasutra It is a treatise on human sexual behavior.
Panchatantra and Treatise on political science and human
Vishnu sharma
Hitopadesha conduct.
Aryabhatta Aryabhattiyam Astronomy
Brihatsamhita and Pancha- Astronomy
Varahamihira
Siddhantika
 Amarasimha: Sanskrit grammarian and poet from ancient India and was one of the Navratnas
during the Gupta dynasty‘s rule
o Amarakosha: It is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots consists of verses that can be easily
memorized; it is divided into 3 khaṇḍas or chapters.
o Svargadi-khaṇḍa (heaven and others) has words pertaining to gods and heavens.
o Bhuvargadi-khaṇḍa (earth and others) deals with words about earth, towns, animals and humans.
o Samanyadi-khaṇḍa (common) has words related to grammar and other miscellaneous words
7. Literature of Post-Gupta an Early Medieval age
Author Works
Bhavabhuti Mahavirachitra – based on Ramayana, such as the
 Dramatist of the later Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great Hero), which depicts the
Sanskrit dramatic period early life of Rama and Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of
 Court poet of King Rama), which shows the final years of Rama‘s life as written in
Yashovarman of Kannauj, Uttara Kanda of the115amayana.
in north India in 8th CE. Malatimadhava – His 3rd drama + based on Malati and
Madhava, is a Prakarana play centered on the love story of
Malati, the daughter of a minister and Madhavya, her beloved.
Haribhadra suri Yogashastra
Mallisena Syadavadamanjari
Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta
King Harshavardhana Nagananda, Ratnavali (Theme – devious path adopted by minister
Yaugandharaya of Vatsa king Udayana of Kaushambi to get his
king married to Ceylonese princess Ratnavali) and Priyadarshika
Banabhatta Kadambari, Harshacharita
Kalhana Rajatarangini
Hemachandra Kumarapalacharita and Parishistaparvana
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Bhaskaracharya Siddhanta Shiromani

8. Sangam Literature: It refers to assembly of Tamil poets organized under the patronage of Pandya
kings + Sangam age called as Augustan age of Tamil literature + Classified into two categories:
Puram (deals with material aspects) and Agam (deals with love) + Compiled during 3rd century
BC to 3rd century CE in poetic format around theme of love and war + The heroic poems were
composed on the principle of oral bardic literature.
 Ettutogai: It consists of eight works which are Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
 Pattuppattu: It has a collection of 10 poems + Some large poems belong to Agam group and
others to Puram group.
 Pathinenkilkanakku: It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals + Most important is
Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
 Silapaddikaram: It is the oldest tamil epics composed by Ilango Adigal+ Major theme is story
of kovalan and Madhavi.
 Manimekhalai: Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of Silappadikaram in next
generation in which Manimekhalai is the daughter of Madhavi and Kovalan.
 Tolkappiyam: written by Tolkappiyar and it is a work on Tamil grammar and poetics + It
provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
 Agattiyam: It was written by sage Agastya on grammar.
 Tirrukural: Also known as Bible of Tamil land+ it was written by Tiruvallur+ It deals with
matters related to government+ It speaks about an ideal king and largely limited to ruling elites.
 Jivaka Chintamani: Written by Liruttakkadevar; themed around story of Jivaka who possessed
supernatural powers; it is alos known as marriage book.
 3 Major sangams
Sangams Place Chairman Texts compiled
Agatiyyam, Paripadal, Mridukugu
First sangam Ten-Madurai Agastya
etc. No book has survived.
Second sangam Kapatapuram Tolkappiyar Tolkappiyam
Third sangam Madurai Nakkikar Manimekalai and Silapaddigaram
 Sangam poems contain several incidental references to material culture, often as part of the
poem‘s setting or in similes and allusions.
 The social classification of varna was known to Sangam poets. There is mention of the Arashar
(kings), Vaishiyar (traders), and Velalar (farmers). The Brahmanas are also mentioned, some of
them closely associated with the courts of kings and patronized by ruling elites.
 Sangam Poems are pervaded with a warrior ethic. Puram in sangam litrauture are the War Poems
that deals with the outer life of people. Speak of public celebration of the feats of the heroes even
the death of heroes in wars.
 Sangam literature reflects a belief in sacred or magical forces called ananku that were supposed
to inhabit various objects.
9. Miscellaneous
Author Works
Gangadevi Maduravijayam
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Allasani peddana Manucharitam

Krishnadeva raya Amuktamalyada (in Telugu language), Jambavati kalyanam (in Sanskrit
language) and Usha parinayam (in Sanskrit language).
Pampa Adi Purana and Vikramarjiva Vijaya
Bandhuvarma Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva sambodhana
Ponna Shanti purana
Nandi Timmana Parijathapaharanam
Hastimalla 13th century Kannada poet and writer in Hoysala Empire. He wrote
Purvapurana.
11th -century Sanskrit poet from Kashmir in India. His work is called
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Kshemeshvara
Dasavatar Charita.
Abul Fazl Akbarnama: history of Akbar‘s forefathers from Timur to Humayun and
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Akbar. The 3rd volume of the book is Ain-i-Akabari, which gives the
administrative details of Akbar‘s time.
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Ruqaat: collection of letters to the princes of Akbar.
Insha-i-Abu‘l Fazl: collection of letters written by Akbar to his
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contemporary rulers and nobles.
Ain-I Akbari: Persian language which deals with the administration of
Mughal Emperor Akbar, household, army, the revenues and geography of
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his empire. It also describes statistical details about crops, yields, prices,
wages, and revenues.
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Din Bandhu Mitra Play ‗Neel Darpan‘ to portray the oppression of indigo farmers.
Bankim Chandra Novel ‗Anand Math‘- set in the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion
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Chattopadhyay (1770-1820), when Bengal was facing a famine

Somadeva Kathasaritasagara
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Bilhana Vikramankadeva Charita

Subandhu Sanskrit romantic play ‗Vasavadatta‘
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 Yogavasistha
o Translated into Persian multiple times throughout the Mughal Dynasty, as commanded by
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Akbar, Jahangir, and Darah Shikuh.

