Art & Culture - Sunya Prelims Notes 2024

ART AND
CULTURE
PRELIMS STATIC REVISION NOTES
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ART & CULTURE
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Index
Chapter - 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 2
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Chapter - 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 29
PAINTINGS IN INDIA
Chapter - 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 41
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
Chapter - 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 48
INDIAN MUSIC
Chapter - 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 54
THEATRES OF INDIA
Chapter - 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 61
INDIAN DANCE FORMS
Chapter - 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 71
INDIAN PUPPETRY
Chapter - 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 74
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INDIA
Chapter – 9 ......................................................................................................................................... 102
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH AGES
Chapter - 10 ........................................................................................................................................ 106
MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
Chapter - 11 ........................................................................................................................................ 110
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
Chapter – 12 ....................................................................................................................................... 118
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS of INDIA
Chapter – 13 ....................................................................................................................................... 127
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
Chapter - 14 ........................................................................................................................................ 130
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
Chapter – 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 134
INITIATIVES OF UNESCO
Chapter – 16 ....................................................................................................................................... 138
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
CHAPTER 17 ........................................................................................................................................ 143
HISTORICAL PERSONS
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ART & CULTURE
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Chapter - 1
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
1. Introduction: Architecture  finest expression of human creativity
Classification of Indian Architecture

2. Rig Vedic Culture
 Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare.
 They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them
into many gods.
 Most important God - Indra (thunder). Other gods - Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and
Vayu (wind).
 There were no rituals for temples and idol worship.
 Rig Veda mentions horse-drawn chariots with spoked wheels
3. Harappan Culture
 Used stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and
gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
 Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
 Evidences of horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a terracotta figurine
from Lothal.
4. Harappan Art and Architecture
 Important features:
o Towns - rectangular grid pattern
o Roads - north-south and east-west direction and cut each other at right angles
o Burnt mud bricks used
o Public baths (Eg: Great Bath)
o Advanced drainage system
o Importance given to both personal and public hygiene
o Script – right to left + found on bone rods and jewellery + refers to the people of Meluha
 Harappan Forts: oldest forts in Indian sub-continent

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o The Upper town - fortified; in Kalibangan and Surkotada even lower town was fortified + At
Chanhudaro, fortification was absent completely
o Lower portion of walls of forts built using stones and sun-dried bricks
o Upper portion of walls of forts built using burnt bricks
o Forts provided safety from flash floods, wild animals and robbers.
 Important sites and their findings
 2 rows of six granaries with big platform
 Cemetery (R-37,H)
 Stone symbol of lingam and yoni, mother goddess figure
 Wheat and barley in wooden mortar
Harappa
 Copper scale and mirror
(Pakistan)
 Sculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metal
 Nude dancing girl of stone and a red sandstone male torso.
 Excavators: Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Madho Swarup Vatsa (1926),
Wheeler(1946)
 Great Bath
 Great granary
Mohenjo-daro
 Post cremation burial
(Pakistan)
 Sculpture of bearded priest.
 Excavator: RD Bannerji (1922)
 5th largest metropolis of IVC
 Fortified citadel, a middle town and a lower town with walls made of
sandstone or limestone instead of mud bricks in other Harappan sites.
 Water management system, giant water reservoir, unique water harvesting
system, stadium, dams and embankments.
Dholavira
 Copper smelting remains found: indicate knowledge of metallurgy
(Gujarat)
 Artefacts made of copper, stone, jewellery of terracotta, gold and ivory
have been found
 No mortal remains of humans discovered at Dholavira unlike graves at
other IVC sites
 Excavator: JP Joshi
 Aka Manchester of Indus valley civilization
Lothal  Dockyard, double burial, rice husk, fire altars, painted jar, modern day
(Gujarat) chess, terracotta figure of horse and ship
 Excavator: SR Rao
Ropar  Dog buried with human oval pit burials.
(Punjab)
Balathal and  Bangle factory, toy carts, bones of camel
Kalibangan  Decorated bricks and lower town.
Surkatoda  First actual remains of horse bones.
(Gujarat)
Banawali  Toy plough, barley grains

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(Haryana)  Oval shaped settlement - Only city with radial streets.

Alamgirpur  Impression of a cloth on a trough.
(UP)
 Key hole skull surgery (trepanation) evidence found at Kalibangan. Bangle
Kalibangan factory, toy carts, bones of camel
 Decorated bricks and lower town
 Early Harappan site located on the left bank of River Sindh.
Kot Diji  A tar is the major object found here
 Statues of bull and mother goddess
 Location: 130 kms south of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh and is the only
harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel.
Chanhudaro  Evidence of factories of various figurines, seals, toys, bone implements.
 It has been interpreted that it was a settlement with lots of artisans and was
an industrial town.
 Mature Harappan site.
 Fortified township. The fortification wall was constructed of stones with
Desalpur
mud filling inside. Many houses were constructed just against the inner
face of the fortification wall.
 Current Developments
o Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat): Earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing and presence
of cattle, water buffalo, goat, cow and sheep found in the area: This could have given rise to
an industrial level of dairy exploitation.
o Bhirrana (Haryana): The oldest discovered IVC site dating back to 7570-6200 BCE + The
antiquities found here include pottery, copper chisels, arrow heads, spear heads, Charred
grains of wheat and barley, female dancing girl (replica of Dancing girl from Mohenjodaro),

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Multi-roomed houses were found at this town, which were made of mud bricks and a circular
structure of baked earth (like a tandoor) was found.
o Recent DNA study at Rakhigarhi: People in the Harappan Civilization have an
independent origin and negates theory of Harappans having ancient Iranian farmer ancestry.
Researchers from Deccan College Pune along with the Central Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) have established that human remains discovered at an ancient site of Rakhigarhi
– a village in the Hisar district of Haryana – date back around 8,000 years.
o IIT Kharagpur study: Decline of Harappan city Dholavira was caused by drying up of
river like Saraswati river and Meghalayan drought.
o Union Budget (2020-21): It proposed to develop iconic sites with on-site Museums at
Harappan sites of Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat) + National Maritime
Heritage Museum at Lothal: India and Portugal will cooperate in the setting up of the
museum (Implemented by Ministry of Shipping with involvement of ASI, State government
and other stakeholder).
5. Mauryan Art and Architecture
 Court Art
 Megasthenes inform us that the city of Pataliputra was surrounded by a
Forts wooden palisade; wooden fort surrounded by a 60-feet deep and 200-yard
ditch to prevent enemy forces from coming close to walls of the fort
 In whole of ancient history, palaces built only during Mauryan age
 Wood - the principal building materialz
 Chandragupta Maurya built a palace with wood in his capital Pataliputra
(associated with archaeological remains of Kumrahar (ruins of pillared hall
and wooden platform) and Bulandibagh (wooden palisade and female
Palaces figures))
 According to Megasthenes, Mauryan palace had a massive central pillared
hall and it was more beautiful than that of palaces at Susa and Ecbatana
(located in Iran)
 Ashoka‘s palace at Kumrahar had a high central pillar and was a 3-storey
wooden structure
 Material: chunar sandstone
 4 parts:
(1) long shaft formed the base
(3) Capital
(2) Abacus
(4) Animal figure was placed
Pillars Ex- Laurya Nandangarh pillar in champaran
 Independently erected pillars of Ashoka:
The shaft of Ashokan pillars was generally
monolithic + 4 lion capital of Sarnath pillar
was adopted as national emblem of India +
Ashoka mostly used Prakrit as a medium in
the pillar inscriptions.

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o Single Lion capital: Vaishali, Sanchi, Laurya Nandangarh pillar.

o 4 lions sitting back to back: Sanchi and Sarnath pillars.
o Bull capital: Second Ramapurva pillar.
o Elephant capital: Sankisa pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
 Similarities between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars: Both pillars are
made of stone, had a shaft and bell-shaped portion, abacus and capital.
 Differences between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars:
o Shaft of Ashokan pillars monolithic; Persian pillars made of stone pieces
joined together.
o Shaft of Ashokan pillars tapered from bottom to top; Persian pillars was
cylindrical.
o Bell shaped structure used only at top in Ashokan pillars; bell-shaped
structures were present at both top and bottom.
 Ashokan inscriptions 1st deciphered by: James Prinsep
 Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions: 7 pillar edicts of Ashoka discovered in
Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, and Mehrauli.
o Pillar Edict I: Asoka's idea of people protection
o Pillar Edict II: Dhamma having greatest number of virtues,
compassion, liberality, honesty, and purity.
o Pillar Edict III: Removes sins such as cruelty, rage etc.
o Pillar Edict IV: Addresses the responsibilities of Rajukas.
o Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which are prohibited for
slaughtering on certain days.
o Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy of Ashoka
o Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka contribution to Dhamma policy.
 Minor Pillar Inscriptions
o Rummindei Pillar: It documents Asoka‘s visit to Lumbini and its
exemption from taxation.
o Nigalisagar Pillar (Nepal): Extension of height of Konakamana stupa
to twice its original size.
 Major Pillar Inscriptions
o Sarnath Lion Capital: Erected by Ashoka to commemorate
Dhammachakrapravartana.
o Single lion on Vaishali Pillar (Bihar): It has no inscription.
o UP's Sankissa Pillar
o Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar
o Lauriya-Araraj, Bihar
o UP's Allahabad pillar.
 Sohagaura Cu Plate Inscription: in Gorakhpur district of UP + from the
Mauryan period + Brahmi script + records a royal order that the grains
stored in the granary should be carefully distributed. It was discovered in
Sohgaura, a village on the banks of the Rapti River
 Ashoka‘s Major Rock Edicts & their Location

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o Dhauli Rock edict is

located in dhauli hills,
close to 10 kms from
Bhubneshwar in Odisha.
The edicts are engraved on
a large peace of rock,
written in Pali. The rock
edict is located near the
historical sight of the
Kalinga war which is said
to transform Samrat
Ashok.
o Erragudi or Yerragudi
rock edict is located in
Kurnool district in Andhra
Pradesh.
o Jaugada is the second
place in Odisha where
there is a major Ashokan
rock edict. Ashoka‘s inscription in Jaugada is on a rock face about 30 feet
long and 15 feet high.
o Kalsi  between Chakrata and Dehradun on the banks of Yamuna River
in Uttarakhand.
o Shahbazgarhi: The Shahbazgarhi rock edicts are cut into the surface of
two large boulders on the side of a small rocky outcrop in the Vale of
Peshawar. + Dating to middle of the third century BC, they are written
from right to left in the Kharosthi script. + The 14 major edicts recorded
at the site present aspects of Asoka‘s dharma or righteous law. + The
edicts are located beside one of the ancient trade routes connecting the
Vale of Peshawar with the valley of Swat, Dir and Chitral to the North
and the great city of Taxila to the South East.
 Meaning of Symbols:
o Lion: Solar symbol representing Buddha
o Bull: Symbol of fertility
o Elephant: Buddha enters his mothers womb as a white elephant
o Horse: Symbolises Buddha's departure.

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 Stupas were burial

mounds prevalent in
India since Vedic period
 Core of stupa was made
of unburnt brick while
outer surface was made
by using burnt bricks
 Medhi and toran
decorated by wooden
sculptures
 According to Avadana
Sutta, 10 original stupas opened up by Ashoka and distributed their relics
among 84,000 stupas built by him
 Sanchi stupa (MP) - the most famous of the Ashokan stupas
 Sanchi Stupa: aka Mahastupa, it was originally built by Ashoka with bricks
but it was destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga + The stupa was enlarged to
twice of its original size by addition of more layers to its anda by Agnimitra
+ Ornamented gateways known as toranas were added during post-mauryan
Stupa age + The stupa was discovered by General Herbert Taylor in 1818 AD +
Architecture The monuments at Sanchi were included in UNESCOs list of World heritage
sites in 1989
 Shunga dynasty later introduced the idea of torans as beautifully decorated
gateways to stupas. They are carved with patterns showing Hellenistic
influence
 Piprahwa Stupa (Uttar Pradesh) is the oldest one
 Stupas built after death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana
 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path
 Amravati Stupa: It pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika portrayed
with much narrative sculpture. Domical stupa structure covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs.
o The Torana disappeared over time
o Depicts the events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories
o Early phase devoid of Buddha images except in the later stage during the
second and third centuries CE Buddha images were carved upon the
drum slabs and at many other places
o It lies in the gorge of Krishna river
 Popular Art
 During Mauryan period, caves were generally used as viharas by Jain and
Cave Buddhist monks
Architecture  They were marked by a highly polished finish of interior walls and
decorative gateways.
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Barabar caves: cut during the reign of Ashoka; donated to monks of Ajivika
sect
 4 caves in Barabar hill - Lomas Rishi cave,
Sudama cave, karna chaupar cave and
Visvakarma cave
 The caves are simple rectangular halls cut
into the hill
 Level of ornamentation is very low and
walls of caves have glossy finish
Nagarjuni caves: These caves were cut under
the patronage of Ashoka‘s grandson Dasaratha
 The caves located in Nagarjuni hill are Gopi
Cave (Gopi-ka-kubha), Bahayak Cave
(Vadithi-ka-kubha) and Vedantika Cave
(Vapiya-ka-kubha)
 The caves divided into two chambers: Front
hall for gathering of worshippers and back
chamber used by monks for their residence
and worship
6. Post-Mauryan Architecture
 Cave architecture: Commonly referred as ‗Kirti‘, it reached pinnacle during the post-Mauryan
age (200 BC- 300 AD) + The period saw development of Chaityas (place of worship) for the first
time and Viharas (Place of residence for monks and also acted as educational centres).
 Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves: 18 caves in Udaygiri hill and 15 caves in
Khandagiri located in Odisha carved under the patronage of Kalinga
ruler Kharavela (193 BC- 170 BC); Hatigumpha inscription refer to
these hills as Kumari parvat and Kumara parvat respectively + The
Cave interiors of the caves are simple without much ornamentation and their
Architecture facades decorated with sculptures depicting scenes of court activities,
– Eastern India royal processions, hunting scenes and scenes depicting daily life etc +
Ranigumpha, Ganeshgumpha, Swargapuri- Manchapuri and
Hatigumpha are the most prominent caves in Udayagiri hills + Ananta
Gumpha, Ambika Gumpha, Tatowa Gumpha (Parrot caves) and
Navamuni gumpha are the most prominent caves in Khandagiri hill
 Ajanta, Karle, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nasik, Junnar and Kondana are the
prominent centres of cave architecture in western India
 23 caves carved between 1st century BCE & 3rd century CE
Cave  Most of them are caves except cave 18, which is chaitya of the 1st
Architecture century BCE
- Western India  Karle caves: It is located in Pune district, Maharashtra + These caves were
cut out in Bhorghat hill built under the patronage of Bhootpal Shresti of
Vaijanti in 2nd century AD during the reign of Satavahana king Pulameyi II +
It is the largest Hinayana Buddhist chaitya (temple) in India + It has massive

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pillars that have figures of males and females, mounted on animals such as
lions, elephants, etc.
 Junar caves: It is the largest cave complex in India, which has around
130 caves + Aka Pandulena
 Bedsa and Kondana caves exhibit transition from wooden architecture
to stone architecture
 Pitalkhora caves are located in Maharastra; these form the oldest of the
rock-cut cave architecture of India and are believed to belong to the
Hinayana period of Buddhism contemporary to Satvahana dynasty
 Pandav Leni Jain Caves: ancient rock cut sculptures complex at
Gomai river around 6 Km north of Shahada, Maharashtra. Pandav Leni
caves are a group of 24 rock-cut caves located in Nashik, Maharashtra,
India.
o They were created during the 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE
and are an important Buddhist architectural site. They are known
for their intricate carvings, frescoes, and sculptures.
o The caves show both Hinayana and Mahayana influence. In the
Hinayana phase, the Buddha is depicted through motifs and
symbols like a throne and footprints, and later on idols of Buddha
are carved out. The site also depicts an excellent system of water
management.
 Stupa Architecture:
o Stupas became larger and more decorative
o Stone was used in place of wood and brick
o Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of
torans as beautifully decorated gateways to
stupas + They are carved with patterns
showing Hellenistic influence
o Examples - Bharhut stupa (Madhya
Pradesh): Tall structures like Mauryan
depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini +

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illusion of three-dimensionality is conveyed with slanted perspective in the relief panels

displaying storytelling + One of the sculptures depicts Lakshmi which is the earliest
representation of the goddess.
7. Gupta Architecture: The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered as
Golden Period of Indian Architecture.
 Cave architecture
 Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh
 Buddhism
Bagha caves  The Bagh Caves are known for their vibrant mural paintings
illustrating various facets of ancient life, including regal
processions, court scenes etc
 Bhagalpur district, Bihar
Mandargiri caves
 Jainism.
 Magnificent image of Vishnu in form of great boar (varaha) is
located at the entrance of these caves.
 Location: Vidisha, MP. It contains some of the oldest Hindu
temples and iconography, related to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism.
 Though it is present north of Tropic of Cancer, it is believed that
historically, on the day of summer solstice, the sun was directly
overhead in this place, making Udhyagiri (Mount of sunrise) a
Udayagiri caves (350- place of worship.
550 CE)  Iconic Varaha Scultpure rescuing the earth symbolically
represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar's tusk is a salient
feature in Udayagiri caves.
 These caves are 20 rock-cut caves belong to Vaishnavism and
Shaivism located in Madhya Pradesh.
 The sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the male boar
rescuing the mother earth presenting bhudevi to boar‘s tusk as
depicted in Hindu mythology is present here,
 They were built under the patronage of Gupta rulers
 23 Buddhist caves; also known as Pandav Leni developed during
1st century AD
Nasik caves
 Belong to Hinayana period: Buddha indicated through use of
motifs and symbols like throne and footprints.
 Aka Montperir caves which belong to Brahmanical religion which
Mandapeshwar caves
was later converted into a Christian cave.
 These are a group of rock-cut caves located in Aurangabad district
of Maharashtra
Ajanta Caves
 29 caves: 4 Chaityas and 25 Viharas
(200 BC- 650 AD)
 Cut into a U- shaped cliff overlooking River Waghora
 Discovered by Captain John Smith in 1819.

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 Features of the caves

o The figures in these caves painted with frescoes and exhibit a
high level of naturalism.
o Outlines painted in red; absence of blue colour in the
paintings is the most remarkable elements.
o Paintings are themed around Buddhism: Life of Buddha and
Jataka stories.
o Early caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism and later caves
belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
o Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave No. 26 and Naga King
and his consort in Cave.no 19 are some of the most famous
sculptures.
o Cave no. 10 is the oldest cave and Cave no. 26 is the latest
caves.
o These caves were included in UNESCO‘s list of World
heritage sites in 1983.
o A grand image of Buddha‘s Mahaparinirvana with numerous
celestial musicians above and sorrowful figures of his
followers is found at Ajanta.
 34 caves: Cave No. 1 to 12
belong to Buddhism; Cave No.
13 to 29 belong to Brahmanical
religion and Cave No. 30 to 34
belong to Jainism: indicates
high level of tolerance
 UNESCOs list of world heritage
sites.
 Features of the caves
o Cave No. 16: It is also known as Kailasha temple; portrays
Ellora Caves kailasha mountain (abode of God Shiva) + It is the biggest
(600 AD- 1000 AD) monolithic structure in whole world + The cutting of this
cave commenced in 760 AD under patronage of Krishna I.
o Cave No. 10: Vishwakarma cave/Carpenter's cave; it is a
Buddhist Chaitya cave; Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana
Mudra, with a Bodhi tree etched behind him.
o Cave No. 14: Ravan ki khai
o Cave No. 15: Dashavatar temple
o Cave No. 29: Dhumal Lena
o Cave No. 21: Rameshwar temple
o Cave No. 32 and 33: Indra Sabha and Jagannath sabha are
important Jain caves
Elephanta caves  Aka Gharapuri caves
(5 century AD to 8th
th
 7 caves  5 belong to Brahmanical religion (Shaivism and

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century AD) Vaishnavism) and 2 belong to Buddhism.

 Features of the caves
o Images of God Shiva depicted in various forms such as
Trimurti, Maheshmurti and Ardhnarishwara and Nataraja
shiva.
o Ravana shaking the Kailash and Tandav dance of Shiva are
notable sculptures.
o Presence of massive images of ‗dwarapalakas or doorkeepers.
o These caves are included in UNESCO list of World heritage
sites in 1987.
o The caves are constructed using solid basalt rock; older
sculptures have paint splatters.
o Sitabai Temple: It has a vast prayer hall with walls covered
with beautiful sculptures
 Stupa Architecture: Declined during the Gupta period
 Sarnath, Varanasi
 Buddha is claimed to have given his 1 st
sermon to his 1st 5 students, led
Dhamek Stupa by Kaundinya, revealing his Eightfold
Path leading to nirvana at the Dhamek
Stupa
 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

o 5 Stages of Development in North India
 Flat roof and square shape
 Portico developed on shallow pillars
 Entire structure built on low platforms
First stage  Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa and
the Vishnu Varaha temples in Eran are
examples of square buildings with flat
roofs and shallow pillared porches.
 Platforms were higher and were covered
ambulatory passageway around
garbhagriha
Second Stage  Example - Parvati temple at Nachna
Kuthara, MP.
 Emergence of Shikara instead of a flat roof

 Panchayatan style was introduced: 4 subsidiary shrines along with
Third Stage
temple of principal deity
 Shikhara, was the most remarkable achievement of this stage

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 Subsidiary shrine placed opposite to

each other giving the ground plan a
crucified shape
 Examples - Dashavatar temple at
Deogarh (U.P) and Durga temple at
Aihole, Karnataka
 Main shrine became more rectangular during this stage of temple

construction
Fourth stage
 Examples - Ter temple at Sholapur and Kapoteswara temple in Cezarla
(Krishna district)
 Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections on
Fifth stage the four cardinal faces
 Maniyar Math shrine in Rajgir, Bihar  sole monument of this form
 Styles of Temple
architecture: The
architectural principles
of temples in India are
described in Shilpa
Shastra. It mentions 3
types of temples in
India: Nagara, Dravida
and Vesara style.
 Nagara style of
architecture: It
came into existence
during 4th century
AD; these temples
are found all over
north India from
Punjab in west to
Bengal and Odisha
in the East + Temples constructed using stones and bricks + Metal was not used in
construction + Kandariya Mahadev temple (Madhya Pradesh), Sun temple at Konark,
Sun temple at Modhera are examples for Nagara style.
 Features of the Nagara temples
 Adhistana/Jagati: Entire temple structure built on raised platform.
 Garbhagraha/Sanctum sanctorum: Main building of temple complex where chief
deities placed.
 Peetha: Seats of deities in Garbhagraha.

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 Antarala: Pillared veranda built in front of Garbhagraha for passageway for

devotees.
 Panchayatan style: It consisted of minor shrines arranged in a crucified ground plan
in relation to the main shrine.
 Mandapas: Presence of assembly halls or mandapas in front of principal shrine.
 River goddess images: Images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were put
outside the garbhagriha.
 No water tanks or reservoirs in the temple grounds in general.
 Shikharas: Latina or rekha Prasad (square at base and walls curve inward to point on
the top), Phamsana (broader base and shorter in height than Latina), Valabhi
(rectangular base with roof rising into vaulted chambers).
 Amalaka: Spherical shape on top of Garbhagraha.
 Kalasha: Sacred pot is called as Kalasha which is placed over Amalaka to collect
cosmic energy; Kalasha surmounted by a flag known as Jhanda.
 No pradakshina path (circumbulatory path) was built.
 Dwarapalas: Images of dwarapalas carved on both sides of the entrance of
garbhagraha
 No boundary walls: The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls in
general.
o Sub-schools under Nagara school
 Exterior walls were lavishly decorated
 No use of pillars; Iron girders were used to support the roof
 Sikharas were known as rekhadeuls
 Mandapas were known as Jagmohans
 Presence of boundary walls
 Sun Temple at Konark: Black pagoda
 Jagannath temple, Bhubaneshwar: It was built by King Anantavarmana
Chodaganga in 12th century AD; only temple in India where Krishna,
Balabhadra and their sisters Shubhadra are worshipped together + Wooden
Odisha images replaced with new images every 11 years in a ceremony called as
School Navakalevara.
 Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar:
o It was built in 11th century AD by Somvanshi King Yayati I.
o Dedicated to Lord Shiva and is considered as the largest temple of the
city Bhubaneswar (Odisha).
o It is built in red stone and is classic example of Kalinga style of
architecture.
o Lingaraj is referred to as ‗Swayambhu' – self-originated Shivling.
o It signifies syncretisation of Shaivism and Vaishnavism sects in
Odisha.
o Bindusagar lake is located in the north side of the temple
Khajuraho  Both interior and exterior walls - lavishly decorated
School  Erotic sculptures: themes from Vatsyayana‘s Kamasutra

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 3 chambers: Garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa

 Panchayatan style
 Khajuraho Temple: In MP- built between 950-1050 AD by the Chandela
Dynasty
o The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their
power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.
o Hindu and Jain temples.
o Included UNESCO‘s World Heritage Sites in 1986.
o Reported for the first time by Abu Rihan al Biruni in AD 1022 and Ibn
Battuta in AD 1335.
 Kandariya Mahadev temple (Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh): It is
dedicated to God Shiva; an example of panchayatna type of temples + It
has 5 shikaras.
 Chaturbhuj temple (Orccha, Madhya Pradesh): It is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu.
 Vishnu temple located at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
 Chausath Yogini temple near Morena:
o Location: Mitaoli village, Morena district in Gwalior
o Patronage: Kachchhapaghata king Devapala (1055 – 1075).
o Associated religion: It is dedicated to Yognis (the female masters of
yoga) and not the Vaishnava cult.
o Inspiration: The Parliament house was inspired by the circular
Chausath Yogini Temple.
 Chausath Yogini temple, Jabalpur:
o Built by the Kalachuris in the 10th century CE
o Situated near the river Narmada in the Bhedaghat area, between
Dhuandhar falls and Marble Rocks
o The main temple has a mandapa in front and holds the murti of Shiva
and Parvati on Nandi in the sanctum
 Patronage of Solanki Rulers
 Temple walls - devoid of carvings
 Garbhagriha connected with mandapa both internally and externally
 Presence of step tanks known as surya-kund
 Materials - sandstone, black basal and soft marble
Solanki
school  East facing, sun rays fall directly into central shrine
 Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat: Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki
Dynasty in 1026 AD; influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat is
evident.
 Dilwara temple, Mount Abu (Rajasthan): It belongs to Jainism; made of
white marble and built by Solanki minister Vastupala

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o Prominent Nagara temples

 Location: Veraval in the western coast of Gujarat
 1st among the 12 jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva
 A description of the temple by Al-Biruni, an Arab traveller, was so
glowing that it prompted a visit in 1024 by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Somnath  The modern temple was reconstructed with the resolve of Sardar Patel
Temple who visited the ruins of Somnath temple on November 13 1947. Then
President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, did the Pran-Pratistha at the
existing temple on 11 May 1951.
 The present Somnath temple is reconstructed in the Māru-Gurjara style of
Hindu temple architecture
Lhotsava  12th century temple at Ko in Kinnaur region of Himachal Pradesh
Lhakhang
 It lies about 65 km from Leh on the banks of the Indus River.
 Alchi is regarded as one of the most important Buddhist centres in Ladakh
Alchi
and also as one of the monastic jewels of Ladakh.
Monastery or
 There are 5 shrines in the Choskor Temple Complex which has some
Alchi Gompa
splendid wall paintings.
(monastery
 One of its walls features thousands of miniature sized pictures of the
and temple
Buddha. Three large sized images made of clay painted brightly are its
complex)
focal attraction.
 Since the last 500 years, religion is not practiced in the Alchi Monastery
 The Sree Seetha Ramachandra Swamy shrine at Bhadrachalam, the most
famous temple in the country dedicated to Lord Rama, is situated on the
Bhadrachala left bank of the Godavari river.
m temple  Constructed in the 17th Century by the local Tahsildar, Kancharla
Gopanna, popularly known as Bhakta Ramadas, a fervent devotee of Lord
Sree Rama
 The temple is being built in the Nagara style of temple architecture and
the idol of Ram Lalla will be placed in the sanctum sanctorum.
 The Shri Ram Darbar will be on the first floor and there will be five
mandaps (halls) — Nritya Mandap, Rang Mandap, Sabha Mandap,
Prarthana Mandap and Kirtan Mandap.
 There will be mandirs at four corners of the compound dedicated to Surya,
Ayodhya Bhagwati, Ganesh, Shiv. On northern and southern arms, temples to
temple Annapurna and Hanuman will be built respectively.
 The foundation of the temple has been built with a 14-metre-thick layer of
roller-compacted concrete, giving it the appearance of an artificial rock.
 A 21-foot-high granite plinth has been placed to protect against ground
moisture and no iron has been used anywhere.
 Makrana marble and pink sandstone from Rajasthan, granite stone from
Tamil Nadu and Telangana, and coloured marble from Mandla in Madhya

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Pradesh have been used for the construction.
 Dravidian style of temple architecture

o Stages of Development
 Mahendra Style
 1st stage of Pallava temple architecture basically rock-cut temples; temples were
known as Mandapas.
 Narasimha style
 Mandapas were divided into 3 rathas: Dharmaraja ratha (biggest one), Draupadi ratha
(smallest one)
 Rajasimha style
 Beginning of development of real structural temples + Emerged under patronage of
Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha + Example - Shore temple at Mahabalipuram and
Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram
 Nandivarman style
 The temples are comparatively smaller in size + The features are almost similar to
Dravidian style
o Features of Dravidian style of temple architecture:
 Dravidian temples are surrounded by high boundary walls
 High entrance gateway
known as the gopurams
 Panchayatan style:
principal temple and four
subsidiary shrines
 Presence of only one
vimana on top of the
main temple; subsidiary
shrines do not have
vimanas
 Prakaras: Dravidian
temples are enclosed within multiple concentric walls or enclosures called prakaras.
These walls delineate the temple complex, housing smaller shrines, halls, and additional
structures within their confines.
 Assembly hall connected with garbhagriha by a tunnel called antarala

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 A covered circumbulatory path was built around Garbhagraha for devotees

 The presence of water tank (Theerthams) inside the temple enclosure
 Ex- Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore built by Raja Raja I, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi temple, Tamil Nadu,
Airavatesvara temple etc.
o Mahabalipuram
 Mahabalipuram contains rock-cut rathas, sculptured scenes
on open rocks like Arjuna‘s penance, the caves of
Govardhanadhari and Mahishasuramardini, the Jala-Sayana
Perumal temple (the sleeping Mahavishnu or Chakrin at the
rear part of the Shore temple complex). It is more linked to
the Vaishnavites.
 Ratha temples: These are monolithic monuments cut out of
live hills; it appears that these temples are mobile though
they are not in reality.
 Sapta Pagoda: It is located in Mahabalipuram; are cut during reign of Pallava king
Narasimhavarman I in 7th century AD.
 They comprise of Dharmaraja ratha, Draupadi ratha, Arjuna ratha, Bhima ratha, Nakula-
Sahadeva ratha, Ganesh ratha, Pindari ratha and Valaiyan kuttai ratha
 Arjuna ratha is famous for images of Shiva and Draupadi ratha for images of Goddess
Durga
 The entire assemblage collectively was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1984
 Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu; massive
open-air relief carved out on two monolithic rock boulders; all deities of heaven are
depicted here; main depiction is bearded man worshipping God Shiva.
 Shore Temple: It was built probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as
Rajasimha (Pallava ruler) who reigned from 700 to 728 CE
 it is built of cut stones rather than carved out of caves
 It has two shrines, one dedicated to Shiva and the other to Vishnu
 Built in Dravidian style characterized by a pyramidal kutina-type tower that consists
of stepped stories topped by a cupola.
 Vesara school of art: It is also known as Karnataka school of architecture flourished under later
chalukya rulers in mid-17th century AD + It combined features
of both Nagara and Dravidian school + Emphasis on vimana
and mandapa, open ambulatory passageway + Prominent
example is Dodda Basappa temple at Dambal, Durga temple at
Aihole.
 Nayaka school of art: Also known as Madurai school it
flourished under the Nayaka rulers between 16th centuries and
18th centuries AD + Presence of Prakarns or huge corridors in
the portico + Meenakshi temple in Madhurai has the tallest
gopuram in the world + The temple structure was filled with
intricate carvings + The Nayaka style did incorporate elements

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from earlier Dravidian architecture while adding larger and more intricate gopurams and
sculptures
 Vijayanagar school: Walls of the temples are highly decorated with carvings and geometrical
patterns + Gopurams were built on all the sides + More than one mandapa built in each temple;
central mandapa were known as Kalyan Mandap (halls used to celebrate divine marriage or other
ceremonies) + Amman Shrines, which were shrines dedicated to the god‘s bride or wives +
Concept of secular buildings inside the temple premises was also introduced + Important
examples are Vittalaswami temple, Lotus Mahal, Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and
Parvati temples at Chidambaram and Varadraja and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram.
o Hampi: It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located near Hospet town in Karnataka on
south bank of Tungabhadra river.
 Name derived from Pampa which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose
banks the city is built.
 Virupaksha temple - Main shrine is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Lord Shiva.
 Stone Chariot- Iconic monument located in front of Vijaya Vittala Temple in Hampi,
Karnataka dedicated to Garuda, the official vehicle of Lord Vishnu
 Hoyasala art: It developed from 1050- 1300 AD in the Karnataka region with prominent seats at
Belur, Halebid and Sringeri + Multiple shrines built around a central pillared hall + Shrines led
out in shape of stellate pattern + Soft sope stone was the main building material + More
emphasis on fecoration through sculptures + Best example is Hoyasaleshwara temple at Halebid.
 Pala school: This style of architecture developed in Bengal region between 8 th and 12th century
AD under Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty + Influence of both Buddhism and Hinduism can be
seen + Buildings had a sloping roof popularly known as ―Bangla roofs‖ + Burnt bricks, clay was
the principal building material used + Highly lustrous finish + Best example is Siddhesvara
Mahadeva temple in Barakar.
 Hemadpanthi school: popularized by Hemadri Pandit, also known as Hemadpant, a minister of
Yadava Dynasty of devagiri during the 13th Century in Maharashtra, and incorporated black
stone and limestone, which were readily available. It also got the status of World Heritage
Site.The Ambreshwar temple at Ambernath near Mumbai, the Gondeshwar temple at Sinnar near
Nashik, and the Aundha Nagnath temple in the Hingoli district are a few examples of the
Hemadpanthi style.
 SUN TEMPLES:
 Location: bank of the river Pushpavati.
 Built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Solanki
dynasty in 1026 AD.
Modhera Sun  The temple complex has 3 components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine
Temple, Gujarat hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir.
 The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has
steps to reach bottom and numerous small shrines.
 Influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat is evident
 It was constructed by the Eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Deva I in
Sun Temple,
about 1250 A.D.
Konark
 Aka 'BLACK PAGODA' due to its dark colour and used as a

ART & CULTURE
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navigational landmark by sailors to Odisha.

 It is carefully oriented towards the east so that the first rays of sunrise
strikes the principal entrance.
 The temple is built from Khondalite rocks
 7th-century AD Sun Temple at Arasavalli in Andhra Pradesh, India.
 Built by king Devendra Varma, ruler of the Kalinga Dynasty.
 One of the oldest sun temples in India.
Arasavalli Sun  The walls in the temple are inscribed saying the creator of the temple
temple was the ruler Devendra Varma, stating it was built in the time period
known to them as the 7th century.
 It takes in architectural skills of Vishwakarma Brahmins or Maharanas
of Odisha
 Martand Sun temple, Kashmir
 Katarmal Sun Temple, Uttarakhand
 Dakshinarkaa temple Gaya, Bihar
Other Sun
 Bhramanya temple, Unao, MP
temples in India
 Surya Prahaar temple, Assam
 Suryanar Kovil Temple at Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu
 Suryanarayana temple at Arasavalli, Andhra Pradesh
 Amarkantak: It is one of the major pilgrimage centers for Hindus located in the hills of Maikal
in Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh.
o This holy place bordering Chhattisgarh has a meeting point of the hills of Vindhya, Satpura,
and Maidar, whose view is astonishing.
o It is a unique heritage area commonly known as ―Tirthraj‖ or ―The King of pilgrimage‖.
o It is the place where the Vindhya and Satpura ranges merge and where the Narmada and Son
river get birth.
 Jyotirlinga:
 It is a Hindu temple dedicated to God Shiva located in Khandwa in
Indian state Madhya Pradesh.
 It is one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.
 It is on an island called Mandhata or Shivapuri in the Narmada river at
Khandwa district in Madhya Pradesh.
Omkareshwar  It is a Hindu pilgrimage site; one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines
of Shiva located on Mandhata Island on banks of Narmada River in
Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh.
 The temple dates back to the Krita Yuga.
 River Narmada flows here around the Mandhata hill in the form of an
Om (Omkaram)
 Mallikarjuna Temple or Srisailam Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated
to the deity Shiva located on Nallamalla hills.
Srisailam
 It is referred to as one of the twelve Jyothirlingas of Lord Shiva.
 Inscriptional evidence from the Satavahana dynasty place the temple to

ART & CULTURE
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be existent from the 2nd century.

 The veerasheromandapam and paathalaganga steps constructed during
the time of Reddi Kingdom.
 The temple complex houses many halls; the most notable is the Mukha
Mandapa built during the Vijayanagar period
8. Indo-Islamic Architecture
 Introduction: After the establishment of Turkish rule in India: Indian architecture elements +
Islamic elements = Indo-Islamic architecture.
 Features of Indo-Islamic architecture:
o Introduced use of minars around mosques and mausoleums.
o Mortar was utilized as a cementing agent.
o Avoided use of human and animal figures.
o Usage of calligraphy and arabesque method as means of decoration.
o Heavy usage of principles of geometry
o Intricate jaali works: signify importance of light in Islamic religion.
o Use of water in the premises of constructions in form of courtyard pool and small drains.
Charbagh style of gardening: square block was divided into four adjacent identical
gardens.

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o Used Pietra-dura technique for inlay of precious stones and gems into stone walls.
o Foresighting technique : inscriptions appear of same size from any place.
o Arches and Domes (Arcuade style): Arches were introduced to India by Qutb al-Din Aibak
during the year 1206 + Domes were introduced by the Turks during the 1500s by Persian
architects + Minarets were introduced by Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak
 Architectural achievements of Delhi Sultans

 Qutb-ud-din-Aibak:
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque - in 1195 AD at
Delhi; material procured by demolishing Hindu
and Jain temples
o Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer
o Started construction of Qutub minar dedicated to
sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar kaki,
could only finish basement, 3 more storeys
Slave added by Iltutmish and 5th and the last storey by
Dynasty Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
 Iltutmish:
o He constructed his tomb near Quwwat-ul-Islam
mosque
o Built Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shamsi Idgah, Gandha
k ki Bawali and Jama masjid at Baduan.
 Balban:
o He constructed his tomb at Delhi (true arch was used for the first time)
o 1st sarai built in 1266 with largest being built during Tughlaq period

ART & CULTURE
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 From 1290 until 1320 AD, the

Khilji Dynasty ruled and
developed the Seljuk
architectural style.
 Red sandstone was the main
building material + Technique of
Khilji laying bricks as headers and
Dynasty stretchers was invented which
increased the strength and
stability of monuments.
 Alauddin Khilji: He constructed Jamat-i-khana mosque at Dargah of
Nizam-ud-din Auliya + He also constructed Alai Darwaja in 1311 near
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Hauz-i-Khas and fort of Siri to protect the people
of Delhi from external invasions such as Mongols
 Features: Lavish display of ornaments and richness replaced by puritanical
simplicity + Introduced sloping walls known as Salami and four-centered
arch + Grey stone and red sandstone used largely in construction of buildings
+ Pentagonal and octagonal layouts introduced in construction of buildings +
Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was first pentagonal building and tomb of
Khan-i-Jahan Telangani was the first octagonal building.
Tughlaq
 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq: He built the city of Tughlaqabad which is
Dynasty
pentagonal in design.
 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq: He built the fortress of Adilabad and city of
Jahan Panah.
 Firoz shah tughlaq: He built Kushk-i-Sikhar and Kotla Firoz Shah + He
also laid foundation of cities like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and
Firozpur
 Only tombs were constructed during this period
 Emergence of double domes was a significant aspect of architecture at this
time
Lodi
 A sloping verandah provided support.
Dynasty
 Sikandar Lodi founded the Lodi Gardens and the city of Agra.
 The first double dome was used in the construction of tomb of Sultan
Sikander Lodi in Delhi
 Mughal Architecture Features
o Mix of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural styles.
o Building materials - red sandstone and white marble.
o Charbagh gardens with noticeable bulbous domes, thin turrets at corners, large entrances,
magnificent calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and royal
halls supported on pillars.
o The arches, chhatri, and other forms of domes were extremely popular in Indo-Islamic
architecture, which was further developed by the Mughals.
 Architectural achievements of Mughal rulers

ART & CULTURE
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 The Kabuli Bagh Mosque of Panipat and Jama masjid of Sambhal

Babur
 He brought Charbagh style of architecture to India
 He constructed the city of Din Panah at Delhi in 1533 AD
Humayun  Humayun Tomb built by his widow Haji Bega Begam
 Double dome in developed form was used for first time in Humayun tomb
 The golden age of Delhi began in 1556 when Akbar came to the throne of
Delhi
 Popularised "Tudor arch" (four centered arch).
 Agra Fort: It has 2 gateways called Delhi gate and Amar Singh gate +
Principle of construction based on the use of beam and bricket.
 Fatehpur Sikri:
o Tomb of Salim Chishti - erected in 1581 AD at Sikri; white marble
o Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid are also part of the imperial complex
o Panch Mahal - 5-storey edifice built of columns that is based on the
Persian badgir idea (wind-catcher)
o Ibadat Khana where Akbar would meet with religious authorities to
address issues.
o Buland Darwaza: It was built in 1601 A.D. by Akbar to commemorate
Akbar his victory over Gujarat.
 40-meter red sandstone edifice
 It is the main entrance to the palace at Fatehpur Sikri, a town which
is 43 km from Agra.
 It is known as gate of magnificence, is the highest gateway in the
world and is an example of Mughal architecture.
 It incorporates almost all the essential features of Akbar‘s
architectural traditions: red sandstone, stone carvings, and relief by
inserting white marble.
 Inspired by Timurid architecture.
 Material: red and buff sandstone, decorated by white and black
marble and is higher than the courtyard of the mosque.
 Shaikh Salim Chishti (1478-1572) khanqah is located near the
present-day World Heritage site of Fatehpur Sikri
 The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula was built by Nurjahan at Agra
Jahangir
 Pietra Dura technique of decoration was used for the first time in his tomb
 He constructed a fort at Agra: Shish mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas,
Moti Masjid, Nagina masjid and Musamman Burj are located in this fort
Shah Jahan  White marble was used on a large scale in construction of monuments
 He also constructed the city of Shahjahanabad, Taj Mahal, Qila Mubarak
(Red Fort) in Delhi and Shalimar Bagh in Lahore
 He has constructed Moti Masjid which is located inside the Red Fort and
Aurangzeb
Badshahi mosque in Lahore in 1674
Shershah  He built Purana Qila at site of Dinpanah and mausoleum at Sasaram which

ART & CULTURE
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Suri represents harmonious combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas

9. Regional Architecture
 Regional Architecture in India during Medieval Age
 Aka Sharqi style
Jaunpur  Atala Mosque was completed by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
school of  Jhanjhari mosque was erected by Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi in honour of
architecture Hazrat Said Sadr Jahan Ajmali
 Jami Masjid of Jaunpur was built by Hussain shah.
 It is characterized by large-scale use of bricks and rare use of stone +
Bengal school
Adina Masjid at Pandua was built by Sikandar Shah
of architecture
 Lotan Masjid was built by Yusuf Shah at Gaur.
 The usage of various colored stones and marbles was the most
conspicuous element of the structures
 The structures had big windows, possibly as a consequence of European
influence
 Aka Pathan School of architecture
 Man-made reservoirs known as 'baulis' were built
Malwa school  The introduction of the batter system by the Tughlaqs improved the
of architecture situation
 It is one of the finest specimen of environmental adaptation of the period
due to following feature: -Large windows to keep the buildings well
ventilated and rooms (probaly european influence) +Lightly arched
pavilions, which made the buildings airy and allowed them to remain
cool during the heat+ Baulis (artificial water reservoirs) in the premises
 Example - Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.
 It was developed under the patronage of Adil Shah
 He built a variety of mosques, and tombs notable for 3-arched facades,
bulbous domes, and cornices
Bijapur school
 The structures were reinforced with iron clamps and a thick plaster of
mortar. The walls were adorned with intricate sculptures
 Example - Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur.
 The city of Ahmedabad was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1414 AD
Gujarat school  Jami Masjid at Ahmedabad was built by Ahmed Shah
 Sultan Mahmud Begarha built a city and palace citadel at Champaner.
 The city of Nauraspur was founded by Ibrahim Adil shah of Bijapur +
City of Hyderabad was founded by Md. Quli Qutub Shah
Bahamani
 Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur is the largest dome
school
 The city of Ahmednagar was founded by Ahmed Shah of Nizam Shahi
dynasty
 Regional Architecture in India during British Age
Bara  Built by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula in 1784 at Lucknow to provide food to
Imambara the famine stricken subjects of the Nawab.