o Nizam al-Din Panipati completed one of these translations, known as the Jug-Basisht, in
the late 16th century AD.
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Chapter – 13
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
1. Megasthenes: He was the ambassador of Bactrian king Seleucus Nicator in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya; stayed in India from 304 BC to 299 BC and wrote a book called Indica.
 References from Megasthenes Indica:
o There are seven castes in Indian society during Mauryan period: Philosopher,
Farmers/Husbandmen, Herdsmen, Trades and artisans, warriors, overseers and councilors.
o Slavery and Usury (money lending) was completely absent in India.
o Laws in India were severe and crimes were rare.
o Pataliputra was surrounded by a wooden palisade; had well-developed municipal
administration.
o There was peace and prosperity throughout Mauryan empire; there was no famine in
India.
o Indians worshipped Dionysius (Shiva) and Heracles (Krishna).
o India has a number of mountains with a wide variety of fruit trees.
o Indian elephants are far superior to Libyan elephants in terms of strength and size.
o Gold, silver, copper, and iron are all abundant in India.
o India's plains are extremely fertile; Rice, millet, a crop called bosporum, cereals, pulses, and
other food plants were main crops.
2. Deimachus: He was sent as an ambassador by Syrian King Antiochus I to court of Bindusara + As
per his accounts, King Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I to send dried figs, sweet wine and a sophist;
but he did not send sophist as Greek law prohibited it.
3. Fa-hien: He visited India during reign of Gupta king Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
 References from Fo-Kwo-Ki (The Travels of Fa-Hien)
o Government in India was quite competent.
o There were no restrictions on movements of the people.
o No executions were given by kings, only fines were imposed on criminals + repeated
offenders had their right hand cut off as a punishment.
o No wine shops found in market places in India.
o Bodyguards and attendants received salaries in cash for their work.
o Mode of payment for buying commodities was cowries (shell).
o Chandalas were untouchables and lived separately from rest of people.
o Fa-Hien did not record anything about India's political situation and Chandra Gupta II, under
whose rule he must have spent more than five years.
4. Hiuen Tsang: He visited India during the reign of emperor Harshavardhana; compiled his
observations in his book Si-yu-ki. His main observations are:
 Houses were constructed of wood, bricks and dung + Streets were circular and dirty.
 He was amazed at the prosperity of India; wrote that people had high standard of living.
 Prayag and Kannauj were important cities during that time.
 Nalanda and Valabhi were important centres of Buddhist learning.
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 Criminal law was severe and offenders were given imprisonment + roads were not safe and he
himself got robbed.
 Govt was liberal in case of tax and revenue collection; tradesmen should pay duties at ferries.
 Caste system dominated Hindu society; Sati system was prevalent; women were respected in
general.
 Onion and garlic were rarely used in India.
5. Al Masudi: He was an arab merchant who visited Indian Pala kingdom of Bengal about 850 AD +
Called Pala kingdom as ‗Ruhma‘ and wrote about its military power + Describes about brisk trade
between the eastern seaboard of India and Malacca + Turks who emigrated to India lost their
national characteristics and acquired new characteristics suited to the new environment.
6. Al-Biruni: He was the first Muslim Indologist who accompanied invading horses of Ghazni (1018
AD- 1019 AD) + He compiled his observations in his book called as Kitab-ul-Hind + He praised the
knowledge of Indians in science and mathematics but extremely critical of Indian socio-cultural life.
7. Marco Polo: He visited India in 1292 AD- 1293 AD on his way from China to Persia + Popularly
called the ‗Prince of medieval travellers‘ + visited south India during reign of Pandyan king
Maravarman Kulashekar + Also finds mention Kakatiya queen Rudramma.
8. Ibn Batuta: He came to India during reign of Sultan Muhammad- bin- Tughluq + wrote a
travelogue titled Kitab-i-Rehala + visited Vijayanagar empire during the reign of King Harihara I.
9. Nicolo Conti: He was a native of Italy; visited India during king Devaraya I of vijayanagar + Noted
that king was more powerful than other kings in India + About 90,000 men in Vijayanagar city could
bear arms.
10. Abdur Razzaq: He was ambassador of King Shah Rukh of Persia to court of Zamorin of Calicut +
All the inhabitants of vijayanagar wore jewels and gold ornaments + Vijayanagar city had 7
concentric fortified walls.
11. Duarte Barbosa: He was a native of Portugal who visited Vijayanagar in 1516 AD during the reign
of king Krishnadeva Raya + Mentions that practice of sati was prevalent rampantly in India.
12. Fernao Nuniz: He was a native of Portugal; visited during the reign of Achyuta Raya (1535- 1537
AD) + noted presence of women soothsayers, astrologers and wrestlers in vijayanagar + Child
marriage was common and Brahmins were honest and good at accountancy. + wrote a book titled
‗The Chronicles of Ferno Nuniz‘.
13. Francois Bernier:
 Bernier's expedition to Abyssinia was diverted to India. In1658 A.D., he set out for India and
arrived in Surat.
 On his route from Surat to Agra, he met the vanquished Prince Dara Shikoh and became
acquainted with the Mughal emperors.
 He took refugee with Daneshmand Khan (Mughal Nobleman), who escorted him to Aurangzeb
court when Dara Shikoh left owing to treason from his servants.
 Bernier spent 12 years in Aurangzeb's court and wrote a book called 'Travels in the Mogul
Empire' on his experiences.
 He intricately detailed the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics, Shah Jahan's four
sons' succession war, social and economic aspects of the empire, and its geographical and
strategic scope.
14. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689)
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 French gem (particularly diamond) trader and traveller in the 17th century.
 Between 1638 and 1643 AD, during his second voyage, he came to India and travelled as far as
Agra before arriving in the Kingdom of Golconda.
 He also paid a visit to the Shahjahan's court and went on his first excursion to the diamond
mines.
 Tavernier wrote Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier in 1675 at the behest of his patron
Louis XIV (6 Voyages, 1676): great detail on diamonds and Indian diamond mines.
 He is best known for his discovery or purchase of the 116-carat Tavernier Blue diamond, in
1666.
 The diamond was likely sourced by Tavernier in 1666 at the Kollur mine in Guntur district of
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Andhra Pradesh. Tavernier sold it to Louis XIV of France.
15. Jean de Thevenot (1666 AD): French traveller, who has given a good account of cities like
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Ahmedabad, Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda.
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Chapter - 14
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
1. Glassware: First reference of glass making found in Mahabharata + The first material evidence
comes from beautiful glass beads from the Ganges Valley PGW culture (1000 BC) + It was referred
to as kanch or kaca in the Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana + Archaeological evidence discovered
at Maski, a Chalcolithic site in Deccan + The most beautiful glass bangles are made
in Hyderabad and are known as Churikajodas. + Ferozabad (UP) is famed for its glass bangles and
utilitarian glassware.
2. Ivory Crafting: Practised since vedic times; referred as ‗danta‘ + An inscription from Sanchi has
been discovered dating from 2 BCE: mentions the Vidisha guild of ivory workers and sculptures in
Sanchi stupa + Archaeological remains of an ivory comb discovered at Taxila (2nd century A.D) +
Traditional ivory carving centres include Delhi, Jaipur, and parts of West Bengal.
3. Terracotta crafts: It means baked earth which is a type of semi-fired ceramic clay + Bankura
Horse, Panchmura Horse, Terracotta temples and Buddhist viharas are the best examples of
terracotta art.
4. Silver Jewellery: Filigree work is one of the most well-known methods + Silver anklets known
as painri and paijam are very popular in Odisha + Gunchi is silver crocheted decorations that are
one-of-a-kind + Bidri work done in Karnataka's Bidri village employs silver inlay work against dark
backgrounds.
5. Pottery: Earliest evidence of pottery discovered from Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh) + People of
chalcolithic culture were the first to make paintings on their pottery.
 Black and Red ware (BRW) pottery (2400 BC to 1st century CE): Discovered for the first
time at archaeological site of Atranjikhera + These are oldest pottery which are black from inside
and their outer body was red; attained through inverted firing method.
 Ochre coloured pottery (OCP) (2000 BC to 1500BC): Discovered for the first time at Bisauli
and Rajpur Parsu in Uttar Pradesh + This pottery was ochre or brownish red in colour + OCP
was used in Punjab, Haryana, UP and Northern Rajasthan, Lal Quila, Ahichhatra and Katpalan +
Painting of humped bull on a pot discovered at Lal Quila + Structures made of wattle and daub
used by people of OCP culture.
 Painted Grey ware (PGW) pottery (1000 BC- 600BC): The concentration of PGW sites are in
Indo-Gangetic plains (Haryana), Sutlej basin and Upper Ganga plains + PGW used by Aryans
during later vedic age + They are painted by using black colour and deep chocolate colour on
their outer as well as inner surfaces + PGW users practiced agriculture; evidence of cultivated
crops found at only Hastinapura and Atranjikhera + Spread of PGW culture from Punjab,
Haryana to eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh.
 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery (600 BC to 100 AD): These are made using a
fast turning wheel + Fragments of NBPW found at Bairat, Rupar, Sonpur and Kumrahar riveted
with copper pins + Main concentration of NBPW was in Gangetic valley; influence of Greek
culture was more in Afghanistan-Pakistan region.
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 Red wares (100 BC to 300 AD): Red wares were entirely monochrome and turned on wheels +
Pots decorated using geometrical designs such as opposed triangles, religious motifs like
swastika, fish, taurine, chaitya and Dharmachakra found.
 Pottery of Harappan civilization: They used six types of pottery such as Black and red ware,
lustrous red ware, buff ware, red ware, coarse red ware and grey ware + Harappan pottery was
made on fast wheels + Naturalistic designs consisting of flowers, palm tree, leaves, animals and
snakes painted + Story of cunning fox mentioned in Panchatantra found at Lothal + Rakhigarhi:
Deceased women offered more than double number of earthen wares + Widows were denied
burial rites with pottery and other items.
Name of Pottery Place of Origin
Khurja Pottery Uttar Pradesh
Black Pottery Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh
Blue Pottery Jaipur, Rajasthan
Kagzi Pottery Alwar, Rajasthan
Pokhran Pottery Pokhran, Rajasthan
Dalgate Pottery Jammu and Kashmir
Karigari Pottery Tamil Nadu
Surai West Bengal
Gopichandan Saurashtra
6. Bronze crafts: Oldest art forms, as evidenced by the bronze statue of a Dancing Girl from
Mohenjodaro + Matasya Purana contains the earliest literary evidence about various methods of
casting bronze + Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of bronze crafts, with major centres such
as Etawah, Sitapur, Varanasi, and Moradabad.
 Important centres of Brass work:
Gaja Tandava (Kerala) Shiva dancing in Tandava position
Dokra Casting (Odisha and West Bengal) Used for ornaments made of brass
Pahaldar Lamps (Jaipur and parts of U.P) Copper and brass lamps in different styles and
shapes.
 Dokra is a form of ancient bell metal craft practiced by the Ojha metalsmiths living in states like
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal and Telangana. Their technique of lost wax
casting is named after their tribe, hence Dhokra metal casting.
 Bidriware is a metal handicraft from the city of Bidar in Karnataka. The metal used is white
brass that is blackened and inlaid with silver. Bidri artisans blacken their wares using soil
obtained from a 15th-century fort in Bidar, which is rich in potassium nitrate.
7. Leather products: Art of leather tanning documented since 3000 BCE + Rajasthan has the largest
leather market, where camel leather is used to make bags of various shapes and sizes + Kolhapuri
chappals are popular in Maharashtra + Punjabi juttis are also well-known due to the use of an
applique technique on the footwear + Manoti Art is another major technique of leather art practised
in Bikaner.
8. Important tribal crafts:
 Toda tribe: The embroidered cloth is used as a shawl which is locally known as putkuli.
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 Kota tribe: Musical instruments like tambourine, hard drum and brass cymbals are
manufactured.
 Irula tribe: Musical instruments such as drum, conch, Nagasore and long flute (Buhin).
 Paniya tribe: Known for their basketry.
9. Jewellery related crafts:
 Kundankari Jewellery: It is a traditional form of gemstone jewellery from Rajasthan.
 Meenakari Jewellery: It is an art of embellishing different types of metals such as gold and
silver + It has its roots in Rajasthan introduced by Raja Man Singh of Amer.
10. Fabrics of India
 Cloth is used for a variety of handicraft techniques, including weaving and printing.
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 The artists create patterns on other materials by using wooden blocks or printed cloths.
 Tie and dye creates beautiful designs on fabrics, and there are various techniques in India.
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 Bandhani or Bandhej, often known as the 'Tie and Dye' method in English, is one of the most
significant arts. This technique is prevalent in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
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 Kalamkari, which uses the art of hand painting on fabrics with vegetable dyes of deep colours,
is another ancient process that is still used today. It is widely used in Andhra Pradesh.
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 Another lovely method of fabric decoration is Batik Art, in which one end of the fabric is
permeated with molten wax and then dyed in cold to produce multicoloured batik saris and
dupattas. Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal are well-known for their batik art.
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 The skill of creating elevated patterns using threads or wooden blocks is unique among textile
crafts. This is known as embroidery, and it is done with the use of needles and gold, silver, silk,
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or cotton threads on cloth.