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No pillars or beams were used to support the roof.

During Muharram, Shia muslims mourn at this shrine.
The complex includes large Asafi mosque, tomb of Asaf-ud-daula and a
step-well.
 The main hall within the Bara Imambara, called the 'hall of audience' or
'Asfi mosque,' is a remarkable architectural feat due to its massive
unsupported arched ceiling, a feature that contributes to its grandeur and
structural peculiarity.
 The architecture reflects maturation of Mughal design.
 Instead of stones and marble, brick and lime were used.
 Stucco ornamentation (gajkari) was used to decorate the monuments,
giving it a deep relief effect even on flat walls.
 Mother of pearl and shells deposited in lake beds were used in the stucco
ornamentation to give a shine finer than marble.
 Renowned for its Bhool Bhulaiya, a labyrinth of intricate passages and
staircases, adding to its architectural uniqueness and intrigue
 Built under the patronage of Nawab Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784 in Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
 Aka Turkish Gate.
 It is an imposing gateway which was built under the patronage of Nawab
Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784.
 It is believed that the gate is called Rumi gate, simply because it was
Rumi Darwaza
modelled after the gateways of then Constantinople or Modern Istanbul.
 The architectural style of the Rumi Darwaza is completely in sync with
the Nawabi architecture of Lucknow, and its significantly different from
the Mughals.
 Material: bricks coated with lime, while the Mughals often used red sand
stone
10. Modern Indian Architecture
 Iberian architectural style
 Imported the notion of 'patio homes' and the 'Baroque style
Portuguese  To produce a dramatic impact, it featured an extensive, complex, and
Influence theatrical design
 The Sé Cathedral in Goa, which was built in 1619 AD, is one of the most
prominent structures
 The French brought with them the concept of urban city planning +
The Cartesian grid layouts were used to build the French colonies of
French Puducherry and Chandernagore + They established the notion of faceless
Influence architecture, which is characterized by facade devoid of embellishment +
Puducherry's Sacred Heart Church and Chandannagar's Sacred Heart
Church are two examples
British  Indo-Gothic style: Constructions were extremely large and walls are thinner

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Influence + Pointed arches and use of large windows + The churches had a crucified
ground plan + Examples include Victoria Memorial in Kolkata and Gateway
of India in Mumbai.
 Neo-Roman style: Anonymous constructions, focus on circular buildings,
overuse of oriental motifs to realise western architectural designs + Concept
of upturned dome as can be seen in Supreme court and Rashtrapati Bhavan.
 Indian Parliament: foundation stone laid in 1921, by Duke of Cannaught;
designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens & Sir Herbert Baker
11. Post-Independence architecture
 Architect of the Poor
 Revolutionized mass housing concept in Kerala
Laurie Baker  Introduction of the concept of filler slab construction to reduce steel and
cement consumption
 Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangements.
******

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Chapter - 2
PAINTINGS IN INDIA
1. Introduction: The art of painting has a long tradition in Indian subcontinent as progress commenced
very early during stone age; Chitrasutra, part of Vishnudharmottara purana is oldest known
book on painting in the world; Mudrarakshasa by Vishakadutta mentions numerous paintings.
2. Six Limbs (Shadanga) of Indian Paintings: Emerged in 1st century BC explained by Vatsyayana
Kamasutra.
 Rupabheda: Knowledge of appearances E.g: Padmapani, Cave No.1, Ajanta
 Sadrisyan: Portrayal of likeliness of subject
 Bhava: Expression E.g: Padmapani cave no.1 Ajanta
 Lavanyayoganam: Immersion of emotions E.g: Radha & Krishna with gopis, Pahari miniature.
 Pramanam: Correct depiction of size and other measurements E.g: Mayadevi, Ajanta
 Varnikabhanga: Use of brush and colours in artistic manner
3. Pre-Historic paintings: By Upper Palaeolithic period:
proliferation of artistic activities; subjects were human
figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols.
 Discovery of pre-historic rock paintings: First
discovery in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist,
Archibold Carlleyle, before discovery of Altamira in
Spain; remnants found on walls of caves in M.P, U.P,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and from Kumaon hills in
Uttarakhand; executed on rocks and rock engravings
called Petroglyphs.
o Lakhudiyar Painting: On banks of river Suyal,
Uttarakhand; superimposed painting is found; earliest painting in black and then Red
ochre and white painting; humans painted in stick-like form; colours used are black, red
and white ochre; hand linked dancing human
figure; long-snouted animal, a fox and a multiple
legged lizard are the main animal motifs.
o Granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
provided suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for
his paintings; famous sites are Kupgallu, Piklihal
and Tekkalkota.
 Upper Paleolithic period:
o Walls of rock shelter caves made of quartzite
walls: used minerals for pigments; linear
representations in green and dark red.
o Common minerals were ochre or geru mixed with lime and water; Red was used for
hunters and the green mostly for dancers.
o Mainly depict huge animal figures such as bisons, elephants, tigers besides stick-like
human figures and geometrical patterns.

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o Richest paintings reported from Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their Kaimurean
extensions.
 Mesolithic period:
o Largest pre-historic paintings belong to this
period; more themes than Paleolithic period;
smaller in size than the upper paleolithic period.
o painting of both fear and affection towards
animals; animals painted in naturalistic style
but humans were painted in a stylistic manner;
mainly sees the use of red colour.
o Hunting scenes depicting people hunting in
groups, community dancing, people gathering
fruit or honey from trees, women grinding etc;
o Remarkable inclusivity: young, old, animals, etc
all found space in Bhimbetka paintings
o Men adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes painted with head masks
o Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu in
Karnataka are prominent Mesolithic painting sites.
o Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish and at times
birds are also depicted.
 Chalcolithic Period:
o Paintings reveal association and mutual
exchange of cave dwellers with settled
agricultural communities of the Malwa
plains.
o common motifs are cross-hatched squares,
lattices, pottery; vividness and vitality of the
earlier periods disappear from these paintings.
o intrinsic passion for storytelling depict that
both men and animals engaged in the struggle
for survival; predominant use of green and
yellow colour; concentrate on depicting
battle scenes (men riding horses and elephants);
o Complex geometrical shapes like spiral, rhomboid and circle; paintings to show skins of
spotted deer left for drying : evidence for art of tanning skins.
o paintings from later period seen in Jogimara caves in Chattisgarh; another site Chitwa
Dongri show Chinese figure riding a donkey, pictures in dragon and agricultural
sceneries; other sites are Limdariha in Bastar district, and Oogdi, Sitalekni in Sarguja district.
 Bhimbetka Rock Paintings = Located in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh ; discovered by
Dr Vishnu Wakankar; estimated to be 30,000 years old and have survived due to its location
deep inside the caves; around 400 paintings on the walls of Bhimbetka caves: oldest belong to
Paleolithic age; paintings at Bhimbetka belong to Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic,
early historic and medieval period; most of the paintings belong to Mesolithic age; Various
colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and green are used, obtained from natural

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resources; brushes were made up of plant fibre; declared a UNESCO world heritage site in
2003; Hunting scenes and war scenes with armed men; Zoo Rock which depicts elephants,
bison, deer, and Sambar is the most striking feature.
o Themes
 Paleolithic period paintings: Huge figures of animals and stick like human figures
painted using green and dark red colour.
 Mesolithic period paintings: Scenes of hunting, communal dance, mother and child,
pregnant women and communal drinking.
 Chalcolithic period paintings: Contact with agricultural communities residing in Malwa
region.
 Early Historic age: Portray horse riders, different types of script, religious symbols
etc; red and white colours were primarily used.
o Recent developments: On the roof of the Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, researchers recently
uncovered three fossils of the earliest known living species, the 550-million-year-old
Dickinsonia : adds to the evidence of similar paleoenvironments and verifies the 550 Ma
assembly of Gondwanaland.
4. Harappan paintings: The art of painting was highly advanced in Harappan civilization; made
paintings on outer surface of their pots in black colour; depict geometrical designs, birds and
animals, flowers and pictographic scripts.
5. Paintings of Vedic age: Later vedic paintings made on outer surface of pots; colours of pots was
grey and paintings were made in blue colour; depict floral and geometrical designs.
6. Paintings of Gupta period: Kalidasa, Varahamihira and vatsayana provide information about
painting during the Guptan age; formal training was imparted to painters; most remarkable found in
Ajanta and Bagha caves.
7. Mural paintings: Works on walls or a solid structure referred as Murals; existed between 2 nd
century BC and 10th century AD; major ones are at Ajanta, Armamalai cave, Ravan Chhaya cave
shelter and Kailashnatha temple in Ellora; known for their sheer size.
 Ajanta cave paintings: only surviving painting of the first century BCE and the fifth century
CE; contains a set of 29 caves; depict religious and spiritual scenes: mostly associated with
Jataka stories of Lord Buddha; portray human values and social fabric; emotions expressed
through hand gestures; each female figure has a unique hairstyle; even animals and birds
shown with emotions medium of paintings was vegetable and mineral dyes; outline of figures
is red ochre.
o Prominent paintings
 Paintings of Padmapani and Vajrapani at Cave no. 1
 Story of Mahajanak Jataka depicted at Cave no.1
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 Story of Kapi Jataka portrayed at Cave no. 17

 Painting of Dying princess: full of expressions, located at Cave No. 16.
 Painting of Mother and Child located at Cave no. 17.
 ceiling decoration from cave no. 17; pink elephant is also from the same decorative
painting.
 Few Brahmanical figures such as Indra is depicted flying amid clouds together with
celestial nymphs holding musical instruments.
 Ellora cave paintings: Mural paintings in Ellora caves found in 5 caves, mostly limited to
Kailasha temple; paintings portray scenes related to Buddha‘s enlightenment; Vishnu with
Lakshmi borne through clouds by garuda, Lakshmi, Shiva and apsarasas; white, green and
brown colours used by painters; scenes of court life, women involved in various activities,
festivals etc are portrayed; birds and flowers also found in paintings of Ellora caves.
o Cave No. 10 known as Vishwakarma Cave: Buddha seated in Vyakhyana Mudra and
Bodhi tree is carved at his back.
o Cave No. 14 is themed ―Raavankikhai‖.
 Bagha cave paintings: Located in Dhar
district of Madhya Pradesh; Cave no.4
known as Rang mahal or chitrasala
depict Buddhist and Jataka tales; close to
Ajanta caves in design, execution and
decoration. These paintings depict
religious themes in the light of
contemporary lifestyle of people, thus are
more secular in nature.
 Chola murals: Paintings in temples done
at the initiative of Mahendravarman I;
Panamalai figure of a female divinity is
drawn gracefully; Faces are round and large; lines are rhythmic with increased ornamentation;
Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal are prominent examples; paintings at
Brihadeshwara temple show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash,
Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja etc.
 Vijayanagara murals: In Hampi, Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its
mandapa narrating events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana

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and Mahabharata; evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown in profile
and figures and objects two-dimensionally; lines become still but fluid, compositions
appear in rectilinear compartments.
 Kerala murals: Many sites found with mural paintings: Dutch palace in Kochi,
Krishnapuram palace in Kayamkulam and Padmanabhapuram palace.
 Armamalai cave paintings: Situated in vellore district of Tamilnadu; converted into jain
temples in 8th century; paintings depict Jain religious stories and tales Astathik palakas.
 Sittannavasal cave: Located in Tamil Nadu; known for paintings in jain temples; medium
used is vegetable and mineral dyes; common colours include yellow, green, orange, blue and
white. These murals have close resemblance with Bagh and Ajanta murals. Some scholars
attribute it to Pallava period of Mahendravarman I
 Ravan Chhaya rock shelter: Located in Keonjhar district of Odisha; most noticeable painting
is royal procession; they have unique tempera paintings belonging to 7th century.
 Lepakshi paintings: Located in Andhra Pradesh: made during Vijayanagara period; complete
absence of primary colours; decline in painting in terms of quality; costumes, forms and
figures outlined in black colour.
 Jogimara cave paintings: Located in Chattisgarh; walls covered with paintings of dancing
human beings and animals.
 Saspol caves: Located at Ladakh; caves adorned with paintings related to Buddhism.
 Thirunadhikkara cave paintings: Located in Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu; paintings
depict Ramayana and Mahabharata scenes.
 Chintakunta cave paintings: Located at Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh; it is first rock painting site
to be discovered in South India; red and white colours were predominantly used; throw light on
the life of megalithic period.
 Badami Paintings:
o Cave 1 is oldest among the four caves. Paintings on the ceiling of the cave are of Lord Shiva
as Nataraja, and Shiva and Parvati with a coiled serpent which has high aesthetic value.
o Cave 2 is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and his many incarnations.
o Cave 3 is also inspired by Brahmanical forms and thus has giant figures of many avatars of
Vishnu like Paravasudeva, Bhuvaraha, Harihara and Narasimha.
o Cave 4 is based on Jain ideology and it has a huge image of Lord Mahavira.
8. Miniature paintings:
 Paintings should not be larger than 25 square inch
 Subject should be painted in not more than 1/6th of actual size
 Human figurine is seen with side profile; bulging eyes, pointed nose and slim waist; women
figurines have long hairs and colour of their eyes and hair are generally black.
 Red, blue, black, white colours – primary colours
 Found as part of manuscripts and executed on palm leaf or vellum paper.
Pala School  Shows a naturalistic style, sinuous lines, delicate nervous lines, sensuous
elegance and subdued tones of colour, linear and decorative account; lonely
of Art
single paintings
 Surviving examples of the Pala illustrated manuscripts mostly belong to the
Vajrayana School of Buddhism.
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 Finest examples manuscript of Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, or the

perfection of Wisdom written in eight thousand lines
Origin to Gujarat and Mewar region in Rajasthan; most common themes

Apabhrams related to Jainism; concept of Gita Govinda and secular love.
a School of  Colours used had symbolic meaning usually red, yellow and ochre
Art  Fish shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose and double chin
 Famous example is of Kalpasutra and Kalakachya katha from 15th century
 Miniature paintings of Delhi Sultanate:
o Bring together Persian elements with Indian traditional elements
o Preference to illustrated manuscripts
o Example - Nimatnama during reign of Nasir shah.
o Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-ud-din Siraj: earliest reference of murals in sultanate period;
Human beings and animals painted on main arch of palace to welcome representative of caliph.
o Sultan Firoz shah Tughlaq banned tradition of making paintings on walls of palace of Delhi.
o Veerabhadra temples, Lepakshi has fresco paintings in bright colours; themes drawn from
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
 Mughal era miniature painting: Focus shifted from depicting god to glorifying the ruler;
focused on hunting scenes, historical events and other court related paintings; use of brilliant
colours and focus on ensuring accuracy of line drawing; brought the foresightening
tecgnique.
Patronised Persian artist called Bihzad: made illustration of Mughal family tree;
Babur however, he did not have much time to commission the paintings
Real progress in field of painting commenced; brought Khwaja Abdus Samad and
Humayun his son Mir Sayyid Ali with him; Mir Sayyid Ali was appointed as Akbar‘s teacher
 Established separate department known as Tasvir Khana under command of
Khwaja Abdus Samad; predominance of wall paintings; best example is
paintings on walls of Mariam‘s palace; established Karkhanas where artists
Akbar developed their own styles; 3 dimensional figures and use of calligraphy; more
emphasis on depiction of scenes of court life.
 Famous painters: Daswant (greatest painter), Basawan, Kesu, Lal Mukund,
Tara chand, Mir sayyid ali, Farukkh beg and Abdus Samad
 Great lover and patron of paintings; art of painting was essentially Indian during
his period; gave title Nadir ul zaman to Abul Hasan and Nadir-ul-Asar to
Mansur; appointed head of department of painting after Abdus samad;
Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad were famous foreign painters.
 Features: Paintings on material life and of natural scenes were prominent;
Jahangir
emphasis on court scenes and life of common man generally not depicted;
bringing naturalism to portrait painting; decorated margins around the
paintings; most famous miniature paintings include naturalistic paintings of
zebra, turkey, cock
 The animal fable "Ayar-i-Danish" was illustrated during his reign, contributing to

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the zenith of Mughal paintings.
 Use of Golden colour on a large scale; liked to create artificial elements and
tried to reduce liveliness of paintings; inspired by European influence in his
Shah court; eschewed use of charcoal; attained technical perfection but without real
Jahan beauty and emotions; Human figures painted amidst flowers and leaves
 Famous painters: Mir Hasan (greatest painter), Anupa chitra, Muhammad
Fakir Ullah and Chintamani
 Considered painting as un-islamic; destroyed paintings of Bijapur and Golkonda;
Aurangzeb forbade royal patronage and banished from Mughal court
 Characteristic features of Mughal paintings:
o Shift in focus from depicting god to court art
o Combination of Persian, Indian and European elements
 Persian influence: visible in form of narrative paintings, two dimensional paintings
during initial phase.
 Indian influence: portrait painting, use of 3-D effect, use of peacock blue and red colours.
 European influence: Use of light and shadow effect, use of halo and depiction of
roaring clouds.
o Secular in outlook (religious themes not portrayed); oil paintings were absent.
o Themes: Revolved around life in and around court; some natural beauty also painted; rose
flowers enjoyed remarkable significance.
9. Regional Schools of Art
 Rajasthani School of Paintings:
Characterized by deep influence of
Mughal style; folk themes such as story of
Dhola-Maru, Roopmati- Baaj Bahadur
portrayed commonly; both male and
female are full of emotions and feminine
beauty of highest order was portrayed;
Rajput School
Havelis of Shekhawati famous for their
wall paintings; painting is marked by
bold drawing, strong and contrasting
colors; Mughal influence seen in refining of drawing and some element of
naturalism introduced in figures and trees; Paper, ivory and silk used as
canvas
Developed in the Hindu principality of
Mewar; characterized by simple bright
colour and direct emotional appeal;
Mewar School The expressive and vigorous style
of Painting continued with some variations;
increased number of paintings were
concerned with portraiture and the life

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of the ruler, though religious themes were popular. Dominated by

extraordinary figure of Sahibidin + depicts literary texts like
Rasikapriya, Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana. Extraordinary ‗Tamasha
painting‘ depicting court and city belongs to this school.
: arose in the princely state of Kishangarh, central
Rajasthan state; distinguished by its individualistic
facial type and its religious intensity; notable for
elongated style, with arched eyebrows, lotus-like
Kishangarh elongated eyes and pointed chin; characterised by a
School of religious fervour and is associated with most romantic
Painting legends of Sawant Singh and Bani Thani
Bani Thani: painted by Nihal chand, labeled as
Indian Monalisa; depicted with elegant and graceful
features, including arched eyebrows, lotus-like
elongated eyes and pointed chin
Themes from the life of Krishna is a major theme; rich and glowing
colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon,
Bundi School overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees; Mughal influence is visible
of painting in the refined drawing of the faces; element of naturalism in the
treatment of the trees; Bhairavi Ragini is earliest examples of Bundi
painting
Show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-brown
backgrounds; primitive charm and a simple childlike vision; earliest work
Malwa school
is an illustrated version of the Rasikapriya + The initial stages of Malwa
of painting
painting were significantly shaped by the artistic inclinations of the Shirazi
school.
 Pahari school of painting
Flourished in the areas of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand;
religious and spiritual scenes depicted commonly; Guru-Shishya
tradition portrayed; use of thick Sialkoti paper which is hand-made
Kangra School
from cotton, bamboo; Nayaka-Nayika themes and love stories such as
Madhu-Malti and Nala-Damayanti. Reached its zenith under Raja
Sansar Chand
Expressive faces with receding hairline; lot of primary colours; used
Mughal technique of painting on clothing but developed their own styles
Basholi school
and techniques; most famous painter was Devi das. First patron of
this school was Raja Kirpal Singh.
 Miniatures in South India
Famous for decorative paintings; created on glass and board instead of
cloth and vellum; usage of gemstones and cut glasses for
Tanjore paintings
embellishments; depicted smiling Krishna in various poses; child god
Krishna and his pranks constituted a common theme

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Major theme is Hindu gods and goddesses; two or more figures in each
Mysore paintings painting; use ‗gesso paste‘: develop sheen on background
10. Modern paintings
Hybrid style which combined elements of Rajput, Mughal and European
Company style; distinguished by use of water colour; several painters engaged in
paintings painting exotic flora and fauna; most famous were Sewak Ram, Ishwari
Prasad and Ghulam Ali khan
Influenced by European encounter; school prevalent in Bengal and Bihar
Bazaar
region; famous genres were of depicting Indian courtesans dancing before
paintings
British officials
Originator of school of modern painting; brought together elements of South
Raja Ravi Indian painting with western techniques; also known as ‗Raphael of the
verma East‘; most famous works include Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India
etc.
Characterized by predominance of Indian nationalist theme; unique as they
Bengal school use simple colour; painting of Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore is
of art finest creation; Gajendranath Tagore, Nandalal bose and Jamini Roy were
famous painters.
11. Folk painting traditions in India
 Practised by women in Mithila region of Bihar; multiple mediums such as
cloth, handmade paper and canvas were used; main theme around Hindu
deities such as Lord Shiva, Krishna, Goddesses Durga and Saraswati; brush
is made of cotton wrapped on a bamboo stick; colour shading is not used
and it is two-dimensional; outlines made using double line and gap between
these lines; flowers, trees and animals used to fill any gaps in paintings; it has
GI status.
Madhubhani  Common themes: Scenes from royal courts, social events like marriage and
paintings natural themes such as sun, moon and plants like Tulsi are depicted.
 It is a traditional painting of
Odisha; picture painted on a
piece of cloth; inspired by the
Bhakti movement and by
Pattachitra religious themes; famous for
their bold lines and brilliant
colours; materials used in this
painting are natural substances;

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disciplined form of art with a set of rules and restrictions; painting is given
a coating of lacquer to give a glossy finish; themes are inspired from Jagannath
and Vaishnava cult; popular themes are Thia Badhia– depiction of the temple
of Jagannath; Dasabatara Patti, the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
 Originated from Bengal; started by painters of telling Mangal kavyas; done
Patua art on scrolls and painted on cloth; usually comment on political and social
issues
 Originated in 19th century around the area of Kalighat kali temples;
Kalighat
watercolours were used on mill papers using brush papers; depicted
painting
religious note especially Hindu gods and goddesses
Paitkar  Practiced by tribal people of Jharkhand; common theme is ‗what happens
paintings to human life post death‘.
 Art form belonging to the state of Andhra
Pradesh; natural dyes used on cotton and silk
fabric to make paintings; use date palm with
pointed end to make their brush; vegetable dyes
Kalamkari
used alongwith minerals such as iron, tin etc;
paintings
Kalahasti and Masulipatnam are two main
centres; Hindu mythology and gods are the
main themes; transferred hereditarily and practiced mainly by male members
of families
 Married women play a central role in
creating important painting
called Chowk to mark special occasions;
revolve around marriage of God Palghat;
closely associated with the rituals of
marriage, fertility, harvest and new
Warli
season of sowing; Palaghat, who is
paintings
chiefly worshipped as the goddess of
fertility and represents the corn goddess,
Kansari; central motif is surrounded by
scenes of everyday life, portraying acts
of hunting, fishing, farming etc.; circle and the triangle come from
their observation of nature
Belong to state of Sikkim; originally used as a medium of reverence that evoked
ideals of Buddism; painted on a base of cotton canvas; colours have their own
significance; once painting is done: framed in colourful silk brocade
Thangka
paintings

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This art belongs to Bhagalpur region of Bihar; also known as Angika art;
manjushas are temple shaped boxes having 8 pillars made of jute and bamboo:
paintings of various deities made on these boxes; used during Bishahari puja in
which snake is worshipped; Serpentine designs, snake motifs, birds and natural
scenes painted in three different colours
Manjusha
paintings
Sohrai Khovar paintings are ritualistic murals practiced by tribal women during
Sohrai local harvests and weddings in Jharkhand's Hazaribagh district. Made with locally
khovar available soils, they adorn mud house walls, portraying a profusion of lines, dots,
animals, plants, and religious iconography.
Cheriyal Scroll Painting, a modified version of Nakashi art, is culturally rich in
Telangana's local motifs. Originating from Cheriyal village, these narrative scrolls
illustrate Indian mythologies, Puranas, and Epics, akin to film rolls or comic strips.
Cheriyal
scroll
painting
Pithora paintings are done by some tribal communities of Gujarat and Madhya
Pithora Pradesh and are said to serve religious and spiritual purposes. They are painted in
painting the walls of the houses to bring peace and prosperity. They are drawn on special
family occasions as a ritual. Depictions of animals are common, especially horses.

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Chapter - 3
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
1. Sculptures of Harappan civilization
 Introduction: Highly advanced; materials used are stone, terracotta, metal and bronze alloy
to make sculptures; both secular and religious elements present; female goddess figurines are
abundant; stones such as Limestone, alabaster and steatite used.
 Stone sculptures
o Bearded priest (Mohenjadaro): It is made of steatite; shawl in trefoil pattern covers the
left shoulder; right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace; appearance as
of Greek style.
o Dancing Girl: The dancing girl made of steatite is found at Harappa.
o Male Torso: Red sandstone was used; legs are broken and head attached to the neck and
shoulders through socket openings.
 Copper and Bronze sculptures: Lost wax method used to make sculptures: made both solid
and hollow figures.
o Bronze Dancing girl (Mohenjadaro): Oldest bronze sculpture in whole world; stand in
tribhangi posture of Nataraja; Ernest Mackay discovered it; full of expression and bodily
vigour; girl is naked wearing only a necklace and bangles; figure is lanky, thin and
rhythmic in character.
o Bull from Mohenjo-Daro: Bull massiveness and the charge's wrath are vividly depicted;
seen standing to the right with his head cocked; cord is wrapped around the neck.
o Bronze sculptures of Buffalo and Ram (male sheep) found at Mohenjadaro.
o Bullock cart and Ikka made of Bronze found at Harappa and Chanhudaro.
o Bronze bull with head raised found at Mohenjadaro.
o Copper dog and bird found at Lothal
o Daimabad hoard: Four bronze objects Elephant, two-wheeled chariot, buffalo and
rhinoceros were found; southernmost limit of Harappan civilization.
 Terracotta sculptures: Less sophisticated compared to metal and stone figures; majority are
cult objects and toys; red colouring on clay employed commonly; most frequently depicted
animal was Unicorn; others include rhinoceros, elephant, monkey, turtle, dog and sheep.
o Mother Goddess: Found at Mohenjadaro; wearing a loin robe and a girdle; adorned with
jewelry dangling from her large breast; distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped
headpiece with a cup-like protrusion on either side.
o Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
o Animal resembling horse found at Mohenjadaro.
o Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals etc
o Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes; more realistic in
Gujarat sites and kalibangan.

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 Harappan seals: Discovered by General Alexander Cunningham in 1853 AD; maximum

number of seals found at Mohenjadaro; Steatite was the most common material; seals are
made of copper, ivory, shell, agate, faience and terracotta.
o Copper seals found only at Jhukar (sind), Lothal (Gujarat) and Desalpur (Gujarat).
o Dimensions varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch; most seals are quadrilateral in shape; square
and rectangular shaped seals found most commonly.
o Symbols such as circles, crosses, dots, swastikas and leaves of peepal tree were depicted.
o Elephant, bull, tiger, rhinoceros, antelope and crocodile were depicted; Unicorn was
most frequently depicted; fish was most common zoomorphic sign; cow was not depicted
on seals.
o Inscriptions in pictographic script, written in right to left; seals primarily used for
commercial purposes and might have also used as amulets.
 Important seals
o Pashupati Mahadev seal: It is made of steatite found at
Mohenjadaro; yogi-like figure sitting in cross-legged
surrounded by elephant and tiger on right side; rhinoceros
and buffalo on left side; two antelopes below the seat of
figure.
o Bull seal and seal depicting Mother Goddess with plant
growing from her womb found at Mohenjadaro.
o A seal depicting rhinoceros found at Amri (Sind).
o Seal depicting Garuda with snake in his claws found at Harappa.
o Seals are not discovered at Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
 Pottery during Harappan period
o Red and Black pottery: It is among the oldest pottery used in India; pots are black from
inside and outer body is red in colour (inverted firing method); river sand mixed with clay
to make pottery; mostly wheel turned, organic resins applied to their outer surface.
o Discovered for first time at Atranjikhera; Harappans were the first to use BRW pottery.
o Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were recurring themes.
o Usage: Plain pottery used for household purposes; miniature vessels for decorative
purposes; perforated potteries used for straining liquor.

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 Ornaments and Beads

o Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings.
o Girdles, earrings and anklets worn only by women.
o Beads are made from Cornelian, Amethyst, quartz, steatite etc.: evidence from factories
in Chanhudaro and Lothal.
o Cemetery found at Farmona in Harappa where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
2. Sculptures during Mauryan age
 Dr. Coomarswamy divides Mauryan sculptures into Court art and Popular art.
 The pillars and their capitals are considered court art.
Sarnath (Uttarpradesh) Four lions
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Four lions
Rampurva (West champaran district, Bihar) Bull and single lion
Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar Single lion
Lumbini, Nepal Horse capital (Hiuen Tsang mentions about
it in Xuanzang)
Sankisa, Uttarpradesh Elephant capital
 Popular art includes the Manibadra Yaksha found at Parkam and the Yakshini figure from
Besnagar.
 Yakshini at Didarganj: in sandstone with a polished surface; right hand is holding a chauri
(flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered. { Yakshas are male figures, and yakshinis are their
female counterparts. They were believed to be spirits that inhabited trees, mountains, rock
mounds, rivers, and oceans. Their prevalence in sculpture, usually in association with natural
elements, is considered a sign of widespread nature worship in the early historic period (6th–3rd
century B.C.E.). They are objects of worship related to all three religions Jainism, Buddhism and
Hinduism.}

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 Dhauli Elephant: Located in Puri district, Odisha; only front half of elephant visible:
elephant walking out of rock; carved over the Edicts of Asoka, including the two expressly
intended for Kalinga.
 Facades of Lomus Rishi cave: located in the Barabar hills near Gaya, Bihar; front is adorned
with a semicircular chaitya arch that serves as the entrance; For Ajivika sect, Ashoka
patronized the cave.
 Kanganahalli: It is about 3 km from Sannati, Karnataka.
o Stone sculptured slab bearing the name Ranyo Ashoka. This was the first inscribed portrait of
Ashoka (surrounded by female attendants and queens) that was unearthed from the ruined
Buddhist stupa.
3. Sculptures during Post -Mauryan age
 Gandhara school: Flourished in north western parts of Indian
subcontinent; also known as Greeco-Indian school of art.
o Known for its use of bluish-grey sandstone and later school used mud
and stucco.
o Shakas and Kushanas were patrons (Not Indo-Greeks).
o Secular elements were absent; associated with Buddhist religion.
o Important sites are Taxila, Bamiyan and Begram.
o Characteristic features:
 Roman influence: Realistic representation of human beings; hair
in wavy curls; wearing a Roman toga like dress.
 Greek influence: Protruding eyes, portrayed with a moustache, mechanical rigidy in
expression and emphasis on depiction of physical beauty: like those of Apollo, the
Greek god of beauty.
 Bharhut sculptures: narrative panels are shown with fewer
characters; availability of the space is utilized to the
maximum by the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives
as well as single figures of the Yakhshas and
Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to the chest; Examples
include sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2,
and Jagayyapetta.
 Mathura school
o Flourished in and around the Mathura region; oldest school which emerged in 2nd century
BC.
o Locally found white spotted red sandstone was used.
o Initially Brahminical figures of god such as Shiva, parvati, Vishnu,
Surya, Balarama was made; first to make sculptures of Buddha.
o Secular elements were present: headless figure of Kanishka at
Mathura; figures of trees and animals; figures of kanishka, Vima
kadphises found in Mat village.
o Important sites are Mathura city, Mat village and Kankali tila.

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Seated in yogic posture (padmasana posture) and involved in meditation.

Emphasis on depicting inner beauty (calmness).
Upper half of body half covered; yakshinis, Buddhas and Boddhisatvas portrayed;
physical mass of female sculptures; dealt with Shaiva and Vaishnava themes: Shiva
depicted as Ardhanarishvara and Umamaheswara.
 Striking use of symbolism in images E.g: Shiva is shown through linga and
Mukhalinga.
 Buddha shown in Abhaya Mudra (gesture of fearlessness).
 Buddha shown surrounded by Boddhisatvas: Padmapani holding a lotus and
Vajrapani holding a thunderbolt.
 Amaravati School
o Developed in Amaravati and Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh under patronage of
Satavahana, Ikshvaku and Vakataka rulers.
o White marble was the most common material.
o Foreign influence was absent completely.
o Secular elements: Large number of female figures in various postures; kings, queens and
princes and palaces also made.
o Important sites are Vengi, Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunakonda and Jaggayyapeta.
o It never declined: got assimilated with Pallava and Chola schools of sculpture; spread
into Sri Lanka and South-East Asian countries.
 More emphasis on use of dynamic images or
narrative art; excessive use of Tribhanga posture.
 Focus on depiction of feminine beauty; female
figurines made in various gestures and postures.
 Physical and worldly aspects highly
developed; characterized by naturalistic and
sensual appeal.
 Life-size figures were made (more than 16 feet
in height)
 Sanchi sculptures: Four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from life of
the Buddha and the Jataka; figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire
space; symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha and Manushi Buddhas or the
past Buddhas; siege of Kushinara, Buddha‘s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with details
 Buddhist gestures and postures
o Padmasana mudra: cross-legged; common way of sitting during rituals and ceremonies.
o Abhaya mudra: Indicates fearlessness
o Dhyana mudra: also known as Samadhi mudra; facilitates cleansing human consciousness
of any impurities.
o Namaskara mudra: Also known as Anjali mudra; evokes greeting with utmost respect and
adoration.
o Bhumisparsa mudra: calling mother earth to witness the truth; represents unshaken belief
and commitment.

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o Varada mudra: boon granting mudra and represents compassion and liberation.
o Karana mudra: warding off the evil gesture.
o Vajrapradama mudra: unshakable self confidence
o Vitarka mudra: evokes energy of teaching and facilitates intellectual discussion.
o Dharmachakra mudra: continuous flow of energy of cosmic
order.
4. Gupta Sculpture
 Characterized by use of cream coloured sandstone and use of
metal.
 Halo around Buddha was intricately decorated.
 Human figure is pivot of Gupta sculpture; ideal is based
upon an explicit understanding of the human body in its
inherent softness and suppleness; elaborate draperies,
jewellery, etc.
 Synthesis between symbolism of post-mauryan and nudity of
early medieval age.
 Sultanganj Buddha: Made of copper which is 7.5 feet portrayed in
Abhaya mudra.
 Great Varaha figure at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh)
 Mehrauli iron pillar represent pinnacle of genius
5. Medieval school of sculpture
 Pallava sculpture
o Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at
Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu; massive
open-air relief carved out on two monolithic
rock boulders; all deities of heaven are
depicted here; main depiction is bearded man
worshipping God Shiva.
 Chola Bronze sculpture: Devoid of
ornamentation yet elegant and expressive;
created using Cire Perdue; union of Shiva and
Parvati is very ingeniously represented in the Ardhanarishvara murti in a single image;
most important sculpture is Nataraja.
o Nataraja
 Shiva shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara, the
demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg.
 Raises his left hand in Bhujangatrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is
kicking away the veil of maya.
 His four arms are outstretched and the main right hand is posed in Abhayahasta.
 The upper right hand holds the damura to keep on the beat tala.
 The upper left hand carries a flame while the main left hand is held in the Dolahasta
and connects with the Abhayahasta of the right hand.

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 His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala mala which surrounds
the entire dancing figure.
 Earliest known Natraja sculpture was excavated at Ravana Phadi Cave during early
Chalukya rule. However it reached its peak under cholas.
 Under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, the first fully three
dimensional stone carving of Natraja emerged.

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6. Sengol
Chapter - 4
INDIAN MUSIC
1. Introduction: Tradition of Music in India is one of the oldest musical traditions in the entire world
tracing its origin since the Stone age + All the seven notes of the raga karaharapriya can be found in
descending order in the Sama veda + Bharat Muni Natya Shastra: Most authoritative text on music,
dance and drama.
2. Fundamental Elements of Music
 Shruti: It is pitch of music; shortest interval of pitch that human ears can detect and a musical
instrument can produce + It is base of music + According to Natya Shastra, there are 22 shrutis.
 Swara: It was originally associated with the recitation of the Vedas; Over time, the term has
come to refer to a composition's 'note' or 'scale degree + The notational system of Hindustani
music is currently defined by these abbreviated swaras: Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni.
 Raga: It is derived from Sanskrit word 'Ranj,' which literally means to delight, make happy, and
satisfy someone + Serve as foundation for melody, while tala serves as the foundation for
rhythm.
o Three categories based on number of notes in Raga

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 Audav/Odava raga: This raga is a 'pentatonic' raga with five notes.

 Shadava raga: It is a 'hexatonic' raga with six notes.
 Sampurna raga: It is a 'heptatonic' raga with seven notes.
o Three categories on the basis of their originality
 Shuddha raga: Retains its original nature and form even if any element of other raga is
present in it.
 Chhayalag raga: The nature and form of this raga changes when elements of any other
raga are present in it.
 Sankeerna raga: It has a combination of elements of two or more ragas.
Music Raga Season Associated Time of Day Emotions Produced
Raga Hindol Spring Dawn time Sweet and soft love
Raga Bhairav Autumn Morning time Tranquility
Raga Megh Rainy Mid-day time Bravery
Shri Raga Winter Evening time Satisfaction
Raga Deepak Summer Night time Compassion
Raga Malkauns Winter Midnight time Intense love
 Tala: It is the rhythm element of music + It is a sequence of beats performed by singers using
hands and fingers at fixed time cycles + Most common variety of tala used in Carnatic music is
Adi tala + It is intricately related to Lasya (repetitive nature of any activity)
 Rasa: These were created to elicit emotional responses in both the performer and the audience.
Rasas are the emotions that are evoked by singing and playing instruments + Originally, there
were eight rasas, but later 'shanta' rasa was added, bringing the total to nine rasas.
3. Progress in Music and Dance during Ancient age
 Communal dance scenes at Bhimbetka cave paintings: Indicate the practice of dance by people
during Mesolithic period.
 Images of Dancing girl found at Harappa (made of steatite) and Mohenjodaro (made of bronze)
indicate dance was practiced by Harappans + Harappans ware of musical instruments; Seals
found at Lothal depicts Harp-like musical instrument.
 Hymns of Samaveda have been set to musical tones; hymns chanted by Udgatri priests during
rituals and ceremonies + Gandharva veda (Upaveda of Samaveda) deals exclusively with music.
 Panini Ashtadhyayi: Developed music on scientific basis and gave it a classical bent; 7 swaras
represented through 7 letters.
 Samudragupta is depicted playing Veena in his coins.
 Women like Amrapali was famous for their expertise in music and dance.
 Ilango Adigal mentions in the silappadi kaaram that the basic musical ideas were developed by
the ancient Tamils as early as the first century AD.
 Mahendra Verma(7 century) mentioned all contemporary Carnatic musical facts
in Kudumiyamalai inscriptions.
4. Progress in Music during Medieval Age
 Delhi Sultanate period
o Amir Khusrau invented 19 ragas of which Khayal, Tarana and Qawwalis were most
important; also invented Tabla and Sitar by combining Veena (Indian) and Tambura
(Iranian).

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o Ragdarpan translated from Sanskrit language into Persian language during the reign of Sultan
Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
o Lahjat-i-Sikandari was written under patronage of Sikander Lodi.
o A treatise titled Ghunyat-ul-Munya was compiled in Persian at instance of Malik
Shamsuddin Abu Raja.
o Sufi saint Pir Bodhan was a great musician of this age.
 Mughal period
o According to Abul Fazl, Akbar patronized and loved music in all forms.
o It is considered that Ragh Megh performed by Tansen could cause rainfall any season and his
raga Deepak could set candles alight.
o Kathak dance was also patronized by Akbar.
o Aurangzeb himself was a proficient player of Veena; After Aurangzeb banned singing and
dancing in his court, only instrumental music was allowed.
o Tuhfatul-Hind written by Mirza Muhammad Ibn Fakhruddin Muhammad.
o Sadarang and Adarang were great patrons of music during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah.
 Development in Regional kingdoms
o Sharangadev (musician in court of Yadava ruler of Devagiri Singhana) wrote Sangeet
Ratnakar.
o Lochan Kavi wrote Raag Taringini in 11th century.
o Haripal Dev composed Sangeet Sudhakar which deals with both forms of Indian classical
music- Hindustani and Carnatic music.
o Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur invented Kalwanti Khayal, Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu
bhairavi and also devised Jaunpurit raga.
o Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior wrote a book titled Man Kautuhal on music.
o Earliest available treatise written in South India is Svaramela-kalanidi of Kondavidu‘s
Ramamatya in Andhra Pradesh.
o Vijaya Vithala temple with its 56 carved pillars emitting musical notes is located in Hampi.
o Somanatha wrote Ragavibhoda in 1609 AD.
5. Folk Music traditions
Music styles Important Features
 ‗Rasiya‘ word is derived from the word rasa (emotion)
Rasiya Geet  It flourished in Braj, sacred land of Lord Krishna‘s charming leelas.
(Uttar Pradesh)  It is closely woven into the very fabric of daily life and day to day chores
of its people.
 It is sung in the chaitra month during the festival – ‗Lotia‘.
Lotia
 Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash filled with water from
(Rajasthan)
ponds and wells.
Pandavani  Themes: Tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two
(Chhattisgarh) episodes are chosen for the night‘s performance.
 It is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and
Mando
both social injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in
(Goa)
Goa.
Chhakri,  It is a group song form of Kashmir‘s folk music.

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Kashmir  It is sung to accompany noot (earthen pot) rababs, sarangi and tumbaknari.
 Amir Khusrau created Qawwali through fusion of Persian and Indian
musical traditions.
 It is devotional in nature & sung in a group with solo voice against a
chorus.
 Qawwali music tradition traces its roots back to the Chishti Sufi order,
one of the major Sufi orders in India. This musical form evolved as a
devotional expression within the Chishti order, primarily in the Indian
subcontinent.
Qawwali  Chishti Sufis emphasized the use of music, poetry, and song as a means to
reach spiritual heights and connect with the divine. Qawwali,
characterized by its soulful melodies, repetitive phrases, and rhythmic
patterns, became a prominent expression of this devotion.
 Lyrics of Qawwali songs often convey themes of love, spirituality, and
the union with the divine, drawing from various sources including Sufi
poetry, especially the works of mystic poets like Rumi, Hafiz, and Amir
Khusrow.
 It is a recital of a religious mythological story with music.
Harikatha  Themes taken from epics, Puranas and lives of saints.
 It is the most popular medium of religious instruction in South India.
 It is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of
Tappa camel riders in the Punjab.
(Punjab)  It is characterized by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic
and rapid notes.
 It is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra.
 Narratives are odes in praise of an individual hero or an incident or place.
Powada
 The chief narrator is known as the Shahir.
(Maharashtra)
 The tempo is fast and controlled by the main singer who is supported by
others in chorus.
 It is a highly dramatic form of ballad.
Burrakatha
 A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is played by the main performer while
(Andhra Pradesh)
reciting a story.
 It is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha.
Daskathia
 The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the
(Odisha)
―Das‖, the devotee.
 These are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both for their
Bihu Songs literary content and for their musical mode.
(Assam)  They are blessings for a happy new year and the dance is associated with
an ancient fertility cult.
Chai hia  During the Chapchar Kut festival a special occasion for singing and
(Mizoram) dancing is called ‗chai‘ and songs are known as ‗chai hia‘.
Teej Songs  It is celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan.