 Weaving refers to the process of interlacing yarn to produce textiles and fabrics.
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o The vertical thread is called the warp, while the horizontal thread is referred to as the weft.
o Warp and weft are usually laced in fixed patterns using a loom. The different ways of lacing
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result in varied types of weaving

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CHAPTER 17
HISTORICAL PERSONS
 One of the 9 jewels of Akbar‘s court and is credited with composing many ragas.
 He is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions and two classic books on music Sri
Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.
 Aka Sangit samrat.
 He composed many dhrupads on Ganesha, Shiva, Parvati and Rama. Kalpadruma
is a compliation of 300 of his dhrupads.
Tansen
 The title of Tansen was given by Raja Vikramjit Singh of Gwalior. Akbar gave the title
of ‗Mian‘.
 He became one of the Navaratnas (nine jewels) at the court of the Mughal
Emperor Jalal ud-din Akbar.
 He invented the night raga Darbari Kanhra, morning raga Mian Ki Todi, mid-day
raga, Mian ki Sarang, seasonal raga Mian ki Malhar.
 He was an Indian classical vocalist, belonging to the Mewati Gharana
 Known for unconventional mixing of khayal with elements of bhakti rasas;
employs harkats and murkis.
 Also performed semi-classical old musical forms such as Haveli Sangeet -> in
praise of Lord Krishna.
 He created a unique form of jugalbandi called Jasrangi -> male and a female
singer sing different ragas in their respective scales to merge their individual
Pandit Jasraj displays into one unified performance.
 He took Indian classical music, Pushtimargiya music and Bhakti Pad of Vaishnav
tradition to greater heights.
 The International Astronomical Union (IAU) named an asteroid after
him, formally known as 2006 VP32, as Panditjasraj.
 Recently, Union Home Minister Shah released a commemorative Postal Stamp,
to mark 50 years of Pandit Jasraj's music festival – 'Pandit Motiram Pandit
Maniram Sangeet Samaroha.
 Matua Dharma Maha Mela was recently organised to celebrate the 212th birth
anniversary of Shri Shri Harichand Thakur.
Harichand  Thakur founded a sect of Vaishnavite Hinduism called Matua which was adopted
Thakur by members of the Namasudra community, who were then also known as
Chandalas and considered untouchable.
 The sect, opposed to caste oppression, later attracted adherents from other
communities marginalised by the upper castes, including Malis and Telis.
Sri  Founded a Sanskrit-Tamil school at Srirangam in Tamil Nadu state, which continues to
Ranganathamuni be a great Vaishnavite centre in South India.
 He composed the song Vande Mataram in Sanskrit, which was a source of inspiration to
Bankim Chandra
the people in their freedom struggle.
Chattopadhyay
 Founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872.
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 His famous novels - Kapalkundala (1866), Debi Choudhurani, Bishabriksha (The Poison
Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877), Rajmohan‘s wife and Krishnakanter Will.
 Tyagaraja was born on 14th May 1767 in the village of Thiruvayaru in the Thanjavur
district of Tamil Nadu.
 Saint Tyagaraja was a renowned composer of Carnatic music.
 He has composed thousands of devotional compositions, mostly in Telugu in the praise
of Lord Rama, many of which remain popular today.
Tyagaraja  He saw the reigns of four kings of Maratha dynasty — Tulaja II (1763-1787),
Amarasimha (1787-1798), Serfoji II (1798-1832) and Sivaji II (1832-1855), but he
served none of them.