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(Rajasthan)  The theme of the songs sung during this festival revolve around the union
of Shiva and Parvati, the magic of monsoon, greenery, peacock dance etc.
6. Classical Music
 Hindustani Music: It came into existence in 13th century due to assimilation of elements of
Persian Music with traditional Indian music.
o Important Features: Six primary ragas are Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and
Megh + Ragas used to strictly observe the time theory + It has a highly formalized grammar,
dictated by textual as well as oral tradition + Leisurely introductory section (alap) followed
by solfege and fast section with fast melodic phrases and rhythmic play + Musical
instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin + Main styles are
Dhrupad, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri etc.
o Dhrupad: Performed by a solo singer
 Mridang is used during its performance rather than the Tabla
 Oldest vocal style
 Greater emphasis on music rather than words
 Chanting of Om, Chhand and Parbandh
 Main exponents - Swami Haridas and Tansen
 Udaipur, Gwalior and Banaras are major Gharanas.
 Musicians – Baiju Bawra (at the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat)
o Khayal: It evolves out of Qawwali singing style + It is flexible in nature and provides scope
for improvisation + Amir Khusrau invented it + It is more romantic and delicate than
Dhrupad + Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela patronized it in his court.
o Thumri: It is romantic as well as devotional in nature, famous for sensuality + Themes revolve
around a girl‘s devotion and love for Krishna + Lyrics are usually in UP dialects of Hindi called
Awadhi and Brij Basha + Poorab style and Punjab style are its two main branches.
o Tappa: It originated from folk songs of camel riders of Punjab + It is a crisp and highly
volatile in nature + It was originated by Mian Ghulam Nabi shori + The word Tappa stands
for jumping, bouncing and skipping.
o Ghazals: It is a product of Persian influence composed of independent couplets + These are
essentially poetic compositions in Urdu depicting love + The Golconda and Bijapur rulers
encouraged this tradition of Urdu. Some important patrons of Ghazal and Urdu were Nusrati,
Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah and Wali Dakhini.
o Tarana: It is a vocal form of Hindustani music invented by Amir Khusrau + It uses poetry that is
full of powerful words + It is characterized by use of meaningless syllables in a very fast rendition.
o Carnatic Music: It is indigenously developed style of classical music + It is strongly kriti-
based + Unity of raga, tala and shruti; equal importance to melody and rhythm + Even
balance between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of compositions of great masters) and
creativity + Important compositions: Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam, kritanam,
kriti, pada, javali, pallavi etc
o Pallavi: This portion is often repeated in each stanza + It is considered to be best part of
Carnatic composition called Ragam Thanam Pallavi where artist has scope for improvisation.

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o Gitam: It is the simplest type of composition with an easy and melodious flow of music + It
is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end + Theme of the song is usually
devotional + Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha.
o Jatiswaram: It is noted for its rhythmical excellence + In some cases the Pallavi and
Anupallavi are sung to jatis and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis.
o Varnam: It is a complete composed piece, designed to show the characteristic phrases and
melodic movements of a raga and is usually performed at the beginning of a concert.
o Ragamalika: This is concluding part of Pallavi + Soloist is allowed to freely indulge in
improvisation.
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
It originated in North India; influenced by Arab, It originated in South India and has no foreign
Persian and Afghan traditions. influence.
No strict adherence to unity of raga, tala and Sruti. Unity of raga, tala and Sruti in every piece.
Prevalence of number of sub-styles called gharanas Only one particular prescribed style of
– Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur and Indore Gharanas. singing.
More importance to vocal than instruments. Equal importance to vocal and instruments.
There are six major ragas There are 72 ragas.
Instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sita and Veena, Mridangum and Mandolin.
Santoor.
Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Ustad Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Alla Khan etc. Shyama shastri (Trinity of Carnatic music)
7. Music Communities of India
Music Community State
Langha (Muslim tribal community) Gujarat and Rajasthan
Manganiar Rajasthan
Bauls West Bengal
Bhopa Rajasthan
Jogi Rajasthan
Muria tribes Madhya Pradesh
Moken tribes Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Idu Mishmi tribes Arunachal Pradesh
Kamar community Chattisgarh

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Chapter - 5
THEATRES OF INDIA
1. Introduction
 It is a narrative art form combining acting, music, dance etc; Bharat Muni Natyashastra was the
earliest treatise on dramaturgy.
 Samvada- sukta hymns of Rigveda contains rudiments of Indian drama.
 Sitabengra cave (Chattisgarh) is one of the oldest amphitheatres in the world cut by Prince
Devdutta for his lover Sutnuka.
 Chauhan king Visaladeva composed Harakeli Nataka, a drama in Sanskrit language.
 Krishnadeva raya wrote a Sanskrit drama called Jambavati Kalyanam.
2. Abhinaya (Acting)
 Natya Shastra classifies Abhinya into- Angika abhinaya (expression through limbs), Vachika
abhinaya (expression through dialogues), Aharya abhinaya (expression through costume),
Sattvika abhinaya (truthful expression).
3. Ancient Indian Plays
 Ashvaghosha
o He was the first playwright in Indian history.
o He wrote Sariputra-prakarana in Sanskrit language; theme revolved around conversion of
Sariputra and Mahamoggalana from Brahmanical religion into Buddhism.
o Wrote Buddhacharita
 Bhasa
o Wrote Swapnavasavadatta in Sanskrit language around 4th century AD - revolves around
Vatsa king Udayana and queen Vasavadatta
o Wrote Karnabhara and Urubhanga - only Sanskrit plays that depict tragic ends.
o Pratigyayogandharaya theme revolves around devious activities of minister Yaugandharaya
of Vatsa king Udayana of Kaushambi.
o Wrote Madhyamavyayoga
 Kalidasa – Sanskrit poet
o Abhijnana Shakuntalam: It deals with the story of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala.
o Malavikagnimitram: It revolves around the love affair of Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra
Shunga, and Malavika. It mentions that Pushyamitra Shunga performed Rajasuya sacrifice.
o Vikramorvasiyam: It means ‗Urvashi won through valour‘. It is a Sanskrit play revolving
around the love story of king Puruvas and Urvashi.
o Meghdoot
o Kumarsambhava
 Vishakadatta
o Mudrarakshasa: Its theme revolves around ascendance of Chandragupta Maurya to the
throne of Pataliputra with the help of Chanakya.
o Devichandraguptam: It deals with the story of Ramagupta, Chandragupta II and queen
Dhruvadevi.

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 Shudraka
o Mrichchakatikam (little clay cart): Love story of a Brahmin merchant, Charudatta and a
courtesan Vasantasenâ.
o His other plays include Vinavasavadatta, and a Bhana (short one-act monologue), and
Padmaprabhritaka.
 King Harshavardhana
o Ratnavali: Its theme revolves around devious path adopted by minister Yaugandharaya of
Vatsa king Udayana of Kaushambi to get his king married to Ceylonese princess Ratnavali.
 Bhavabhuti
o He wrote plays based on the Ramayana such as the Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a
Great Hero) which depicts the early life of Rama.
o Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of Rama), which shows the final years of Rama‘s
life as written in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana.
o Malatimadhava (Malati and Madhava) is a Prakarana play centered on the love story
of Malati, the daughter of a minister and Madhavya, her beloved.
4. Salient Features of Sanskrit Drama
 They were generally four to seven act plays; always had happy endings.
 Protagonist was male who would achieve object of his desire at the end.
 Followed a ritualistic progression: Play started with number of pre-play rituals, worship to the
deity.
 Curtains used to intensify the impact of the play; masks were not used.
 Emphasis on sentiment; rasa is composed of vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicharibhava, and
sthayibhava.
5. Folk Theatres of India
 Kashmir
 Combination of dance, music
and acting
 Wit, satire and parody used
for inducing laughter
 Music is provided
Bhand
with Surnai, Nagaara, and
Pather
Dhol
 Usually held in open spaces
 There are no predetermined
scripts; these stories commemorate the lives of rishis
 Performance begins in evening with a ritualistic dance called Chhok
 Most actors belong to farming community

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It is a folk theatre popular in Gujarat and

Rajasthan; Kutch and Kathiawar are its
main centres + It acts both as
entertainment and a kind of ritual offering
made to Hindu goddess Amba + Bhavai
Bhavai plays also known as Veshas + Subtle
social criticism with humour is the
speciality of this theatre + It uses
instruments like bhungal, pakhwaaj,
rabab, sarangi and manjeera + It has both religious and secular elements + Most
Bhavai plays reflect a critical attitude towards caste system
Rajasthan, Haryana and Western Uttar
Pradesh which is centered around music +
Two varieties: Rohtak (Haryana)
performed in Bangru language and
Swang
Hathras (Uttar Pradesh) performed in
Brajbhasa language + It focuses on
depiction of softness of emotions + It is
dialogue oriented; religious stories are enacted and sung by artists
Uttar Pradesh; Kanpur, Lucknow, and
Haathras are prominent centres +
Metres (Chhand) used by actors are
verse forms such as doha, chhappai
Nautanki and behar-e-tabeel + Only Men could
play a part in this folk dance theatre
initially. However, later even women
are allowed + Gulab Bai of Kanpur is
the most prominent personalities
Its theme revolves around legends of Lord
Krishna + It is believed that Nand Das wrote
the initial plays based on the life of Krishna
+ Famous in the regions of Mathura,
Rasleela Vrindavana in Uttar Pradesh, especially
during the festivals of Krishna Janmashtami
and Holi + Dialogues in prose form
combined with scenes and songs from
Krishna‘s pranks
Jatra Maach
Malwa in Madhya Pradesh + Songs are used by actors
West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Assam and Tripura + It
in between dialogues + Dialogues used are known as
is a musical theatre form associated with Chaitanya
bol, rhyme in narration known as vanag + Unique
Mahaprabhu + Chaitanya used to play Rukmini in
feature of this form is dialogues delivered in the form
Rukmini Haran drama
of couplets known as Rangat Dohas

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Bhaona Tamaasha
used for entertainment in Assam + It was created in Maharashtra evolved from folk theatres such as
by Vaishnava saint Guru Shankardev in 16th Jagran, Gondhal and Kirtan + Female actress known
century + The story begins in Sanskrit and then as Murki is main character that directs dance
either Brajboli or Assamese is used + Themes movements + female actors play even the male roles
used to propagate religious messages to +They are accompanied by Lavani songs + Footwork
common villagers + One play acts known as at lightning speed, classical music and vivid gestures
Ankiya Nats + Generally staged at Xatras +known for its humour and erotic content.
(monasteries) and Namghars in Assam
Dashavatar Krishnattam
In Konkan and Goa regions + The performers It is a colourful dance-drama tradition of Kerala
personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu + originated in around middle of 17th century AD +
These performers wear masks of wood and King Manavada of Calicut was its main patron +
papier-mache Plays based on life of Lord Krishna such as his
birth, childhood activities and deeds portraying
triumph of good over evil
It is a traditional folk theatre of Kerala

primarily performed in the Kali temples + It
depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali
Mudiyettu over the Asura Darika + Performances
organized during months of November and
December

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Kerala + It is performed by various castes to

worship and appease spirits of their folk heros,
ancestors and deities + Use of colourful
Theyyam costume and massive headgears (mudi) +
Headgear is made of leaf sheaths of areca nut,
bamboos, areca nut splices and wooden planks
Traditional theatre form of Kerala based on

Sanskrit theatre traditions + More emphasis on
hand gestures and eye movements + It has
Koodiyattam been recognized by UNESCO as ‗Masterpiece
of oral and intangible heritage of humanity +
It is the only surviving Sanskrit theatre; oldest
theatre to continuously performing till date
Karnataka + Dance, music, dialogue, costume,
make-up, and stage techniques are combined to
form a unique style and form + Mythological
stories such as Draupadi Swayamvar, Abhimanyu
Vadh and Karna-Arjun Yuddh are popular in it +
Yakshagana
Its performance continues through night till
sunrise + Some of the famous Yakshagana artists
are- Siddakatte Chennappa Shetty, Chittani
Ramachandra Hegde, Naranappa Uppoor, Balipa Narayana Bhagawat, and Kalinga
Navada
Yakshaganamu It resembles with Yakshagana of Karnataka popular in Andhra Pradesh.
It is the most popular folk drama of Tamil
Nadu; also popular in Tamil regions of Sri
Lanka + It is mostly performed at the time of
the annual temple festivals of Mariamman
(Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest +
Therukoothu
Themes from Hindu epic Mahabharata,
focusing on the character Draupadi + Komali
is the one who entertains audience with his
buffoonery + Kattiakaran is master of the
theatre who gives gist of play to the audience
It literally means ‗Story of the Lord‘ also
known as Harikatha Kaalakshepam in
Telugu and Tamil + It is a composite art
Harikatha form composed of storytelling, poetry,
music, drama, dance, and philosophy
prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Maharashtra, and Karnataka

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It is an oral storytelling
technique performed in villages
of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana + It
is a narrative entertainment that
Burra Katha consists of prayers, solo drama, dance,
songs, poems and jokes + Themes
drawn from Hindu mythological story
(Jangam Katha) and contemporary
social issues
It is a famous folk theatre of Andhra Pradesh written by Siddhendra Yogi in 16th
Bham
century to retain sanctity of dance from prostitute dancers + Elaborate
Kalappam
expressions and complex gesture adhered by Kuchipudi dance
It is a single act drama, in which several characters get involved giving active
role to only one of the performers + The Sutradhara of an Ankiya Nat plays an
important role, since he recites slokas, sings dances and explains every act of
Ankiya Naat the play in prose + traditional one-act play of Assam. + It was started by the
famous Vaishnava Saint Sankaradeva and his disciple Madhavdev in the 15th -
16th century AD.+ It is performed in the style of an opera and depicts incidents
from the life of Lord Krishna.
The plays on Bhagavan were performed in an open place, therefore, they were
Veedhi
called Veedhi Natakam. The plays performed by Bhagathas (devotees of
Natakam
Bhagwan) + It is the most popular folk theatre form of Andhra Pradesh
Daskathia is a form of folk theatre popular in Odisha. In this form, there are two
narrators - Gayaka, who is the chief singer and Palia, who is the co-narrator.
The narration is accompanied by dramatic music composed using a wooden
Daskathia
musical instrument called kathia. The theme mainly revolves around Lord
Shiva. A close variant of this form is the ChhaitiGhoda, which uses two musical
instruments –dhol and mohuri – and three narrators.
6. Key Terms:
 The Prastavana It serves as an introductory segment in the performance. It sets the stage for the
unfolding drama, providing essential background information, context, or a brief overview of the
storyline. This introductory monologue or dialogue might be delivered by a character within the
play or sometimes by a narrator, establishing the mood, theme, or introducing key elements that
will unfold during the course of the drama.
 Prarochana: it generally refers to an instigator or someone who incites or provokes
 Pravesaka: refer to an entrance or an introducer in some contexts, it isn't the specific term used
for the prologue or introduction at the beginning of Indian classical dramas.

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Classfication of Indian Folk Theature
******

ART & CULTURE
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Chapter - 6
INDIAN DANCE FORMS
1. Introduction: Earliest evidence of dance found in community dancing at Bhimbetka and sculpture
of Bronze dancing girl of Harappan civilization + First formal mention of dance is found in Bharata
Muni‘s work Natya Shastra (compiled in 2nd century AD) + Bharat Muni describes dance as most
‗complete art‘ encompassing music, sculpture, poetry and drama.
2. Associated story: When Lord Brahma was requested by God to create a pastime, he combined
aspects of 4 vedas and created a fifth Veda Known as Natya Veda.
3. Aspects of Dance
 Two basic aspects according to Natyashastra:
o Lasya: It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya + It is symbolic of the feminine features of
dance as an art form.
o Tandava: This is symbolic of the male aspects of dance + More emphasis on rhythm and
movement.
 As per Abhinaya Darpan, Nandikeshwara, an act has been broken into 3 elements:
o Nritta- It refer to basic step of dance, performed rhythmically but devoid of any expression
or a mood.
o Natya- It means dramatic representations and refer to the story that elaborated through
dance.
o Nritya- Nritya refer to sentiment and emotions related to dance.
4. Classical Dances: Dances performed inside sanctum sanctorum of temples during rituals and
ceremonies were called Agama Nartanam + Dances performed under patronage of kings in courts
were called as Carnatakam.
Fig: Various Postures of Classical Dances

5. Classical dance forms in India
 Presently there are eight classical dances that are recognised by Sangeet Natak Akademi along
with the Union Ministry of Culture. These are:
o Bharatanatyam from Tamil Nadu
o Kuchipudi from Andhra Pradesh

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o Kathakali from Kerala

o Mohiniattam from Kerala
o Odissi from Odisha
o Manipuri from Manipur
o Kathak from Uttar Pradesh
o Sattriya from Assam
The five classical dances of India are considered to be the mystic manifestation of the metaphysical
elements of nature (Panchatatva) in the human body. These include Odissi (element of water),
Kuchipudi (element of earth), Mohiniattam (element of air), Bharatnatyam (element of fire) and
Kathakali (element of sky or aether).
 Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
o Also known as Dance of an Enchantress, Nangai
natakam, Dasiyattam and Tevitichiyattam.
o Important Features: It is essentially a solo dance
performance by women which focuses on
expression of feminine moods and emotions + It is
characterized by graceful, swaying body movements
with no abrupt jerks + Importance is given to the
hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial
expressions + Emphasizes on lasya style of recital,
feminine in nature; movements resemble waves of
sea and swaying of coconut, palm trees and paddy
fields + The element of air is 62acrifice62 through a Mohiniattam performance.
o Musical instruments used: Cymbals, veena, Idakka, Mridangam, drums, flute, etc
o Costumes: White and off white in colour with gold brocade.
o Famous proponents: Gopika Varma, Sunanda Nair, Jayaprabha Menon and Sunanda Nair.
 Kathakali (Kerala)
o Also called as ‗ballad of the east‘, it is essentially an
all-male troupe performance which is a blend of
dance, music and acting.
o Important features: Themes drawn from stories
narrated in the epics and the puranas + It represents
eternal conflict between good and evil + Emphasizes on
representation of rasa through eye and eyebrow
movements + An element of sky or ether is represented
+ Elaborate head gear and facial makeup: Green colour
(nobility and divinity), red colour (indicate royalty),
black colour (evil and wickedness) + performed in open air premises + A continuous sound
of drums, maddala performed during the dawn, culminates the whole performance +
Characters broadly divided into satvika, rajasika and tamasika
o Instruments used: Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shanku.
o Famous proponents: Rita Ganguly, Gopinath, Krishna Prasad, Ramankutty Nair.
 Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

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o It was conceived in 17th century by Vaishnava poet Siddhendra yogi from Yakshagana dance
drama.
o Elements: Manduk Shabdam (a frog story), Jala chitra nrityam (while dancing, pictures
drawn on the floor), Tarangam (Feet balanced on edges of brass plate with a water pot
balanced on the head).
o Important features: It is known for its impressive
dramatic characterization, expressive eye movements
and spirited narrative + It is a combination of
Tandava (the majestic, masculine) and and Lasya
(lyrical graceful and feminine energy) + Distinctive
feature is the execution on a brass plate and moving
the plate to the accompaniment of Carnatic music +
They wear light make-up and ornaments like the
Rakudi (head ornament), Chandra Vanki (arm band),
Adda Bhasa and Kasina Sara (necklace) + ornaments
are made of light wood called Boorugu + It follows
three performance namely ‗Nritta‘ (Nirutham),
‗Nritya‘ (Niruthiyam) and ‗Natya‘ (Natyam)
mentioned in ‗Natya Shastra.
o Musical instruments: Mridangam, cymbals, veena, flute and tambura.
o Famous personalities: Radha Reddy, Indrani Rehman and Yamini Krishnamurthy.
 Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
o It is the oldest among all the classical dances in
India: origin traced back to Sadir Natyam which
is a solo dance of devadasis.
o It is also known as Dasi Attam, Chinna melam and
Sadir.
o Elements:
 Alarippu: Combination of pure dance and
recitation of sound syllables.
 Jatiswaram: Short pure dance along with
different poses.
 Shabdam: It includes Abhinaya in the song in
reverence of supreme being.
 Varnam: Dance and emotions in synchronization with taal and raga.
 Padam: It represents expression of Abhinaya by artists.
 Jawali: Short love lyrics performed at a quick tempo.
 Thillana: Dance ends with Thillana.
o Important Features: It is the solo dance performed by women; famously known as fire
dance + Ekcharya Lasyam style (one dancer performs many roles in a single act) + Tandava
and Lasya given equal importance + Katha mukha hasta is main mudra in which Om
symbolized by joining three fingers + It is also referred to as ‗Fire dance‘.
o Instruments used: Mridangam, Veena, Flute and Cymbal.

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o Famous personalities: Rukmini devi arundale made it globally recognized, Meenakshi

Sundaram Pillai and Bala Saraswati.
 Odissi (Odisha)
o It derives its name from ‗Odhranitrya‘ which is
mentioned in the Natya Shastra + Earliest evidence found
in caves of Khandagiri- Udaygiri.
o Elements: Mangalacharan (dancer enters with flowers in
hand and offers to Mother Earth), Batu Nritya (comprises
of both nrita and nritya), Pallavi (includes ornamentation
of music and facial expression), Tharijhami (pure dance
before conclusion), Moksha (conclusion where 64acrifi
and abhinaya performed to signify liberation).
o Important features: Mudras and postures used to express emotions + Body is oppositely
curved which gives ‗S‘ shape + Facial expressions are used to represent the nine rasas +
Dance movements represent the element of water + Themes from Vaishnavism and
associated with Hindu gods like Shiva, Surya and Shakti + It is based on themes of Gita
Govinda of Jayadeva + Its performance collection includes an invocation, nrita,
nritya, natya, and moksha + The techniques of movement are built around the two
basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga + It is accompanied by Hindustani
classical music.
o Costumes: Sambalpuri saree, Bomkai saree; dancer is adorned in elaborate Odiya silver
jewellery and a special hair-do.
o Instruments: Pakhawaj(Drums) player, a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and
a manjira player(Cymbals).
o Famous personalities: Sonal Mansingh, Guru Pankaj charan das, Kiran segal and
Mohapatra.
 Kathak (Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan)
o It is the traditional dance of Uttar Pradesh originated as
a result of activities of traditional story tellers known
as Kathakars.
o Vaishnavite cult and Bhakti movement contributed to a
whole new range of lyrics and musical forms.
o Elements: Thaat constitutes soft and distinguished
movements + Rhytms are called Tora, Tukra and
Parana + A competitive play between dancer and
64acri player is called Jugalbandi + Gat bhaav- Different mythological chapters are
highlighted without music or chanting.
o Important features: The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal
and vertical axis + Dhrupad music is played in Khatak + Tarana, Thumris and Ghazals
were introduced by Mughals.
o Gharanas: Lucknow Gharana (under patronage of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah), Jaipur Gharana
(under patronage of Kachhwaha rulers), Benares Gharana (originated by Janaki Prasad) and
Raigarh Gharana (established by Maharaja Chakradhar singh of Raigarh).
o Famous personalities: Birju Maharaj, Lachhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi and Damayanti Joshi.

ART & CULTURE
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 Manipuri
o It is a classical dance belonging to state of
Manipur; it is the most devotional dance forms
among all classical dances of India.
o Important features: The central theme is
the love stories of Krishna and Radha + Both
Tandava and Lasya are used but latter is more
important + Nagabhanda mudra (body of the
dancer is connected through curves in the shape
of 8) + Focus on devotion rather than
sensuality is its key feature + Rasleelas,
Sankirtana and Thang-ta are most popular themes + The songs are sung in Brajaboli,
old Bengali,meitheli Sanskrit, Braj and now in Manipuri language written by
devotional poets like Chandidas, Vidyapati, Gyandas, Jaydev and others + Performed
thrice in autumn from August to November and once in spring sometime around March-
April, all on full moon nights.
o Instruments used: The musical instrument generally used in this art form includes
the Pung that is a barrel drum, cymbals or kartals, harmonium, flute, pena and
sembong.
o Famous personalities: Guru Bipin, Bimbavati Devi, Jhaveri sisters – Nayana, Ranjana,
Suverna and Dharshana.
 Sattriya Dance (Assam)
o The dance form was introduced in 15th century AD by saint
Shankardeva to propagate Vaishnavism.
o It derives its name from Vaishnava monasteries known as
‗Sattras‘.
o Important features: It was introduced by combining
different elements from local folk dances such as ojapali and
Devadasi + It is governed by strictly laid down principles
in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc
+ It is generally performed by male monks known as
‗Bhokots‘ as part of their daily rituals + Primarily based
on the stories of Krishna-Radha relations, or sometimes
on the stories of Ram-Sita + Two categories; Paurashik Bhangi, which is
the masculine style and ‗Stri Bhangi‘, which is the feminine style + Majuli island in
Assam is closely associated with this dance + The songs are composition of
shankaradeva known as ‗Borgeets‘
o Instruments: Khol (drum), Bahi (flute), Violin, Tanpura, Harmonium and Shankha
(Conch Shell).
o Famous personalities: Mother-daughter duo Indira P.P Bora and Menaka P.P Bora.
6. FOLK DANCES
 North India

ART & CULTURE
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o Dumhal: The Rauf tribe of Jammu and Kashmir has preserved this ancient dance, which is
performed by males wearing long, patterned robes and towering conical hats. The dance is
performed around a banner that the performers have buried in the ground at a certain area.
o Hikat: The dancers perform in groups while holding hands and circling one another. They
move at a pace that corresponds to the tempo of the music being played. Typically,
everything starts out slowly and gains up speed as the women acquire momentum.
o HurkaBaul: The state of Uttarakhand is known for its particular dance style. This dance
style, which is more of a narration, is practiced during maize and paddy cultivation in the
state. While a singer weaves heroic tales of combat into his song, dancers bring the tales to
life with the aid of their movements.
o Chholiya: The Kumaon area of the state of Uttarakhand is home to the ―Chholiya‖ dance
style. In wedding processions, it is customary to perform it. Men dancing with swords can be
seen doing so with vigour, which is why ―Chholiya‖ is frequently referred to as ―sword
dance.‖
o Bhangra: One of the most well-known and upbeat dances in Punjab is called ―bhangra.‖ It‘s
still unknown where this outstanding dance style came from. Although ―Bhangra‖ is
frequently thought of as a martial art, it is also claimed that farmers invented it to
commemorate the harvest. Without a Bhangra performance, no celebration in the Punjab and
surrounding territories is complete.
o Dhamyal: ‗Dhamyal‘ or ‗Dhuph‘ is one of Haryana‘s most well-known folk dances. Male
dancers beat a round drum called a ―Dhuph‖ while performing. After a long day of laboring
in the fields, the dance is performed as a sign of celebration.
o Mayur Nritya: In the state of Uttar Pradesh, this dance style is popular. Mayur Nritya, also
known as peacock dance, is done by dancers who dress in a manner that makes them look
like peacocks. It is carried out as a kind of adoration for Lord Krishna.
o Charkula: It is a dance that is done in Uttar Pradesh‘s Braj district. It is said that Goddess
Radha‘s grandmother proclaimed the birth of her granddaughter while wearing a ―Charkula,‖
which is essentially a multi-tiered circular pyramid. As a result, female dancers carry
enormous ―Charkulas‖ that are filled with lit oil lamps.
o Rasa Lila: It is a wonderful kind of dance that is practiced throughout India. The legendary
significance of this particular dance style is why Krishna worshippers value it highly. The
dance was allegedly performed by Radha and her friends as well as Krishna.
o Giddha: The state of Punjab is where this dance style is performed. Giddha is the feminine
counterpart to ―Bhangra.‖ The goal of the dance is to convey feminine grace. The women
perform while dressed in vibrant attire. Giddha is frequently accompanied by ―Bolliyan,‖ a
group of couplets.
 Central India
o Gaur Dance: This dance is connected to the Chhattisgarh state‘s indigenous tribes. Men
dress in bright headpieces and crowns with peacock feathers for this dance. Women who
have been adorned with tattoos, brass fillets, and beaded necklaces also participate in the
gathering.
o Muria Dance: The indigenous people of Chhattisgarh‘s Bastar district are linked to this
dance. A prayer to the tribe‘s phallic deity commonly opens the ceremony. The Hulki and

ART & CULTURE
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Karsana dances are also performed by the Muria people. Karsana is seen as a pastime,
whereas Hulki dance is thought to be the most alluring of all dancing styles.
o Saila Dance: This style of dance is distinctive to the Chhattisgarh state‘s Bastar area. Sticks
are used by the dancers in the unusual Saila dance to create rhythm. Rarely are the dancers
seen in a circle, each supporting themselves by grasping the dancer in front of them as they
stand on one leg. Then they all hop about in unison.
o Karma Dance: Tribes from Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, and
other parts of India do karma dance. The dance is related to the Karma festival, which takes
place in the month of August, and is connected to the fertility cult. By resting their arms on
the next dancer‘s waist, the dancers create a circle and move in a rhythmic manner.
o Kaksar Dance: Among the Bastar‘s Abhujmarias, the Kaksar dance is well-liked. It is
carried out in the anticipation of a bumper crop. Young boys and girls conduct Kaksar to
request the deity‘s blessings. The Kaksar dance allows its dancers to select their life mates
from the same dancing troupe, which is an intriguing fact about the dance.
o Jhumar: The Balochistan and Multan regions of Pakistan are where this dancing style first
appeared. Jhumar is more rhythmic and slower. ―Jhumar,‖ a performance that is frequently
done by men, heralds the start of the harvest season and celebrates people‘s joy.
o Jawara Dance: It is related to the Madhya Pradesh state. Along with quick foot movements,
the dance also requires challenging acts of balance. The women balance themselves while
carrying a basket of the harvested produce above their heads.
o Bhagoria Dance: The indigenous people of Madhya Pradesh carry out this ritual. Despite
being a part of a special holiday that permits young people to elope, the dance has its own
agricultural importance, marking the end of the harvest season.
o Suwa Dance: Tribes in the state of Chhattisgarh carry it out. This unusual dance, sometimes
known as the ―parrot dance,‖ causes ladies to behave like parrots! Men can play any musical
instrument of their choosing, but women and girls are typically the only ones who perform it.
 East India
o Chhau: Although it has roots in West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha, this dancing style is
very well-known elsewhere. This dance is known as ―Chhau,‖ which means ―mask,‖ because
masks are a key component of it. While dancing, the performers hold swords and shields in
their hands.
o Brita Dance: The ―Brita‖ or ―Vrita‖ dance is one of West Bengal‘s most well-known
dances. After recovering from an infectious illness—often small pox—the dance is typically
performed to thank the local deity.
o Dalkhai: In some areas of Odisha, this dance is well-liked. Young women begin the dance,
and subsequently males playing drums and other instruments join in. It‘s interesting to note
that throughout the play, the guys refer to the women as their girlfriends.
o Gotipua: In some regions of Odisha, it is conducted. The performers in the ―Gotipua‖ dance
genre are unusual since they are clothed as ladies. The lads take the dancing form seriously,
so seriously that they don‘t cut their hair to make themselves look more feminine.
 North East India
o Bihu: The most alluring aspect of the Assamese people‘s Bihu festival is this dance form.
Beginning with the start of the harvest season, Bihu is observed for about 30 days.

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o Hojagiri: The state of Tripura is where this dance is performed. Women and young girls
balance earthen lamps and bottles on their heads while moving their lower bodies to prevent
the lamps or bottles from falling. Men participate in the performance by singing and playing
instruments.
o Nongkram Dance: The ―Nongkram‖ dance, which is performed by the Jaintia Hill residents
of Meghalaya, is a vibrant occasion. The dance style is a method to honor the local deity.
o Bhortal Dance: It is an Assamese folk dance. Cymbals are used by performers, who dance
in groups of six or seven people while using them. Dancers create the distinctive beat ―7hiya
Nom‖ and do quick footwork.
o Jhumur: In the states of Assam, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha, this dance is done.
Young females execute the dance, and men handle the musical accompaniment. The dancers
synchronized sway back and forth while wrapping their arms around the waist of the dancer
next to them.
o Cheraw Dance: The Mizoram state of India hosts the performance. Women dance between
the males, avoiding having their legs caught between the men‘s horizontally and vertically
held bamboo staves. When the bamboo staves are moved quickly, the beats are created.
o Chang Lo: The Chang tribe of Nagaland performs this dance. Dancers dress like warriors
and demonstrate war strategies through dance, as the custom calls for the dance to be done to
commemorate an enemy‘s defeat on the battlefield.
 South India
o Padayani: It is conducted in Kerala‘s centre region. Due to the importance of color in the
dance, Padayani is not only well-liked but also attractive to the eye. Massive masks worn by
the dancers frequently depict deities.
o Kummi: Tamil Nadu and Kerala are home to the well-liked folk dance ―Kummi.‖ There are
only female singing and clapping movements in this dancing style because it evolved before
musical instruments were invented.
o Kolannalu: It is carried out in the Andhra Pradesh state. The ―Kolannalu‖ features a group
of dancers forming two circles. It is also known as the ―stick dance.‖ Dancers in the outer
circle give the blow while those in the inner circle take it on their sticks.
o Parai Attam: In Tamil Nadu, it is a distinctive style of dancing. Men folk dance to the beat
they create while playing a percussion instrument called a ―Parai.‖ The dance is one of the
earliest dance traditions in India and was traditionally performed for a variety of purposes.
o Karagattam: It is an old Tamil Nadu folk dance. The karagattam ritual is carried out while
honoring the rain goddess. Dancers move to the music of musicians while carrying large pots
on their heads.
o Mayil Attam: It is carried out at the temples of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This dance is
comparable to the Uttar Pradeshi ―Mayur Nritya.‖ Young women perform to the music‘s
beats while decked out in peacock costumes. The dancers frequently mimic peacock
movements.
o Theyyam: It is practiced in Kerala‘s Malabar region. Theyyam, also known as ―Kaliyattam,‖
is a traditional dance performed to honor Goddess Kali. The dancers add to the overall effect
by painting their faces in vivid colors.

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o Dollu Kunitha: The state of Karnataka is where it is performed. Popular drumming dance is
called Dollu Kunitha. Men wear large drums around their necks. The melodies that are used
in this dance frequently have a combative and religious zeal.
o Ghodemodni: It is carried out in Goa and the surrounding regions. Ghodemodni is also
known as the ―warrior dance‖ since the dancers are armed with swords and wear armour.
Since the village where the dance style began was once taken by a king, the dance depicts a
war.
o Lava Dance: One of the islands of Lakshadweep is where this art form is practiced. The men
who live on the island are the ones that perform it. The dance is based on rhythmic motions
and folk tunes.
o Veeragase: One of the well-known dances of Karnataka is Veeragase, which is performed in
Mysore during Dasara celebrations. This hard dance style, which is solely performed by men,
includes manoeuvres that drain your vitality.
o Kolattam: The Kolattam dance is part of a religious offering, where women dancers pay
homage to the temple. Goddess in many regions of Andhra Pradesh. The Kolattam dance is
predominantly a dance of women, without involving men. Men mostly take up the role as
drummers or play the background music. The highlight of this dance is using sticks to
represent the rhythm of the dance. The sticks are stroked against each other in a calibrated
form for creating harmony, while making the dance rituals, more soothing. This form of
dance is also called as Kolkollannalu or Kollannalu.
o Pulikali: Pulikali (Tiger Dance) is one of the folk art forms of Kerala. On the fourth day of
Onam festival, artists paint their bodies like tigers with stripes of yellow, red and black and
dance to the rhythm of traditional percussion instruments such as thakil, udukku and chenda.
Its main theme is tiger hunting with participants playing the role of tiger and hunter. It was
introduced by the former ruler of Cochin, Maharaja Rama Varma SakthanThampuran.
 West India
o Dandiya: Gujarat is the place where this dancing style first appeared. Traditionally, Garba is
practiced throughout the nine-day Hindu festival of Navaratri. Around a lamp is where the
dance is performed. The lamp is frequently replaced by a sculpture or image of the goddess
―Shakti.‖
o Garba: Gujarat is the place where this dancing style first appeared. Traditionally, Garba is
practiced throughout the nine-day Hindu festival of Navaratri. Around a lamp is where the
dance is performed. The lamp is frequently replaced by a sculpture or image of the goddess
―Shakti.‖
o Koli: Maharashtra hosts performances of Koli . The dance incorporates aspects of fishing
and the sea because it is performed by fishermen. This fascinating dance style, which is
entertaining to watch, is performed by both men and women.
o Tippani Dance: In the Saurashtra area of Maharashtra, this dance is only performed at
weddings and festivals. Music is produced using the shehnai and percussion instruments such
the manjira, tabla, and dhol.

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Chapter - 7
INDIAN PUPPETRY
1. Introduction: It is a form of theatre that involves manipulation of puppets+ The Harappa and
Mohenjodaro have yielded puppets with sockets attached+ Earliest written reference is found in
Silappadikaram written around 1st and 2nd century BC.
2. String Puppets: These puppets have jointed limbs; movement is controlled by master with the help
of strings attached to their elbows and legs+ generally, 8-9inch miniature figure chiseled out of
wood+ Oil colour used to paint the wood with skin colour.
 Kathputli: It is the traditional puppet art of Rajasthan+ They are carved out of single piece of
wood+ They have no religious or ritual undertones + They tell stories from the court of
King Amar Singh Rathod of Nagaur+ Their dress is colourful following medieval style of
Rajasthani dress+ Unique feature is the absence of legs: strings attached to fingers of
puppeteer.
 Kundhei: It is a string puppet of
Odisha+ They are made out of light
wood and do not have legs+ More joints:
More flexibility to puppeteer+ Strings are
attached to a triangular prop.
 Gombeyatta: It is traditional puppet show
of Karnataka+ Styled and designed on
characters of Yakshagana theatres+
Multiple puppeteers manipulates the
puppets.
 Bommalattam: It is a puppetry
indigenous to Tamil Nadu+ It combines
features of rod and string puppetry+
They are largest and heaviest
marionettes in India+ It has 4 stages:
Vinayaka puja, Komali, Amanattam
and Pusenkanattam.
 Gopalila Kundhei: Traditional puppet theatre from Orissa (Odisha) + These are beautiful
puppets worked by three strings attached to a bamboo triangular control + They traditionally
depict the life of Krishna (avatar of god Vishnu).
 Putul Natch: It is string puppet from Assam which is popular in lower Assam region of
Kamrup and Mongoldoi area + In this, the body and the hands of the puppets are made of
softwood and their size range from one and a half to two and a half feet.
 Nool Pavakoothu/ Pavakali: It is a stringed puppet play native to Kerala + Generally
performed during temple festivals. These puppets remain under the care and custody of a royal
family. The puppeteers belong to the Nair community.

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 Kalasutri Bahulya: It is the traditional string puppet theatre from Maharashtra + The
performances centre on the many episodes of the Ramayana, beginning with the accounts of the
birth of Rama and ending with the killing of Ravana.
3. Shadow Puppets: These are flat figures cut out of leather + Painted identically on both sides of leather+
They are placed on white screen with light falling from behind, creating a shadow on the screen.
 Togalu Gombeyatta: It is shadow puppetry of Karnataka+ Characterized by variation of
puppet size based on social status of their characters+ Small sized puppets used for characters
representing common people and servants.
 Tholu Bommalata: It is shadow theatre of Andhra Pradesh+ Themed drawn from Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Puranas.
 Ravana Chhaya: It is shadow pupperty of Odisha+ Puppets are made of deer skin+ No joints
attached to them, made of single piece+ Use of non-human puppets such as trees and
animals.
 Tolpavakoothu: It is an ancient art form practiced in the Kali temples in north Kerala. It
orginally belonged to a world filled with rituals, beliefs and superstitions where the performer,
the Pulavar, was highly regarded by the devotees for his orginality and scholarship.
 Chamadyache Bahulya: It is the traditional shadow theatre from Maharashtra + In each troupe,
a puppeteer-storyteller, assisted by a helper, is accompanied by two musicians, one who plays
the dholak and pakawatch (two-headed skinned drums), the other the jodiwala and wata (wind
instruments). Both musicians are also singers.
 Thol Bommalattam: It is the shadow theatre from Tamil Nadu + It uses articulated cut-out
figures made of thol (leather) that are made to dance, act, fight, nod, laugh so on between a
source of light and a screen.
Fig: Togalu Gombeyatta | Tholu Bommalata | Ravana Chhaya

4. Glove Puppets: Also known as hand, sleeve and palm puppets+ They are made of cloth or paper
mache+ Pupeteer controls their movements with his hands and fingers through gloves+ In Uttar
Pradesh, themes revolve around social issues; In Odisha around Radha and Krishna stories.
 Pavakoothu: It is traditional glove puppet of Kerala+ Evidences of heavy influence of
Kathakali dance+ Themed around narrations of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
 Sakhi Kundhei Nata: It is a string puppetry show popular in Odisha especially in the
Kendrapara district of Odisha + Puppeteers generally form groups and travel from village to
village for performing shows. Wooden dolls are tied to strings which are controlled by pulling
and releasing the strings
 Beni Puthul: It is a glove
puppetry form West Bengal +
It employs just three fingers-
Thumb, forefinger and middle
finger.
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5. Rod Puppets: Movement is controlled with rods attached to neck, elbows and legs of puppets+ It
is popular in Eastern India.
 Putul Nautch: Traditional rod puppet of West Bengal + They are carved out of wood+ Figures
are dressed like characters of Jatra+ Presence of three joints- at the neck and at the shoulders.
 Yampuri: It is traditional rod puppet of Bihar+ Wood is used to make these puppets and there
are no joints.
 Kathi Kandhe: It is the traditional rod puppet theatre from the state of Orissa + These are
manipulated by a kathi, or wooden rod. The traditional performance, an amalgam of dance,
drama and songs, begins with an invocation (stuti), followed by the sutradhara (stage
director/narrator) introducing the episode to be enacted from the epics, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, or from the Puranas.

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Chapter - 8
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INDIA
1. Religion of prehistorical period
 Graves provide earliest evidence of religious life: oldest graves found at Kurnool (upper
paleolithic site, Andhra Pradesh) indicate religious aspects of dead bodies.
 Bhimbetka paintings of Mesolithic age express people worship in super-natural powers.
 Relics from Inamgaon (Neolithic site) tell us about belief of life beyond death and ancestral worship.
2. Religion of Harappan civilization
 Mother Goddess was chief deity; male deity called Pashupati Shiva also worshipped.
 Bull was held sacred; tree worship such as pipal tree practiced.
 Great Bath indicates water worship was also common.
 Fire worship is in practice as indicated by fire altars at Banawali and Lothal.
 Believed in the idea of life after death.
3. Early vedic religion
 Vedic religion characterized by personification of forces of nature; followed naturalistic
polytheism.
 Yajnas and Sacrifices played an important role.
 Predominance of male gods; considered gods as living beings and attached human attributes.
 Henotheistic in nature: people believe in multiple deities but one particular deity considered
supreme on one particular occasion.
 Important gods: Indra (God of strength, thunder), Agni (God of fire and intermediary between
god and humans), Soma (wise god, inspires poets to compose hymns), Varuna and Mitra;
female goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Raka, Sinivali, Saraswati etc.
 Purpose of religion: not worshipped for spiritual upliftment of people but for grant of material gains.
4. Later vedic religion
 Religious ceremonies are guided by spiritual objectives.
 Early Vedic gods Indra and Agni lost their importance; prevalence of domestic hearth
(Dhumaketu); new gods such as Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati came into prominence.
 concepts of transmigration of soul and karma emerged.
 Sacrifices assumed both public and private character; specialists became important for
performance of sacrifices.
 Agnihotra sacrifice to be performed daily by the head of a dvija household.
 Vajapeya Sacrifice, connected with attainment of power and prosperity; contained a ritual
chariot race.
 Ashvamedha Sacrifice: associated with claims of political paramountcy and incorporated
several fertility rites as well.
 Rajasuya sacrifice was the royal consecration ceremony.
 Growing importance of priests: Hotri priest (associated with Rig veda), Adhvaryu priest
(Yajurveda), Udgatri priest (74acrific).

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 Upanishads emphasize efficacy of ‗Jnana Marga‘ to attain salvation; Brahm considered as

originator of universe; Mundaka Upanishad contains Satyameva Jayate; Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad contains first reference of transmigration of soul.
5. Buddhism
During the later vedic period [around 6th and 5th century BC], 62 different sects evolved, out of them
3 excelled and developed into religions. These were Ajivikas, Buddhism and Jainism.
 Causes of Origin
o Expensive & complicated Vedic rituals, Superstitious beliefs, mantras confused the people.
o The teachings of the Upanishads were highly philosophical, therefore not understood by
comman people.
o The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in society.
o The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive.
o Larger interests of the people want a simple, short and intelligible way to salvation for all
people.
o Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class.
o Desire of Vaishya to improve their social position due to the increase in trade and economic
prosperity because of 2nd urbanisation.
o Unrest in society due to supremacy brahmanas and the complicated brahmanical religion.
o Practice of killing cows/oxes became a hindrance to the new agricultural economy.
 Introduction
o Founder: Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE at Lumbini, Nepal.
o Siddhartha left his home at age of 29 years, event known as Mahabhinishkramana
(renunciation of world); sat down under Pipal tree at Uruvela (Bodhgaya) on banks of
River Niranjana; On 49th day of his meditation, he realized truth and attained
enlightenment. Bodh Gaya is a holy landmark and pilgrimage destination linked with the
Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Gaya, Bihar, India.
o First sermon at Isipattana (modern Sarnath) to 5 ascetics Kondanja, Mahanama,
Baddiya, Assaji and Vappa (event known as Dharmachakraparivartana).
o Teachings: Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly
pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
o He ascribed instead the ‗Madhyam Marg i.e. the middle path which was to be followed.
o Shaivite deity Maheswari (with a coiled crown and chakra) indicates cultural assimilation in
the area.
o Roots of Buddhism in past: Vedanta, Sankhya philosophy & Upanishads.
 Birth Place: Lumbini, capital of Sakya republic
 Teachers: Alarakama and UdrakaRamputra
Gautama Buddha  Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Pipal tree at Uruvella
(563 BC-483 BC) (Bodhgaya) on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu).
 First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer Park) on Dharma Chakra
Parivarthana to 5 disciples including Mahakasyapa (first disciple)
 Mahaparinirvana: Death at Kushinagar at age of 80.