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He took music training from Sonti Venkataramayya.
 In his praise and honour of Lord Rama he wrote numerous musical operas, and created
several new ragas
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 He was a 15th-century Hindu saint and is the earliest known Indian musician to compose
songs called sankirtanas in praise of the god Venkateswara, a form of Vishnu.
Annamacharya  He was born in Tallapaka, a village in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, India.
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 He is believed to have been the avatar of Nandaka, the sword of Vishnu. He is widely
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regarded as the Andhra Pada kavitā Pitāmaha(Godfather of Telugu songwriting).
 A disciple of Nagarjuna, is a central figure in the development of early Indian
Aryadeva (3rd Madhyamaka philosophy.
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century)  Aryadeva‘s Hundred Verses Treatise (Bai lun) was one of the three basic texts of the
Chinese Madhyamaka school founded by the central Asian monk Kumarajiva.
Dignaga, (born c.  Buddhist logician and author of the Pramanasamuccaya (―Compendium of the Means of
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480 CE—died c. True Knowledge‖), a work that laid the foundations of Buddhist logic.
540)
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INDIAN PAINTINGS
Upper Paleolithic Period (40000-10000 BC) • Quartzite walls

• Used minerals for pigments
• Ochre or geru mixed with lime and water
• The white, dark red and green were used to depict
large animals like bison, elephant, rhino, tigers etc.
• The green paintings are of dancers and the red ones of
hunters.
Bhimbetka Paintings • Theme - ranging from mundane events of daily life in

those times to sacred and royal images. These include
hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders,
animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of
bodies, and other household scenes.
• The drawings and paintings can be categorised into

seven historical periods. Period I, Upper
Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III,
Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four
successive periods.
Mesolithic Period (10000-4000 BC) • Use of red colour

• Group hunting
• Grazing activity
• Riding scenes
• bison, elephant, boar, deer, antelope, leopard,
panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel
• In some pictures, animals are chasing men.
• The young and the old equally find place in these
paintings.
• Children are painted running, jumping and playing.
• Community dances provide a common theme.
• There are paintings of people gathering fruit or honey
from trees, and of women grinding and preparing
food.
• Some of the pictures of men, women and children
seem to depict a sort of family life.
Chalcolithic Period • Green and yellow colour

• Battle scenes
• Men riding horses and elephants
• Carry bow and arrow
• Pottery and metal tools
Mural Paintings
Ajanta cave paintings • 4th century AD
• Under the reign of Mauryan empire
• Murals in the cave 9 and 10 belong to the Sunga
Himanshu's Notebook Page 1

• Murals in the cave 9 and 10 belong to the Sunga
period, while the rest belong to the Gupta period
• Have both murals and fresco
• Used tempera style i.e. use of pigments
• The themes of the paintings are the events from the
life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas.
• Some paintings such as Simhala Avadana,
Mahajanaka Jataka and Vidhurpundita Jataka cover
the entire wall of the cave. It is worth noting that
Chaddanta Jataka has been painted in the early Cave
No. 10 with many details and events grouped
according to their geographical locations.
• Events that happened in the jungle and events that

happened inthe palace are separated by their
locations.
• In Cave No. 10 Chaddanta faithfully follows the Pali

text whereas the one painted in Cave No. 17 is very
different.
• In one of the events, the Boddhisattva, Chaddanta, is

shown removing his own tusk and giving it to the
hunter, Sonuttar.
• The other important paintings are the famous

Padmapani and Vajrapani.
PADMAPANI BODDHISATTVA
Painting of the Buddha, Yashodhra and Rahul, Cave

No. 17, Ajanta

Apsara, Cave No. 17, Ajanta
Part of Mahajanaka Jataka panel, Cave No. 1, Ajanta
Ellora cave paintings 600-1000 CE • Kailash temple

• Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi borne through the
clouds by Garuda
• Procession of Shiva holy men
Ambika, Yakshini

Bagh cave paintings • M.P.
• Close to the actual Ajanta caves
• More earthly and human
• Depicting Buddhist and Jataka tales
• Contemporary life style of people, thus are more
secular
Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter • Odisha

• In a shape of half opened umbrella
• Royal hunting lodge
• Royal procession of 7th century
• Chola period paintings
Lepakshi paintings • Andhra Pradesh, Vijayanagar period

• Secular
• Complete absence of primary colours
Folk Paintings
Madhubani paintings • Mithila paintings
• Bihar
• Religious motifs of Hindus, including Krishna, Rama,
Durga, Lakshmi and Shiva
• Painted on walls using rice paste
• Vegetable colours
• A base of cow dung
• 2D
Pattachitra • Odisha
• Base of cloth
• Colours- burnt coconut shells, Hingula, Ramaraja and

• Colours- burnt coconut shells, Hingula, Ramaraja and
lamp black
• No pencil
• Background is decorated with foliage and flowers
• Jagannath and Vaishnava cult
• Sometimes from shakti and Shiva cult
Patua art • Bengal

• On pats or scrolls
• Painted on cloth
• Religious stories
Kalighat paintings • Calcutta

• Watercolours used on mill papers
• Religious note, Hindu gods and goddess
• Social sentiments
Paitkar painting • Jharkhand and Bengal

• Scroll paintings
• Theme- what happens to human life post death
Kalamkari Painting • Andhra Pradesh

• The pen used is made of sharp pointed bamboo'
• The base is cotton fabric while the colours used are
vegetable dyes
• Hindu mythology
Warli painting • Maharashtra

Warli painting • Maharashtra
• Close resemblance to the mural paintings of
Bhimbetka in MP
• Done on the walls
• Triangle, circle, square
• The base (red or black ) is made of a mixture of mud,
branches and cow dung
• Only white pigment is used which is made of rice
powder
Thangka painting • Sikkim

• Buddhism
• A base of cotton canvas
• Colours - natural vegetable dyes or mineral dyes
Manjusha painting • Bhagalpur, Bihar

• Also known as Angika art
• Snake motifs
• Also called as snake painting
• Executed on boxes of jute and paper
Pala school of art • Part of manuscripts and generally executed on palm

leaf or vellum paper.
• The buddhist monks mostly used them.
• There are single lonely single figures in the paintings.
Aparbhramsa school of art • Gujarat and Rajasthan

• Jainism is the main theme.
• The paintings were made of palm leaf but in the later
period they were made on paper.
• Fish shaped bulging eyes, a pointed nose and a double
chin.
• The animals and birds are represented as toys.
REGIONAL SCHOOLS OF ART

Mewar School of Painting • Early Mewar painting were dominated by the extra
Ordinary figure of Sahibdin. This period of Mewari
painting focuses on Sahibdin's depiction of literary
texts — the Rasikapriya, the Ramayana and the
Bhagavata Purana.

Bhagavata Purana.
• Later paintings depicted the life at court in Mewar.
The unique point of this period is the extraordinary
'tamasha' paintings that show court ceremonial and
city views.
Kishangarh School of Painting • associated with the most romantic legends — of

Sawant Singh and his beloved Bani Thani. (IAS 2018)
• It is sometimes argued that the women in 'bani thani'
is said to resemble the character of Radha. She has a
distinctive profile and has large and lustrous eyes, thin
lips and a pointed
chin.
• Her odhni or headgear defines her side profile.
• On themes of Radha and Krishna
Bundi School of Painting • Krishna—bhakti plays a role in painting — or perhaps
painting plays a role in their Krishna bhakti.
• In Bundi school, paintings of local vegetation were in
detail.
• Human faces were round with pointed nose in the
paintings.
• Colour of sky is painted in different colours and mostly
a red ribbon is visible in the sky.
Amber-Jaipur School of Painting • The Amber school is also called the 'Dhundar' school.
• On topics of Bhagwata Purana, Ramayana, Ragamala
and several portraits.
Marwar School of Painting • It is one of the most extensive schools of painting as it

includes Jodhpur and Bikaner, both ruled Jaisalmer
that was ruled by the Rathods and by the Bhatis.
• In the paintings produced in the 15th and 16th
century, the men wore colourful clothing and so did
the women.
• After the 18th century, they contained the linear
rhythm coupled with bright colours.
• One of the earliest examples of painting in Marwar is a
series of the Ragamala in the collection of Kumar
Sangram Singh.
• completely uninfluenced by the Mughal style.
Bikaner School of Painting • Early paintings from Bikaner were made by 'patshahi
chitrakars' artists from the Mughal court.
• similarity with the Mughal and the Deccani styles.

• similarity with the Mughal and the Deccani styles.
Pahari Styles of Painting • This style of painting developed in the sub-himalayan

states that were also under the umbrella of
Mughal over lordship.
• The Pahari paintings can be grouped into two groups-
1. Jammu or Dogra School: Northern Series
2. Kangra School: Southern Series
• The themes that were painted ranged from mythology
to literature and brought new techniques to the fore.
• A typical Pahari painting would bring several figures
into the canvas and they would all be full of
movement. Each figure is different in composition,
colour and pigmentation.
• Two of the greatest figures of this school are Nainsukh
and Manaku.
Kangra School • Guler- Kangra School of paintings.

• It first evolved in Guler then came to Kangra.
• This school reached its zenith under the patronage of
Raja Sansar Chand. His paintings were marked with a
sensuality and intelligence that the other schools lack.
• The most popular subjects were the Gita Govinda,
Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal and
Nal Damyanti.
• Another very famous group of paintings is the 'Twelve
months' where the artist tried to bring forth the effect
of the twelve months on the emotions of human
beings.
Basholi • The paintings created in the Pahari school in the 17th

century under the patronage of Raja Kirpal Singh were
called the Basholi school.
• Expressive faces with a receding hairline and big eyes
that are shaped like lotus petals.
• Use a lot of primary colours.
• Clothing in Mughal style
• Rasamanjari, Gita Govinda and Ramayana illustration
Tanjore paintings • Decorative paintings

• Maratha rulers patronised them.
• Mostly created on glass and board.
• Liberal use of gold leaf, Gemstones.
• Smiling Krishna
Mysore paintings • Hindu god and goddess
PRELIMS 2024
Paintings in News
1. Mata Ni Pachedi - Depict Hindu gods/goddesses on cloth using natural colors

and practiced by Vaghari community of Gujarat.
2. Pithora - Ritual wall paintings made by Bhil tribe in border villages of Gujarat,
depicting spiritual motifs.
3. Rogan - Cloth painting using thick bright colors and intricate patterns using a
metal stylus, practiced in Kutch, Gujarat.
4. Sanjhi - Stencil art form involving paper cutting to create intricate patterns/
motifs on walls in Uttar Pradesh.
5. Pattachitra - Cloth-based scroll paintings depicting stories from Hindu

mythology, originated in Odisha.
6. Kangra - Miniature paintings on basil leaves using squirrel hair brushes,

emerged from Kangra/Guler schools in Himachal Pradesh.
Folk Art & Craft in News
1. Patan Patola - Double ikat woven silk sari from Patan, Gujarat with GI tag.
2. Kinnauri Shawl - Warm wool shawls/capes woven by Kinnauri women in

Himachal with GI tag.
3. Oggu Katha - Traditional puppet theatre form prevalent in Andhra Pradesh

depicting stories in Telugu.
4. Dastangoi - Art of storytelling from 16th century involving narration of oral

stories in Urdu/Persian.
5. Shumang Leela - Manipuri theatrical performance/dance-drama related to Lai

Haraoba festival.
6. Palm Leaf Manuscript Museum - In Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala housing

ancient palm leaf manuscripts.
7. Dokra Art - Non-ferrous metal casting art using lost-wax technique popular in
West Bengal/Jharkhand.
Vaibhav Tambe
State Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals

South India Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
Andhra Pradesh 1. Kalamkari 1. Kuchipudi 1. BurraKatha 1. Kathi Samu 1. Ugadi (AP + KN) =
2. Burrakatha 2. Pagati Veshaalu NY
3. Butta Bommalu (Telangana)
3.
Karnataka 1. Bhootha Aradhane 1. Bhuta

2. Pata Kunitha 2. Yakshagana (AP +
(Mysore) KN)
3. Tal-Maddale
(Predecessor of
Yakshagana)
4. Bayalata
5. Theyyam
6. Krishna Attam
Kerala 1. Kathakali 1. Koodiyattam 1. Kalaripayattu 1. Vishu = NY

2. Mohiniattam (Sanskrit Theatre)
3. Kaikottikali 2. Mudiyettu
4. Padayani (Martial)
5. Kolkali Parichakali
(also
Lakshadweep)
Tamil Nadu 1. Bharatnatyam 1. Kuruvanji 1. Silambam 1. Putjando = NY
(Staff fencing)
Telangana
Lakshadweep
Puducherry
Central and West Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
Madhya Pradesh 1. Alha 1. Jawara 1. Maanch (Malwa)
2. Pai Song 2. Matki (Malwa)
3.
Gujarat 1. Garba 1. Raslila

2. Garodas
Rajasthan 1. Paani Hari 1. Ghoomar/

2. Maand Gangore
2. Kalbelia
Maharashtra 1. Warli 1. Powada 1. Powada 1. Mardani Khel 1. Gudi Padva = NY

2. Lavani 2. Tamasha
3. Ovi (M+Goa)
Goa 1. Tarangamel 1. Samvatsar Padvo =

NY
East India Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
Bihar 1. Madhubani 1. Biraha 1. Parikhanda
or Mithila 2. Paika (Martial)
2. Manjusha 3. Jat Jatin
(Bhagalpur)
Chhattisgarh 1. Gaur maria