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 Ceylonese Chronicles: MAHAVAMSA by Mahanama,

DIPAVAMSA and ATTAKATHA by Wattagamani.
 Tibetan Chronicles- DIVYAVANDANA-KALACHAKRA
 TRIPITAKA/ Three baskets of Buddhist scripture:
 SUTTA PITAKA [sutra related to Buddha and companion]
Literary Sources  VINAYA PITAKA [monastic rules] and
 ABHIDHAMPITAKA [Doctrine and philosophy of Buddhism]
 JATAKA FOLKLORE [stories related to birth of Buddha]/ In
Chinese they are called SADOK.
 MILINDAPANHA [Questions of Milinda that is Greek king
Meander and answers of Buddhist monk Nagasena]
 Buddha (Enlightenment)
3 Jewels of Buddhism
 Dhamma (Doctrine)
(Triratna)
 Sangha (Monastic Order)
 Morality (Sila)
Trisiksha  Meditation (Samadhi)
 Wisdom (Prajna)
 Sarnath, Varanasi, Rajagriha (Bimbisara built vihara named
Veluvana for Buddha residence), Vaishali (met Amrapali here and
Places visited by allowed women entry in sangha), Susumargiri, Kaushambi,
Buddha Champa, Sravasti (delivered maximum number of sermons),
Pawapuri and Kushinagara (attained Mahaparinirvana). [Buddha
did not visit Avanti].
 Avanti and Gandhara were not directly related to life of Buddha.
 Kosala and Magadha were linked through matrimonial ties.
Kingdoms associated
 Buddha wandered through the towns and villages in the kingdoms
with life of Buddha
of Kosala and Magadha teaching his philosophy.
 Other regions where he wandered were Vaishali, Vajji etc
GREAT EVENTS OF BUDDHA‘S LIFE SYMBOLS
Avakranti (conception or descent in mother‘s womb) White Elephant
Jati (birth) Lotus and Bull
Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation) Horse
Nirvana/ Sambodhi (enlightenment) Bodhi tree
Dharmachakra Parivarthana (first Sermon) Wheel
Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa
 No killing Respect for life.

5 Teachings Of  Abstention from theft.
Buddha  Abstention from sexual misconduct.
[Panchshila]  Abstention from falsehood.
 Abstention from intoxication.
4 Noble Truths:  World is full of sorrow and misery (Sabbam Dukkam)
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‗Arya Satyas‘  Desire is a root cause of sorrow (Pratityasamutpada/ Dukkha

Samudaya)
 Desire can be conquered (Dukkha Nirodha)
 Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga.
 The path consists of various interconnected activities related to
Eight-Fold Paths knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
(Astangika Marga)  Right view + Right intention + Right speech + Right action + Right
livelihood + Right mindfulness + Right effort + Right concentration
 The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline
applicable to the monastic life of the monks and nuns.
 The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of
Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or collections:
 Digha Nikaya
 Majjhima Nikaya
 Samyutta Nikaya
Three Pitakas
 Anguttara Nikaya
 Khuddaka Nikaya
 The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and
systematization of the teaching and the scholarly activity of the
monks.
 Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa,
Mahavamsa, Milind Panha etc.
 Important Features of Buddhism
o It did not accept the authority of vedas; Opposition to rituals, sacrifices, ceremonies and
priestly class domination; rejected caste-based system in society.
o Believed in path of moderation against extreme self-mortification.
o Theory of karma is an essential element of Buddhist philosophy.
o Emphasis on the efficacy of Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation; Nirvana is
an ultimate goal of life.
o Believed in Pratityasamutpada-> one state of life leads to next state.
o Rejected the idea of soul and transmigration of soul.
o Buddha neither rejected nor accepted the existence of god.
o Emphasis on non-violence; allowed eating non-vegetarian food provided animal not killed
for that purpose.
o Put forward a new varna system-> Kshatriyas given higher status than the Brahmanas
 Buddhist Sangha & Its features
o The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
o There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas, which were prohibited
o Women were also allowed to join.
o Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali
o Kings like Prasenjit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his
doctrines and became his disciples

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o He visited places like Benares, Rajgriha, Sravasti, Vaishali, Nalanda

and Pataligrama
o Buddhist sangha consisted of chaityas and viharas; anyone could acquire membership of
Buddhist sangha irrespective of varna or caste status.
o Slaves, soldiers, insolvents could not enter sangha without permission of their master;
criminals, leapers and diseased not allowed to enter sangha; 64 types of crimes called
Pathimokshas were prohibited.
o Qualified for full membership at the age of 20.
o Allowed entry of women into sangha; Prajapati Gautami was the first woman to join
sangha.
o Retreat of monks during rainy season known as Vassa; Pavarana held after end of vassa
where monks confess any offence committed during rainy season.
o Pattimokkha (part of Vinaya pitaka) were to be followed by monks in monastery.
o Sangha had power to punish erring members.
 Important Buddhist Monks
o Ananda: primary attendant of Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples; most of
Sutta-Piṭaka attributed to his recollection of the Buddha‘s teachings during first Buddhist
council (known as Treasurer of Dhamma).
o Sariputra: Possessed knowledge of Dhamma; considered the first of the Buddha‘s
two chief male disciples, together with Maudgalyāyana.
o Nagarjuna: Founded Madhyamik school of 78acrific Buddhism; theory of Sunyavaad
(emptiness) and important work include Mulamadhyamakakarika.
o Mahakassapa: President of First Buddhist assembly.
o Aniruudha: Master of right mindfulness.
o Dharmakirti: Teacher at Nalanda University; known as ―Kant of India‖.
 Important Buddhist Scholars
Scholars Their work
Moggaliputta Launched ASHOKA‘S dhamma campaign
Tissa
Wrote Buddhacharita and Sanskrit drama Sariputra Prakarana [Sariputra
Asvaghosha
the disciple of Buddha]
Founded madhyamik school of Mahayana Buddhism, gave theory of
Nagarjuna Sunyavada' Emptiness‘ and important work include
‗Mulamadhyamakakarika‘
Most important commentator of Theravada's important work is
Buddhaghosa
Visuddimagga.
Dharmakirti Teacher at Nalanda, called as ‗Kant of India‘.
 Bodhisattvas
o In Mahayana, Buddhism Bodhisattva is a person who has attained enlightenment but has
delayed his nirvana (i.e. cycle of birth and rebirth) to help others attain enlightenment.
o It is similar to the concept of incarnations in Hindu Mythology.
o Bodhisattvas are common figures in Buddhist literature and art.
o Concept of Boddhisattva:

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 The concept of Boddhisattva is central to the Mahayana sect of Buddhism as the

individual who seeks enlightenment both for him- or herself and for others.
 A bodhisattva is literally a living being (sattva) who aspires to enlightenment (bodhi) and
carries out altruistic practices.
 Compassion is the bodhisattva‘s greatest characteristic.
Bodhisattva Traits
● Future Buddha & Earliest bodhisattva
● Holds a waterphial in his left hand
MAITREYA ● Popular laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of maitreya.
● In some Buddhist literature, such as the Amitabha Sutra and the Lotus
Sutra, he is referred to as Ajitaboddhisatva.
● Universal Bodhisattva
● associated with Meditation
SAMANTA- ● Manifestation is Action
BHADRA ● In Buddhism, he is part of the Shakyamuni triad, which also includes the
Buddha and Manjusri.
● Like Indra holds thunderbolt [depict power]
● Depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha.
● Represented in the Ajanta Caves – Other 2 are Manjusri and
VAJRAPANI Avalokitesvara.
● Express all of Buddha's powers as well as the powers of the five
tathagatas - Vairocana, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Ratnasambhava, and
Amoghasiddhi.
● Kind-hearted.
● Manifests Buddha‘s compassion.
● He is one of Buddha's 3 protector deities, also known as Padmapani.
● His picture can be found in the Ajanta Caves.
Avalokitesvara ● The compassionate bodhisattva listens to the world's pleas and responds in
skillful ways.
● Under the name Lokesvara, he appears informally in Cambodian
Theravada Buddhism.
● Karan davyuha is a Mahayana text which glorify Avalokitesvara
● Earthly manifestation of the self-born eternal Buddha Amitabha
● Guardian of purgatories and children
Kshitigarbha
● Bodhisattva of hell-beings or earth immortal beings
Amitabha Buddha of Heaven
Sadaparibhuta Manifests Never disparaging spirit.
● Stimulator of understanding and he holds book describing 10 paramitas
Manjushri ● Depict male bodhisattva wielding flaming sword in his left hand
● He is a man Bodhisattva with a sword in his hand who is linked with

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Buddha's Wisdom.
● Manjusri ponders Buddha's knowledge
● He is boundless as space
Akasagarbha
● Manifestation of wisdom
 Buddhist Council
COUN
VENUE CHAIRMAN PATRON PURPOSE OUTCOME
CIL
 It was held soon after
the Mahaparinirvan of
the Buddha.
 The council was held
with the purpose of
preserving Buddha‘s
Sattapani To compile teachings (Sutta) and
1st 483
cave at Mahakasyapa Ajatasatru Buddhist rules for disciples.
BC
Rajgriha. scriptures During this council, the
teachings of Buddha
were divided into three
Pitakas.
 Compilation of
Suttapitakaand Vinaya
Pitaka by Upali
 Divide in Sthavira Sins
Settle & Mahasanghikas
2nd 383 differences  Split in sangha-
BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka between monks Mahasanghikas (monks
of east and of east) and
west Sthaviravadins (monks
of west)
3rd 250 Mogaliputta
Revise  Compilation of
Pataliputra Ashoka Buddhist Abhidamapittaka
BC Tissa
scriptures
 Compilation of
Mahavibhasa sutra.
 Division of Buddhism
th Settle into Hinayana and
4 Vasumitra &
Kashmir Kanishka differences Mahayana
98AD Ashvaghosa
among monks  Mahayana and
Hinayana Buddhism;
upadesa shastras and
Vibhasa shastras
Promotion of  No major outcomes
5th 643 Harshavard
Hiuen Tsang Kannauj Mahayana
AD hana
Buddhism
 Major School of Buddhism
Mahayana  The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means ―Great
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(REVISION NOTES)
Buddhism Vehicle‖.
 Sought salvation through grace & help of Buddha & Bodhisattvas; by
means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha.
 It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central
Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia.
 Believed that Buddha will be born again.
 Worship Buddha in idol form.
 Language- Sanskrit.
 Sub-schools Chittmatra & Madhyamaka
 ZEN is a subschool of Mahayana which is prevalent in china, Korea and
related to Taoism.
 Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the
Mahayana tradition.
 Contains 2 philosophical schools Madhyamika and Yogachara
 Considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas
 Considered Lesser vehicle. Also known as Abandoned Vehicle or Defective
vehicle. It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
 Followed original teachings of Buddha.
 Sought individual salvation through self-discipline & meditation.
 Buddha will never be reborn.
 Did not believe in Idol worship.
 Language- Pali language.
Hinayana  Buddha was an intellectual, not a god.
Buddhism:  Encompasses 18 sub schools.
 Most important – Sarvastivada, Theravadin & Sautantrika.
 Thotlakonda Buddhist Site = on Hill in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh +
devoted to Hinayana Buddhism (imp CA)
 Patronized by Ashoka
 Monks known as Arhat
 Against accepting gift of gold and silver as Buddha forbade
 Spread to Nepal, Tibet and nearby countries

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 Theravada Buddhism is older and the more conservative of the two main
divisions of Buddhism and is often referred to as the ‗traditions of the elder‘
 Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
 Theravada Buddhists strive to become Arhats and gain freedom from the
cycle of samsara.
Theravada  Sarvastivadin consider everything empirical to be impermanent, they
And maintain that the dharma factors are eternally existing realities.
Sarvati-  The dharmas are thought to function momentarily, producing the empirical
vada phenomena of the world, which is illusory, but to exist outside the empirical
world.
 Remains closest to the original teachings of the Buddha
 Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the
rest of Southeast Asia. It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia,
Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
 Vajrayana means ―Vehicle of Thunderbolt‖, also known as tantric
Buddhism.
 This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
 Believed in acquiring magical power for liberation.
 Developed in Tibet and believes in the worship of female deities – Taras.
 It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
Vajrayana
 Came into existence during early medieval age; believed that person could
achieve nirvana in a single lifetime.
 Popular in Tibet; taken from India into Tibet by Padmasambhava (Guru
Rinpoche)
 Followed symbolism and rites; tantric practices followed by it combined
physical and spiritual worlds
 It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the
Tang dynasty as the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism in and later
Zen: developed into various schools.
 It spread to Japan in 7th century C.E.
 Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.
 Sects of Buddhism
o Dissension occurred because of breach of rules of monastic disciple by monks of eastern
parts of India opposed by monks of western parts of India; permanent split took place in 2nd
Buddhist council: monks of east called as Mahasanghikas and monks of west called
Sthaviravadins.
o Mahasanghikas: Believed in plurality of Buddhas who are supramundane (lokottara); held
that what passed for Gautama Buddha in his earthly existence was only an appartition; got
divided into eight sub-sects:
 Ekavyaharika, Prajnaptivada, Uttarasaila, Bahusrutiya, Kaukkutika, Chaityaka,
Lokottaravadin and Aparasaila.

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It was first located in the area of Vaiśālī and spread also to southern India, with centres at
Amarāvatī and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa
 Its texts were written in Prākrit
o Sthaviravadins: Divided into 11 sects which are:
 Sarvastivadins, Haimavata, Mahisasaka, Dharmottara, Bhadrayaniya, Dharmaguptaka,
Kasyapiya, Sammtiya.
 Sarvastivadins: constituents of life were not wholly momentary, some existed forever in
latent form.
 Spread of Buddhism outside India

o Spread to China: Buddhist literature reached China during 2nd century BC in court of Yue-
chi rulers; Chinese ambassadors carried two monks Dharmarakshita and Kasyapa-Matanga
who translated Buddhist texts into Chinese; Bodhidharma was a teacher of Chinese Emperor
Wu; Nalanda scholars such as Prabhakaramita, Bodhiruci, Amoghavajra went to china;
Dharmadeva was last of Indian scholars who went to China.
o Spread to Korea: Aryavarma and Bodhidharma translated Buddhist texts to Korean
language.
o Spread to Japan: Zen philosophy of Japan derived inspiration from Dhyana school of
Bodhidharma.
o Spread to Tibet: King Songtsan Gampso sent Sambhota to learn Sanskrit and understand
literature of Buddhism; Khri-sron-ide-batsan was considered as an incarnation of
Boddhisatva Manjusri who invited Santarakshita (introduced system of Lamaism);
Dipankara Srijnana reformed Buddhism in Tibet by eliminating Tantric elements
 Important Terms for Prelims
Term Meaning
Liberated beings; Hinayana monks; selfish beings because they worked for
Arhats
their own salvation
Nirvana State of Supreme Bliss
Refers to when a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist
Sheel
renunciate among a community of bhikkhus
One who labors, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious
Śramaṇa
purpose) or ―seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic.
Refers to the rite and ritual of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a
Upasampadā candidate, if deemed acceptable, enters the community as Upasampadā
(ordained) and authorised to undertake ascetic life.

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3 month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners. Taking place

Vassa during the wet season, Vassa lasts for three lunar months, usually from July to
October.
It is a Buddhist day of observance, The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day
Upostha is for ―the cleansing of the defiled mind,‖ resulting in inner calm and joy.
Pavarana Assembly at the end of Vassa
Posadha Restoration of vows
Parivrajaka Renunciant and wanderer.
Lay follower of Buddhism. They were not monks or nuns, but still undertake
Upasika
ethical vows to cultivate beneficial Buddhist modes of behavior.
Anatman Denial of the belief in an eternal Self.
 It is a Sanskrit term, which means ―perfection‖
 In Bodhisattva tradition, the accomplishment of these perfections results
in the achievement of the ultimate perfection of wisdom that is
enlightenment
 In Mahayana Buddhism, the path of a bodhisattva is described in terms of
Paramitas
six paramitas: Dana paramita: to cultivate the attitude of giving; Sila
paramita: refraining from harm; Kshanti paramita: the ability not to be
perturbed by anything; Virya paramita: to find joy in what is virtuous,
positive or wholesome; Dhyana paramita: not to be distracted and Prajna
paramita: the perfect discrimination of phenomena.
Agraharika Looked after the lands given in charity
During Gupta period, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories or epic
Maagadha
tales was the work of a different group of people, the sutas and magadhas.
(IMPORTANT CA - Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) declared the ancient
Buddhist site Chaukhandi Stupa as a protected monument of national importance and Ancient
Buddhist Monastery = 900 years old Ancient Buddhist monastery was recently unearthed by
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in Sitagarha Hills, Jharkhand.)
 Philosophy of Buddhism
o Believed in path of moderation against extreme self-mortification.
o Opposition to rituals, sacrifices, ceremonies and priestly class domination; rejected caste
based system in society.
o Theory of karma is an essential element of Buddhist philosophy.
o Emphasis on the efficacy of Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation; Nirvana
is an ultimate goal of life.
o Believed in Pratityasamutpada: one state of life leads to next state.
o Rejected the idea of soul and transmigration of soul.
o Buddha neither rejected nor accepted the existence of god.
o Emphasis on non-violence; allowed eating non-vegetarian food provided animal not
killed for that purpose.
o Put forward a new varna system: Kshatriyas given higher status than the Brahmanas.
o As per Buddhist belief system, there are 1,000 Buddhas in each kalpa (aeon).
 Bhadrakalpa (Auspicious aeon) is present kalpa; previous was vyuhakalpa (glorious aeon).

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 Bhadrakalpa Buddhas: Kakusandha, Konagamana, Kassapa, Gautama (present) and

Maitreya (Future Buddha).
 Important Buddhist Literature
o Sutta Pitaka: It contains teachings of Buddha; composed by Ananda who was chief
disciple of Buddha.
 Anguttara Nikaya comprises the numerical.
 Digha Nikaya, comprises the long discourses.
 Khuddaka Nikaya comprises the minor collection.
 Majjhima Nikaya, comprises the middle length; Pali language.
 Samyutta Nikaya comprises the connected discourses of Buddha.
o Vinaya Pitaka: consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic life
of the monks and nuns; composed by Upali; divided into:
 Suttavibhanga: The basic code of Monastic discipline; contains rules for fully ordained
Monks called bikkhus (Maha vibhanga) and rules for fully ordained nuns called
Bikkhunis (Bikkhuni Vibhanga)
 Khandhaka: It has two volumes viz. Mahavagga and Cullavagga; Mahavagga deals
with awakening of Buddha; Cullavagga deals with the first and second Buddhist
councils.
 Parivara: covers summary analysis of rules mentioned in 85acrif pitaka.
o Abhidamma pitaka: Compiled during third Buddhist council; contains philosophical
interpretations of teachings of Buddha; divided into seven books Dhammasangani,
Dhatukatha, Kathavatthu, Patthana, Puggalapannatui, Vibhanga and Yamaka.
o Nidanakatha: It is the first connected life story of Buddha
o Milinda Panho: Comprise the questions of Menander; discussion between Bactrian king
Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.
o Vajracchedika (Diamond cutter): Mahayana text contains meta-physical writing.
o Lalitavistara: Mahayana text; contains a flowery narrative of life of Buddha.
o Sukhavativyuha: Mahayana text; describes glories of Amitabha and his paradise.
o Karan davyuha: Mahayana text which glorify Avalokitesvara.
o Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita: Mahayana work dealing with spiritual perfection of
Boddhisattvas.
o Madhyamika karika, Prajnaparamita karika written by Nagarjuna.
o Sutralankara: earliest text of Yogacara school written by Asanga.
o Vishudimarga written by Buddhaghosa; deals with development from purity of discipline
to enlightenment (Nibbana).
o Buddhacharita and Sraddhotpada sastra written by Ashvagosha
o Dipavamsa: oldest historical record of Sri Lanka; one of most important works in Pali
Literature.
o Mahavamsa: meaning great chronicle; most important Pali epic poem.
o Neetiprakarana: It is a book of guidance; gives account of Buddha‘s teachings
 Causes of Decline of Buddhism
o Decline of Buddhist Sanghas due to violation of Buddhist principles & discipline.
o Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. So the masses moved away.

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o The attack of Huns in the 5th & 6th centuries and Turkish invaders in the 12th century
destroyed the monasteries.
o Buddhism was mainly an urban religion with rural India always Hindu. When Islam
came to India, it impacted the urban regions & thus Buddhism.
o Revival of Brahmanism and Division among Buddhists
o Rajput rulers were warlike and could not follow the policy of Ahimsa.
o Loss of Royal Patronage.
 Contribution of Buddhism
o Concept of ahimsa (non-violence) was its chief contribution.
o Buddhist literature and Jataka stories are an important source of entire Indian
history(including that of hinduism).
o In the field of art and architecture Buddhism takes the credit for:
 first human statues to be worshipped;
 stone-pillars depicting the life of the Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut;
 Gandhara art and the beautiful images of the Buddha;
 cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in western India around Nasik;
 Art pieces and scuptures of Amaravati and NagarjunaKonda; and numerous other works
and sites.
o Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.
 Stupa (a domical structure in which the relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist
monk are preserved; hence some kind of a tomb),
 Chaitya (a temple or a shrine with a prayer hall), and
 Vihara (a monastery or residence of monks).
o Promotion of education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nagatjuna
Konda, Nalanda, and Vikramasila.
o Promotion of Pali and many local languages, such as Kannada, Gujarati, etc.
o Improvement in the condition of women and other downtrodden sections.
o Replacement of dogmatism and faith by reason and logic.
o Promotion of trade and commerce.
o Spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia
6. Jainism
 Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
 The word ‗Jain‘ is derived from Jina or Jaina which means the ‗Conqueror‘.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers); first Tirthankara was Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
 Rejected authority of vedas and vedic rituals; advocated a simple and austere life.
● Teachers – Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra.
● He attained Kaivalya-highest spiritual knowledge, at the age of 42 under Sal
Vardhaman tree. Thus, he is called Mahavir, Jina Jitendriya (one who conquered his
Mahavira senses), Nirgrantha (free from all bonds).
(539-467 BC) ● 1st sermon – At Pava (Nalanda district, Bihar)
● Symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira‘s symbol was
a lion.