2.
Jharkhand 1. Paitkar
painting
2.
Odisha 1. Pattachitra 1. Odissi 1. Daskathia 1. Paika Akhadha

2. Danda Jatra
West Bengal 1. Patua Art 1. Baul 1. Chhau 1. Naba Barsha = NY
2. Kalighat
Painting
3.
North India Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
Jammu and Kashmir 1. Wanawan 1. Sqay (Kashmir)
Punjab 1. 1. Bhangra/ 1. Swang (Pj + 1. Gatka
Giddha Haryana)
Haryana
Uttarakhand 1. Ramman
(Chamoli)
Himachal Pradesh 1. 1. Charba 1. Kariyila 1. Thoda
(Archery)
Uttar Pradesh 1. 1. Kathak 1. Ramlila 1. Musti Yuddha
2. Raslila (Varanasi)
3. Dadra
North East Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
Arunachal Pradesh 1. Losar festival
(Tibetian Buddhism)
2. Dree Festival
(Apatani Tribe)
Assam 1. Sattriya 1. Ankia Nat 1. Bihu
2. Bihu 2. Oja Pali 2. Ambubachi Mela
3. (Kamakhya Temple)
3. Majuli Festival
Manipur 1. Manipuri 1. Sankirtana 1. Thangta 4. Cheirabo Festival =
2. Thangta (armed) NY
2. Sarit Sarak 5. Kang Chingba
(Unarmed) 6. Lai Haroba
3. Cheibi Gad-ga
Meghalaya 1. Wangala Festival
(Garo)
Mizoram 1. Cheraw dance 1. Inbuan
(Bamboo Dance) Wrestling
Nagaland 1. Rangma (Naga) 1. Hornbill Festival
2. Sekrenyi Festival
(Angami tribe)
3. Lui-Ngai-Ni Festival
Tripura 1. Kharchi Puja
Sikkim 1. Thangka 1. Singhi Chham 1. Saga Dawa
2. Losoong
Misc Paintings Music Dance Theatre-Drama Martial Arts Festivals
1. 1. Pandawani 1. Dandiya raas 1. Bhavai (Gj + Raj) 1. Lathi (Punjab +
2. Bhagwati (KN 2. Alkap (JH + WB) 2. Kala (Vaishnavite WB)
+ MH) 3. Jhumar (JH + Tradition) 2. Kuttu Varisai
Orissa) 3. Jatra (East India) (South India)
4. Kummi (TN + 4. Nautanki (North
Kerala) India)
5. Mayilattam 5. Villu Pattu
(Kerala + TN) (Deccan)
PUPPETS
PUPPETS String Puppet Shadow Puppet Glove Puppet Rod Puppets
1. Kathputli - Raj 1. Tholu 1. Pavakoothu - 1. Yampuri - Bihar
2. Kundhei - Bommalata - Kerala 2. Putul Naach –
Orissa AP Putul Nachh
3. Gombayetta - 2. Ravanchhaya -
Karnataka Orissa
4. Bommalattam 3. Togalu
- TN Gombayetta -
Karnataka
CALENDAR
Calendar Yr Solar/Lunar Features
1. Vikram Samvat 56 BC Lunar • By King Vikramaditya to commemorate his victory over SAKA ruler
• 354 days/year
• Adhik Masa added to adjust difference of 11 days with solar calendar – every 2.5 yrs
• 12 months = CV JASB AKMPMP
2. Saka Samvat 78 AD Solar + Lunar • King Shalivahana
• Official Calendar of India
• Lunar month and Solar Year
• 365 days/yr
• 12 months = CV JASB AKMPMP
3. Gregorian 0 AD Solar • Adding 1 day every 4 yr
Calendar
4. Hijri Calendar 622 AD Lunar • To commomerate Prophet Mohammed’s Jorney from Mecca to Madina
• 354 days/yr
• 12 months
• Being a Lunar calendar = no relation with season = so fall shorts of 1yr every 30 yrs
compared to Gregorian Calendar
5. Zoroastrian 632 AD • Parsis Have 2 new Years
Calendar 1. Jamshedi navroz : Mar 21
2. Kadmi New Yr or Pateti : Aug 31
Foreigners
Foreigners Kingdom Book Details
1. Megasthenes : 302- Chandragupta Indica • Ambassador of Selecus Nikator
298 BC Maurya • Details of CM ‘s reign
2. Fa Hein : 405-11 AD ChandraGupta II • First Chinese piligrim to visit India
Vikramaditya • To collect Buddhist Books
3. Hiuen Tsang : 630-45 Harshawardhana •
AD
4. I Tsing: 671-695AD • Chinese: in connection with Buddhism
5. Al Masudi Muruj-ul-Zahab • Arab Traveller
•
6. Al beruni: 1024-1030 (with) Mahmud Tahqiq il Hind •
AD of Ghazni
7. Marco Polo: Pandyan ruler of “The Book of Sir • Account of economic HISTORY of India
Venetian traveller: Madurai : Marco Polo”
1292-94 AD Madverman
Kuldekran
8. Ibn Batuta : Morrish Muhammad Bin Rehla (The •
Traveller: 1333-1347 Tughlaq Travelogue)
9. Abdur razzaq: Zamorin at • Details of Vijaynagar Empire
Persian Traveller: Calicut
1443-1444 AD
10. •
11. •
3 Art and Culture
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS – PRELIMS 2011 TO 2022

Art & Culture : PYQs Analysis
25
20
Art & Culture
15 16
10
5 6
5 5 5
4
3 3 3
2
0 1
2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011
* Question count may vary due to subjectivity
Art And Culture: PYQs Analysis
Sr. No Topic 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 Total
1 Indian Architecture 2 1 1 1 2 1 8
2 Temple Architecture 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
3 Indian Paintings 1 1 1 1 4
4 Indian Music 1 1 2
5 Indian Dance Forms 1 2 1 1 5
6 Martial Arts in India 1 1
Culture In India/
7 Philosophies/Jainism 4 1 4 1 2 2 2 1 10 5 2 1 35
& Buddhism
Total 6 3 4 2 5 5 3 3 16 8 5 1 61
(a) 1 and 2 only
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
(b) 3 only
1. Consider the following pairs: (2022) (c) 1 and 3 only
Site of Ashoka’s Location in the (d) None of the statements given above is correct
major rock edicts State of 6. With reference to the Indian history of art and culture,
Dhauli Odisha consider the following pairs. (2014)
Erragudi Andhra Pradesh Famous works of sculpture Site
Jaugada Madhya Pradesh A grand image of Buddha’s
Kalsi Arnataka Mahaparinirvana with
How many pairs given above are correctly matched? numerous celestial musicians Ajanta
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs above and the sorrowful
(c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs figures of his followers below
2. The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new A huge image of Varaha Avatar
Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which (boar incarnation) of Vishnu,
of the following statements are correct regarding as he rescues Goddess Earth Mount Abu
Somnath Temple? (2022) from the deep and chaotic
1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines. waters, sculpted on the rock
2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by “Arjuna’s Penance”/“Descent of
Al-Biruni. Ganga” sculpted on the surface Mamallapuram
3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of huge boulders
of the present day temple) was done by President
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
S. Radhakrishnan.
matched?
Select the correct answer using the code given
(a) 1 and 2 only
below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 only
3. Which one of the following statements is correct? (d) 1, 2 and 3
(2021) 7. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was: (2014)
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of the Waghora river. (a) The mosque for the use of Royal Family
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of the Chambal river.
(b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber.
(c) Pandu-Lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of the
(c) The hall in which Akbar held discussions with
Narmada river.
scholars of various religions.
(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of the Godavari
river. (d) The room in which the nobles belonging to
different religions gathered to discuss religious
4. With reference to the cultural history of India,
consider the following statements: (2018) affairs.
1. White marble was used in making Buland 8. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut
Darwaza and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri. architecture, consider the following statements:
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making (2013)
Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow. 1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? cut caves in India.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
5. What is/are common to the two historical places 3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.
known as Ajanta and Mahabalipuram? (2016)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Both were built in the same period.
(a) 1 only
2. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
(b) 2 and 3 only
3. Both have rock-cut monuments.
(c) 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
below. (d) 1, 2 and 3
80 UPSC Prelims PYQs

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE INDIAN PAINTINGS
9. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated 15. The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the
near Morena, consider the following statements: (2018)
(2021) (a) Bundi school (b) Jaipur school
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of the (c) Kangra school (d) Kishangarh school
Kachchhapaghata Dynasty. 16. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the
2. It is the only circular temple built in India. most famous for illustrated paintings at: (2017)
3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the (a) Ajanta (b) Badami
region. (c) Bagh (d) Ellora
4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it 17. Kalamkari painting refers to: (2015)
was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament (a) A hand-painted cotton textile in South India
building. (b) A handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in
Which of the statements given above are correct? NorthEast India
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) A block-painted woollen cloth in the Western
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Himalayan region of India
(d) A hand-painted decorative silk cloth in North-
10. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the:
Western India
(2012)
18. Consider the following historical places: (2013)
(a) Three main racial groups of the Indian
subcontinent 1. Ajanta Caves 2. Lepakshi Temple
(b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the 3. Sanchi Stupa
languages of India can be classified. Which of the above places is/are also known for
mural paintings?
(c) Three main styles of Indian Temple Architecture (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(d) Three main musical gharanas were prevalent in (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
India.
11. Building ‘Kalyana Mandapam’ was a notable feature INDIAN MUSIC
in the temple construction in the kingdom of (2019)
19. With reference to the cultural history of India,
(a) Chalukya (b) Chandela
consider the following statements: (2018)
(c) Rashtrakuta (d) Vijayanagara 1. Most of the Tyagaraja Kritis are devotional songs
12. Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples? in praise of Lord Krishna.
(2017) 2. Tyagaraja created several new ragas.
1. Arasavalli 2. Amarkantak 3. Annamacharya and Tyagaraja are contemporaries.
3. Omkareshwar 4. Annamacharya Keertanas are devotional songs in
Select the correct answer using the code given praise of Lord Venkateshwara.
below: Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
20. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions
13. With reference to the art and archaeological history
of India that has been kept alive for centuries, Which
of India, which one among the following was made of the following statements are correct? (2012)
earliest? (2015)
1. Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput
(a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar kingdoms during the Mughal period
(b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli 2. Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual
(c) Rock-cut Monuments Mahabalipuram music
(d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri 3. Dhrupad alap uses Sanskrit syllables from
Mantras.
14. With reference to the cultural history of India, the
Select the correct answer using the codes given
term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to: (2014)
below:
(a) An assembly of village elders (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) A religious sect (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) A style of temple construction (c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) An administrative functionary (d) None of the above is correct.
Art and Culture 81

Clear Vision For UPSC
25. How do you distinguish between Kuchipudi and

INDIAN DANCE FORMS Bharatanatyam dances? (2012)
21. With reference to Manipuri Sankirtana, consider the 1. Dancers occasionally speaking dialogues is found
following statements: (2017) in Kuchipudi dance but not in Bharatnatyam
1. It is a song and dance performance. 2. Dancing on the brass plate by keeping the feet
on its edges is a feature of Bharatnatyam but
2. Cymbals are the only musical instruments used
Kuchipudi dance does not have such a form of
in the performance.
movements.
3. It is performed to narrate the life and deeds of
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
Lord Krishna. (a) 1 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (b) 2 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3 only
(d) Neither 1 or 2
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 only MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
22. With reference to the famous Sattriya dance, consider
26. With reference to India’s culture and tradition, what
the following statements: (2014)
is ‘Kalaripayattu’? (2014)
1. Sattriya is a combination of music, dance and
(a) It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism still
drama.
prevalent in some parts of South India.
2. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites
(b) It is an ancient style bronze and brass work still
of Assam.
found in the southern part of the Coromandel
3. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of area.
devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir (c) It is an ancient form of dance-drama and a living
and Mirabai. tradition in the northern part of Malabar.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (d) It is an ancient martial art and a living tradition
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only in some parts of South India.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
23. Consider the following pairs: (2014) CULTURE IN INDIA
1. Garba : Gujarat
27. Which one of the following statements about Sangam
2. Mohiniattam : Odisha literature in ancient South India is correct? (2022)
3. Yakshagana : Karnataka (a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly material culture.
matched? (b) The social classification of Varna was known to
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only Sangam poets.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior
24. In the context of the cultural history of India, a pose ethics.
in dance and dramatics called ‘Tribhanga’ has been (d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as
a favourite of Indian artists from ancient times till irrational.
today. (2013) 28. “Yoga Vasistha” was translated into Persian by
Which one of the following statements best Nizamuddin Panipati during the reign of: (2022)
describes this pose? (a) Akbar
(a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but (b) Humayun
oppositely curved at the waist and neck (c) Shahjahan
(b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and make-up (d) Aurangzeb
are combined to symbolize certain epic or historic
characters 29. With reference to India, the terms ‘Halbi, Ho and Kui’
pertain to: (2021)
(c) Movements of body, face and hands are used to
(a) Dance forms of Northwest India
express oneself or to tell a story
(b) Musical instruments
(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and certain
hand gestures are emphasized to express the (c) Prehistoric cave paintings
feelings of love or eroticism (d) Tribal languages

30. With reference to the cultural history of India, which 35. Consider the following pairs: (2018)
one of the following is the correct description of the
term Paramitas? (2020) Tradition : State
(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in 1. Chapchar Kut festival : Mizoram
aphoristic (sutra) style. 2. Khongjom Parba ballad : Manipur
(b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the 3. Thang-Ta dance : Sikkim
authority of Vedas. Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(c) Perfections whose attainment led to the (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
Bodhisattva path. (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
(d) Powerful merchant guilds of early Medieval South
36. Which reference to the religious practices in India,
India. the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to (2018)
31. With reference to the religious history of India, (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism
consider the following statements: (2020) (c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
37. Which reference to Indian history, who among the
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the
Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. world? (2018)
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara
fostered Mahayana Buddhism. (c) Maitreya (d) Padmapani
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
38. With reference to the religious history of India,
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only consider the following statements: (2017)
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of
32. With reference to the history of India, consider the Jainism.
following pairs: (2020) 2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of
phenomena were not wholly momentary, but
Famous Place : Present State
existed forever in a latent form.
1. Bhilsa : Madhya Pradesh Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Dwarasamudra : Maharashtra (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
3. Girinagar : Gujarat (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. Sthanesvara : Uttar Pradesh 39. Consider the following pairs: (2017)
Which of the pairs given above are correctly Traditions : Communities
matched?
1. Chaliha Sahib Festival : Sindhis
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 2 and 4 only 2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra : Gonds
33. With reference to the cultural history of India, 3. Wari -Warkari : Santhals
consider the following pairs: (2020) Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
matched?
1. Parivrajaka : Renunciant and Wanderer
(a) 1 only
2. Shramana : Priest with a high status
(b) 2 and 3 only
3. Upasaka : Lay follower of Buddhism
(c) 1 and 3 only
Which of the pairs given above are correctly
(d) None of the above
matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only 40. With reference to the religious history of India,
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 consider the following statements: (2016)
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to the
34. Consider the following statements: (2019)
Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to
2. Trading the path of Bodhisattvas enlightenment.
3. Image worship and rituals 3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation
Which of the above is/are the features/features of to help all sentient beings on their path to it.
Mahayana Buddhism? Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Art and Culture 83

41. Which one of the following books of ancient India 47. Consider the following statements: (2014)
has the love story of the son of the founder of the 1. ‘Bijak’ is a composition of the teachings of Saint
Shunga dynasty? (2016) Dadu Dayal.
(a) Swapnavasavadatta 2. The Philosophy of PushtiMarg was propounded
(b) Malavikagnimitra by Madhvacharya.
(c) Meghadoota Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(d) Ratnavali (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
42. Which of the following kingdoms were associated
with the life of the Buddha? (2014, 2015) 48. A community of people called Manganiyars is well-
known for their (2014)
1. Avanti 2. Gandhara
(a) Martial arts in North-East India
3. Kosala 4. Magadha
(b) Musical tradition in North-West India.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(c) Classical vocal music in South India.
below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (d) Pietra dura tradition in Central India
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 only 49. Consider the following languages: (2014)
43. In Medieval India, the designations ‘Mahattara’ and 1. Gujarati 2. Kannada
‘Pattakila’ were used for (2014) 3. Telugu
(a) Military officers Which of the above has/have been declared as
‘Classical Language/Languages’ by the Government?
(b) Village headmen
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) Specialists in Vedic rituals (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Chiefs of craft guilds
50. Which one of the following pairs does not form part
44. Every year, a month-long ecologically important of the six systems of Indian Philosophy? (2014)
campaign/festival is held during which certain (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
communities/tribes plant saplings of fruit-bearing
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
trees. Which of the following are such communities/
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
tribes? (2014)
(d) Sankhya and Yoga
(a) Bhutia and Lepcha
(b) Gond and Korku 51. The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’
inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from:
(c) Irula and Toda (2014)
(d) Sahariya and Agariya (a) Katha Upanishad
45. Chaitra, one of the national calendars based on the (b) Chandogya Upanishad
Saka Era, corresponds to which one of the following (c) Aitareya Upanishad
dates of the Gregorian calendar in a normal year of (d) Mundaka Upanishad
365 days? (2014)
52. Consider the following Bhakti Saints: (2013)
(a) 22nd March (or 21st March)
1. Dadu Dayal 2. Guru Nanak
(b) 15th May (or 16th May)
3. Tyagaraja
(c) 21st March (or 30th March)
Who among the above was/were preaching when
(d) 21st April (or 20th April) the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
46. With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
culture in India, consider the following pairs: (2014) (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
Famous Shrine : Location 53. With reference to the history of philosophical thought
in India, consider the following statements regarding
1. Tabo monastery and : Spiti Valley Sankhya school: (2013)
temple complex
1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or
2. Lhotsava Lhakhang : Zanskar Valley transmigration of the soul.
3. Alchi Temple : Ladakh 2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that
Complex leads to liberation and not any exterior influence
Which of the above pairs given is/are correctly or agent.
matched? Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

54. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, 58. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created
while the others are called Viharas. What is the and maintained by: (2011)
difference between the two? (2013) (a) Universal law (b) Universal Truth
(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul
dwelling place of the monks.
59. Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the
the hand gesture called “Bhumisparsha mudra”. It
dwelling place of the monks.
symbolises: (2012)
(c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while
(a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over
Vihara is the hall axial to it
Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his
(d) There is no material difference between the two.
meditation.
55. Which one of the following describes best the concept (b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity
of Nirvana in Buddhism? (2013) and chastity despite the temptations of Mara.
(a) The extinction of the flame of desire (c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they
(b) The complete annihilation of self all arise from Earth and finally dissolve into the
(c) A state of bliss and rest Earth, and thus this life is transitory.
(d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension (d) Both statements (a) and (b) are correct in this
56. Which of the following statements is/are applicable context.
to Jain doctrine? (2013) 60. With reference to Indian history, consider the
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practise following texts: (2022)
penance. 1. Nettipakarana
2. Every object, even the smallest particle, has a soul. 2. Parishishta Parvan
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. 3. Avadanasataka
Select the correct answer using the codes given 4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
below:
Which of the above are Jaina texts?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
57. With reference to the history of Ancient India, which
of the following was/were common to both Buddhism 61. With reference to Indian history, consider the
and Jainism? (2012) following pairs: (2022)
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and Historical person Known as
enjoyment
1. Aryadeva Jaina scholar
2. Indifference to the authority of Vedas
2. Dignaga Buddhist scholar
3. Denial of the efficacy of rituals
Select the correct answer using the codes given 3. Nathamuni Vaishnav a scholar
below: How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (a) None of the pairs
(b) 2 and 3 only (b) Only one pair
(c) 1 and 3 only (c) Only two pairs
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All three pairs
Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (c)
51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (d) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (b)
61. (c)
Art and Culture 85

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ART & CULTURE

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Classification of Indian Architecture

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 Excavator: RD Bannerji (1922)

 Water management system, giant water reservoir, unique water harvesting

have been found

other IVC sites

 Aka Manchester of Indus valley civilization

(Haryana)  Oval shaped settlement - Only city with radial streets.

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o Single Lion capital: Vaishali, Sanchi, Laurya Nandangarh pillar.

o Pillar Edict III: Removes sins such as cruelty, rage etc.

o Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka contribution to Dhamma policy.

o Rummindei Pillar: It documents Asoka‘s visit to Lumbini and its

o Nigalisagar Pillar (Nepal): Extension of height of Konakamana stupa

 Major Pillar Inscriptions

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o Dhauli Rock edict is

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 Stupas were burial

 Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves: 18 caves in Udaygiri hill and 15 caves in

ruler Kharavela (193 BC- 170 BC); Hatigumpha inscription refer to

Architecture facades decorated with sculptures depicting scenes of court activities,

Gumpha, Ambika Gumpha, Tatowa Gumpha (Parrot caves) and

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illusion of three-dimensionality is conveyed with slanted perspective in the relief panels

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 Features of the caves

 34 caves: Cave No. 1 to 12

high level of tolerance

o Cave No. 16: It is also known as Kailasha temple; portrays

o Cave No. 10: Vishwakarma cave/Carpenter's cave; it is a

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century AD) Vaishnavism) and 2 belong to Buddhism.

 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

 Emergence of Shikara instead of a flat roof

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 Subsidiary shrine placed opposite to

 Main shrine became more rectangular during this stage of temple

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 Antarala: Pillared veranda built in front of Garbhagraha for passageway for

o Sub-schools under Nagara school

 Sikharas were known as rekhadeuls

 Presence of boundary walls

 Jagannath temple, Bhubaneshwar: It was built by King Anantavarmana

Balabhadra and their sisters Shubhadra are worshipped together + Wooden

o It was built in 11th century AD by Somvanshi King Yayati I.

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 3 chambers: Garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa

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o Prominent Nagara temples

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Pradesh have been used for the construction.

Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha + Example - Shore temple at Mahabalipuram and

 Dravidian temples are surrounded by high boundary walls

known as the gopurams