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He was last 24th thirtankara; born at Kundagrama located near Vaishali

●
in 540 BC
● He was a Kshatriya belonging to Ikshvaku dynasty or Jnatri clan; left
home at age of 30 years; reached Rajagriha and then went to Nalanda to
meet Gosala Makkhaliputta.
● Attained enlightenment at age of 42 years at Jimbikagrama on banks of
river Rijupalika under Sal tree.
● Followed practices of ascetic group called as Nirgrantha.
● Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra were his teachers.
● Established Maha sangha and included eleven important disciples.
● Died in 486 BC at Pawapuri near Rajagriha at the age of 72; after his
death, Sudharma swami became chief of sangha
● Rejected authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals.
● Did not belive in the existance of God.
Teachings ● Believed in Karma & Transmission of Soul.
of mahavira ● Emphasised the equality but did not condemn the Varna system.
● Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
● Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed them
lower than Jina (Mahavira).
● It did not condemn the Varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of
the Varna order and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
● According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower Varna as the
Tenets of
consequence of the sins or the virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism
Jainism
believes in the ―transmigration of the soul‖ and the ―theory of Karma.‖
● Imp CA - Ayambil Fast = generally related to Jainism faith
● Paryushan and Das Lakshanpractices, Samvatsari
 Emphasises that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, and has multiple-
aspects i.e. ―theory of plurality‖.
Anekantavada
 It refers to the simultaneous acceptance of multiple, diverse, even
contradictory viewpoints.
 All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions,
circumstances, or senses.
Syadvada
 Seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi Nayavada)
 Syadavada literally means the method of examining different probabilities.
Liberal variant followed by householders known as Anuvratas; orthodox
variant followed by monks known as Mahavratas AHIMSA: Non-injury to a
living being
5 Doctrines
 SATYA: Do not speak a lie
of Jainism
 ASTEYA: Do not steal
 APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
 BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence
 It mainly aims at attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.
Three  It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.

ART & CULTURE
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Jewels/ o Right Faith (Samyak Darshan)

Triratna o Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana)
o Right Action (Samyak Charitra)
 Through Sangha(it consists of women & men).
 Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga
and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Ganges, the Kadambas, the
Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
Spread of
 When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya) left for South India,
Jainism
Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
 After Bhadrabahu returned with his follower, Jainism spilt into two sects:
 SVETAMBARAS: White-clad; Northerners
 DIGAMBARAS: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners.
 1st thirtankara; Adi purana by Jinasena provides detailed account of his life
Rishabanatha  Father of Bharat Chakravartin and Bahubali.
Ajitanatha  2nd thirtankara
Neminatha  22nd thirtankara
 23rd thirtankara; attained enlightenment under dhaataki tree; often referred as
Parshava-
Purushadaniya (beloved of men).
natha
 Born in Varanasi
 Sects of Jainism
Major Sects in Jainism: 4th century BC: famine in Magadha: compelled a group of jain monks
led by Bhadrabahu to move South India; after their come back to Magadha, liberal section
headed by Sthulabhadra wanted relaxation of rules sangha; orthodox section led by Bhadrabahu
were against such relaxation. Jain order has been divided into two major sects:
o Digambara
o Svetambara
 Refused to accept changes; rejected 12 angas as true jain canons
● Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear
clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
● Follow all 5 vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
● Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
● Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
● Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapanth, Taranpantha or
Samaiyapantha.
● Minor Subsets: Gumanapantha, Totapantha.
Digambara  Mula sangha: Literally means original or root; Acharya Kundakunda was
founder this sect.
 Bisapantha: support the Dharma-gurus, the religious authorities known as
Bhattarakas; worship the idols of Jain Tirthankaras and also the idols of
Ksetrapala, Padmavati and other deities; idols are worshipped with saffron,
flowers, fruits, sweets and incense sticks; Presently they mainly belong to
Maharashtra, Karnataka and South India.
 Kashtha sangha: Lohacharya was founder; Agarwal jains were main supporters

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
of this sect.
 Terapantha: Started by Amra Bhaunsa Godika and Jodhraj Godika; disagreed
with Bhattarakas on 13 points such as abhisek, use of flowers, puja at night
etc.
 Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha: Started by Amra Bhaunsa Godika and
Jodhraj Godika; disagreed with Bhattarakas on 13 points such as
89acrific, use of flowers, puja at night etc. Taran swami was the founder of
this sect; worship Sarnaya, i.e., sacred books and not the idols, hence they
are also known as Samaiyapantha; popular in Bundelkhand region; do not
believe in idol worship; worship the sacred books of the Digambaras as well
as the fourteen sacred books written by their founder Tarana-Svami; against
the caste-distinctions and embrace people belonging to low-caste.
 Gumanapantha: started by Pandit Gumani Rama; prohibit lighting of
candles or lamps in the Jain temples: regarded as a violation of the
fundamental doctrine of Jaina religion, viz., non-violence; emphasis on purity
of conduct and self-discipline hence it was also known as shuddha
amnaya.
 Totapantha: formed because of the differences between the Bisapantha and
Terapantha sub-sects; believe to some extent in the doctrines of Bisapantha
and to some extent in those of Terapantha
● Liberal jain monks who favoured relaxation of rules.
● Monks wear white clothes.
● Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
● Believe women can achieve liberation.
● Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
● Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi
 Sthanakvasi: Founded by Lavaji in 1653 AD; oppose idol worship and
Shvetambara accepts Svetambara Jain agamas; roots of the sect can be traced to
teachings of Lonkashah.
 Murtipujaka: They worship idols of Tirthankaras; do not use muhapatti
(cloth used to cover mouth during prayers).
 Svetambara Terapanth: Acharya Bhikshu was founder of this sect;
opposed idol worship; emphasis on 13 religious principles which are 5
samitis, 5 mahavratas and 3 Guptis
 Jain Councils
COUNCIL VENUE CHAIRPERSON OUTPUT
Sthulabahu, Patron – Compilation of 12 Angas; Relaxed
First 300 BC Pataliputra
Chandragupta Maurya rules of monastic life
Final compilation of 12 Angas &12
Second 512 Vallabhi, upanga; 1st 11vangas composed at
Devardhigani
AD Gujarat 1st jain council written in Ardha-
Magadhi language

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Important terms related to Jainism

o ASRAV: Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
o SAMVARA: Stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
o NIRJARA: Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential
for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and rebirth, by achieving
moksha, liberation. It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain
philosophy.
o SALLEKHANA: It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually
reducing the intake of food and liquids. Also Called Santhara.
o KAIVALYA: also known as Kevala Jnana, means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly
translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
 Philosophy of Jainism
o Mahavira rejected existence of God: world created by nature and continues on its own
through cycles of rise (Utsarpini) and cycles of fall (avsarpini).
o Later on, Jains started accepting existence of God but given lower status than Jina.
o Concept of Shalaka purusha: 63 great men guide universe through each cycle of rise and fall.
o Believed in karma and transmigration of soul; even non-living things such as stones
considered to have souls.
o Rejected authority of vedas and vedic rituals; advocated a simple and austere life.
o Did not condemn varna system though emphasized on equality; does not believe in caste
system.
o Believed in efficacy of Karma marga (path of action); a layperson cannot acquire true
knowledge.
o Monastic life essential for salvation; annihilation of karma through extreme asceticism
would lead to salvation.
o Humans may be good or bad according to their actions and not on account of their birth.
o Believed in extreme non-violence (ahimsa); emphasis on efficacy of extreme non-
violence.
o Doctrine of Ankekantavada: An object of knowledge can be perceived by different
people in different ways (theory of plurality); simultaneous acceptance of diverse,
contradictory viewpoints.
o Doctrine of Syadvada: Understanding of an object of knowledge is conditional in nature;
seven modes of prediction (saptabhangi nayavada); one should use syad (may be) before any
statement.
o Doctrine of Nyayavada: Individual perceives knowledge through particular viewpoint
 Concept of Nirvana: Movement of karmas towards soul termed as Asarva by Mahavira; influx
of karma can be stopped by following five vows and three jewels (known as samvara);
Sallekhana/santhara is last step of an ascetic; process of exhausting existing karmas known
as Nirjara; after Nirvana a person does not come back to this world after death.
Important Jain ● The canonical Jain literature is claimed to have started from ADINATH
Literature and ● Teachings of tirthankara before Mahavira was known as PURVA.
its Scholars ● Jain literature is called as JAIN AGAMAS (canonical text based on
Mahavira‘s teaching)

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● Jain literature is mainly written in Prakrit language; Mahavira used Ardha-

Magadhi language (variant of prakrit language) to spread his ideas
● These agamas are further divided into – Angas, Mulasutra, Upangas,
Prakirnaka sutra, Chedasutra & Ulikasutras.
● Kalpasutra: Written by Bhadrabahu. It contains biographies of Jain
tirthankaras.
o Agam / Canonical Literature: Agam literature consists of many texts,
which are the sacred books of the Jain religion + They are written in the
Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language. Teachings of Mahavira
compiled by followers, collectively known as Agams.
 Ang-agama: contain the direct preaching of Lord Mahavir;
compiled by Ganadharas who possessed keval-gyan; 12th Ang-
agam is called Drastivad which consist of 14 purva texts.
 Ang-bahya-agams: expansions of Ang-agams; compiled by
Shrutakevalin (monks who possess knowledge of 10 purvas)
● Non Agam Literature: Non-agam literature consists of commentary and
explanation of Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by
ascetics, elder monks, nuns and scholars
o They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit,
Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil,
German, and English.
● Manastambha: It is found in the front side of the temple, having religious
importance with an ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of
Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.
● Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
● 14 Purvas: These are oldest Jain scriptures which contain entire
knowledge of universe; monks who acquired knowledge of these accorded
status of Shutrakevali; Gautama swami, Sudharman swami and
Jambuswami were given the status.
● 12 Angas: Swetambara canonical scriptures: consist of rules of conduct
of Jain sangha and teachings of Mahavira.
● Mulasutras: Associated with Swetambara sect of Jainism; new monks
study these after initiation into Jain sangha.
● Niryuktis (verse form) and Churnis (prose form): Commentaries on Jain
sacred texts.
● Kalpasutra: Contains biographies of Parshavanatha and Mahavira;
composed by Bhadrabahu; read by Jain monks during Paryushan
festival; written in Prakrit language.
● Acharanga sutra: Contains rules of monastic life; digambaras do not
recognize them; it was first of original 12 angas and one of oldest jain
texts
● Parishishtaparvan also known as the Sthaviravalicharitra is a 12th -
century Sanskrit mahakavya by Hemachandra which details the histories of
the earliest Jain teachers.

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● Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana is a major Jain text composed largely by

Acharya Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakutas
 Contribution of Jainism
o Preached Non-violence toward all living beings.
o Growth of Prakrit & Kannada language. Vardhaman Mahavir preached in ‗Ardha-
Magadhi‘ language, the language of the common man.
o Introduced new philosophy – syadvada.
o Art & architecture – Statue of Gommateshwara (Shravanbelagola), temples of Khajuraho
and Mt. Abu. Tiger cave of Udayagiri and Indira Sabha cave of Ellora.
o Jainism contributed to the growth of the trading community (both Jainism and Buddhism
supported lending activities).
o Jainism went a long way in creating a healthy society. Mahavir preached against the caste
system. With end of caste system in society the grip of higher caste over the lower caste
ended.
o Jainism became popular among the traders and merchants. It fostered brotherhood among
them which gave rise to guild system in future.
o Jainism helped a lot in the growth of charitable institutions. Its influence on the kings and
other people was abiding.
Similarities in Jainism & Buddhism Difference between Jainism & Buddhism
 Both the Buddhist and the Jaina  Jainism recognised the existence of god while
systems were nontheistic. Buddha Buddhism did not.
was agnostic (one who ignores god),  Jainism does not condemn the Varna system
while Mahavira denied god as the while Buddhism does.
creator of the Universe and  Jainism gave prominence to lay followers, while
considered gods, if any, as Buddhism relied mainly on Sangha and its monks
subordinate to Jaina teachers,  Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul
 Both were protest movements i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
against some practices of Vedic  Jainism was confined to India, but survived in it.
religion or Brahmanism, though not Buddhism spread rapidly to foreign lands, but
against its essence. died in India
 Both were opposed to the caste  Jainism preserved the metaphysical discussions of
system but could not eliminate it, nor the Brahmins, but Buddhism avoided them.
did they aim to do so.  Buddhism prescribes a middle path while
 Both accepted the doctrines of Jainism advocates its followers to live life of
karma and rebirth. complete austerity.
 Both renounced worldly life and  Salvation: In Jainism, nirvana could be attained
sought salvation. only after death of an individual and emphasis
 The founders of both belonged to the on Karma marga; In Buddhism, it can be
Kshatriya varna. attained within one‘s lifetime and emphasis on
 Both used language of common Jnana marga.
people to preach their religions.  Jainism believed in rigorous ascetism whereas
 Salvation known as Nirvana in both Buddhism discarded rigorous ascetism.
cases.  Jainism gave prominence to lay followers;

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 Both opposed caste system and whereas Buddhism relied mainly on sangha and
rejected varna order of Brahmanical its monks.
religion  Jainism is atheistic in nature; whereas Buddhism
is agnostic in nature.
 Jainism believed in transmigration of soul i.e.
reincarnation while Buddhism does not
7. Sufism
 Sufi Movement in India
o Introduction: Sufism represented a liberal form of Islam + The word ‗Sufi‘ derives its
name from Arabic word ‗Suf which means wool; Muslim saints who wore garments
of coarse wool were called as Sufi saints + It developed first in Iraq; first Sufi saint
was Begum Rabia of Bashera + Sufi work Kashf-ul-Mahjub written by Abul Hasan
al Hujwiri, aka Data Ganj Baksh.
o Features related to Sufism
 Sufi saints were assimilatory in their outlook: adopted many Hindu ideas such as
practice of bowing before Sheikh (saint), offering water to visitors and shaving head of
new entrants + concept of Anal Haq inspired from vedantic concepts like Tat Twam Asi
and Aham Brahmasmi (I am the supreme being).
 Emphasized upon leading a simple life and stress on inner purity; They did not
emphasize celibacy and did not renounce world completely.
 It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher- student); self-discipline was considered an essential
condition to gain knowledge of God.
 Monastic organization of Sufis was called as Khanqah: Pir was the head of Khanqah,
successor was called as Wali and disciples known as Murids.
 Fana (Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah), Zikr-tauba (remembrance of god all the
time), Sama (spiritual dance and music to promote their concepts).
 Sufis main theme is Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Unity of Being): there exists no difference
between god (creator) and people (created).
 Wahadat ul-shujud (Unity of appearance): God and creation are not same rather, the
latter is a shadow of the divine name and attributes when they are reflected in mirrors of
their opposite non-beings.
 Sufism evolved into the process of heart purification (tasfiyat al-qulub): they are
dubbed as ahl-I-dil (master of the heart).
 Salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following his commands and
by following the example of the Prophet Muhammad.
 Sufi orders classified into Ba-Shara (those who followed shariat) and Be-shara (those
who did not follow shariat).
 Maximum number of orders were found in Afghanistan.
 Some literary works: Sayyid Murtaza wrote Yoga Qalandar, Abdul-wahid wrote
Haqqiq-i-Hindi and Mulla Daud wrote chandayan.
o Stages of Sufism
 1st stage: Khanqah : Period- 10th century; also called age of golden mysticism.
 2nd stage: Tariqa: Period-11th to 14th century; when Sufism was institutionalized.

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 3rd stage: Tarifa: From 15th century onwards; Sufism became a popular movement.
o Chisthi order
 Khwaja Abdul Chisti of Herat was the founder of Chisthi order.
 Khwaja Muin-ud-din chisti brought it to India; Ajmer was his centre.
 It belongs to Ba sharia order; it was liberal in its outlook and did not accept gifts from
the state.
 Concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujud was preached by them.
 Life of poverty and asceticism was advocated by them.
 Practice of Pas-i- Anfas (control of breath), meditation, Chilla (40 days of tough ascetic
exercises) were associated with this sect + Sama (recital of holy songs) was practiced by
them.
 Nizamuddin Auliya was called sidh/perfect due to yogi breathing exercises.
 Nadasampradaya was followed which meant burying disciples near as one family.
 Sheikh Farid-ud-din Masud (known as Baba Farid and Ganj-i-Shakar) popularized Chisti
order all over India.
 Other famous saints were Sheikh Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar kaki, Sheikh Nizam-ud-din
Auliya, Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, Sheikh Salim and Sheikh Nizamuddin Faruqi.
o Suhrawardi order
 Founded by Sheikh Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi but responsibility to get in India was
upon shoulders of Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya.
 It belongs to Ba-shara order and orthodox in nature.
 Multan was the main centre of this order.
 They have accepted the service of the state and lead a luxurious life and participated
actively in the politics.
 Important saints: Sheikh Jalal-ud-din Tabrezi (established a Khanqah and a Langar),
Amir Hussain (wrote Zad-ul-Musafirin), Sheikh Ruknuddin and Sheikh Jalaluddin
Bukhari.
o Firdausi order
 It was founded by Badruddin Samarqandi; it was the only Sufi order which
was founded and developed within India.
 They practiced arduous ascetic activities in forests and tried to liberate Islamic
law.
 Maktubat and Malfuzat were authored by Sheikh Sharfuddin Maneri.
o Qadiri order
 Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani was its founder; this is the first mystic sect among Sufis.
 It was the most secular Sufi 94acrifi. Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) followed this
order.
 Shah Niamatullah Qadiri and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani popularized it in India.
o Kubrawiyya order
 Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani carried it to the Kashmir region.
 Believed in philosophy of Wahadat-ul-Shuhud.
 Sultan Sikandar of Kashmir was disciple of Mir Muhammad.
o Naqshbandi order
 It was founded by Sheikh Biqabullah; introduced into India by Sheikh Pirsai.
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 This order opposed liberal religious policies of Akbar; Aurangzeb followed

this order
 Sheikh Niyamtulla was the greatest scholar of this school.
o Miscellaneous
 Kulah-Daran: Sayyids put on a pointed cap (Kulah) and they were known as Kulah –
Daran.
 Qalandars: Qalandars were wandering dervishes. They were against Ba Shariya sufi
saints and criticized them for adopting lavish lifestyles and political posts.
8. Religion and Philosophy During Medieval Age
 Bhakti Movement (14th -16th centuries): It was a religious reform movement which
emphasized single-minded intense devotion to God + The earliest evidence of Bhakti can be seen
in hymn addressed to god Varuna in Rig Veda.
o Features of Bhakti movement: Idea of peaceful co-existence was propagated by Bhakti
saints + Believed in oneness of god, took positive elements from both Hinduism and Islam +
Condemnation of idolatry + Followed the system of Guru and Shishya + Strict moral
rectitude and rules of Bhakti saints + Relationship between god and man is through love and
worship rather than through performing any rituals + Rejected caste distinctions and believed
in equality of all humans + Use of local languages for preaching.
o Nirguna Bhakti: Nirguna saints believe invisible formless god, without attributes + Poetry
was Jnana-shrayi + Major Nirgun saints were Guru Nanak, Ravidas and Kabir.
o Saguna Bhakti: Saints believe God with form and attributes + Poetry was Prema-shrayi, or
with roots in love + Major Saguna saints were Tulsidas, Surdas and Mirabhai.
o Ulatbansi Mystics: used Sant Bhasha + Kabir also used.
 Prominent Bhakti Saints
o Ramananda (1300 AD- 1411 AD): He was the bridge between Bhakti movement of south
India and north India; Founder of Sant-parampara in north India + Introduced cult of Rama
and Sita instead of Narayana as objects of worship + His literary works include Gyan-lila and
Yog-cintamani (Hindi), Vaisnava Mata Bhajabhaskara and Ramarcanapaddhati (Sanskrit) +
Dhanna (a jat), Sena (barber), Raidas (cobbler), pipa (Rajput), 95acri (a weaver) were among
the disciples + First bhakti saint to have women as disciples- Padmavathi and Sursari.
o Kabir (1440 AD- 1510 AD): He is considered the greatest among the disciples of
Ramananda + Believed in the idea of one god; rejected both vedas and Quran + Denounced
idol-worship and religious superstitious beliefs + He composed a large number of poems:
Important works are Sakhis, Bijak, Sabads, Basant, Mangal, Holi and Rekhta + His poems
are called Banis (utterances) compiled in Bijak.
o Ravidas (1398 AD- 1540 AD): He was the founder of Raidas Panth + Cobbler by profession
+ many hymns composed by him were listed in Guru Granth Sahib.
o Dadu Dayal (1554 AD- 1603 AD): He was a disciple of Kabir + Founded Brahma-
Sampradaya and established Nipakh Sampradaya + Established a sect known as Dadu-
Panthis + Sundara Vilasa which deals with various philosophical systems was written by
him.
o Guru Nanak (1469 AD- 1538 AD): He was born at Talvandi village in Pakistan + Believed
in Nirguna (attribute less) and Nirankar (formless) god + Founder of Sikh religion and the
first Guru of ten Sikh Gurus + Preached middle path between extreme asceticism and free

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satisfaction of senses + He started langar (free community kitchen) and system of Guru
Gaddi + He composed hymns and sang with the help of instrument called Rabab played by
his attendant Mardana + He promoted ―Tauhid-e-wazidi‖.
o Chaitanya (1485 AD – 1534 AD): Considered as an incarnation of Krishna by his followers
and founder of modern Vaishnavism in Bengal + Propounded the doctrine of Achintyabheda
Bhedavada + invented Kirtan style of music + founded Gaudiya sect + Popularized the
chanting of Hare Rama, Hare Krishna + He wrote Siksastakam, a Sanskrit work on his
philosophy.
o Mirabai (1498 AD- 1546 AD): She was a devotee of Lord Krishna + She composed
religious songs (bhajans) in Rajasthani language and Braj Bhasha.
o Tulsidas (1532 AD- 1624 AD): Devotee of Lord Rama and depicted Rama as incarnation +
He composed Ramcharit Manas (narration by Shiva to Parvati), Kavitawali, Gitawali, Vinay
patrika, Dohavali, Krishnavali and Krishan-Gitavali.
o Surdas (1479 AD- 1584 AD): He was a contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar and
disciple of Vallabhacharya + Sahitya Lahri, Sursagar and Sur sarawali were composed by
him + Showed intense devotion to Radha and Krishna.
o Sankaradeva (1449 AD- 1568 AD): He was instrumental in spreading the Bhakti cult in
Assam + His philosophy was known as Eka Sarana Dharma (neo-vaishnavite movement) +
Founded many sattras (monasteries) and Mahapurushiya Dharma + He invented Sattriya
classical dance + His most famous work is Kirtana Ghosha, written in a simple language
understood by the masses.
 Alvars and Nayanars (5th to 10th centuries AD): Tamil poet saints who propagated Bhakti
movement in South India.
o Alvars: Devotees of Lord Vishnu + Divya Prabandha is the compilation of the hymns of the
Alvars saints + Important saints were Andal (only female Alvar; Known as Meera of the
south), Thirumazhisai Alvar, Nammalwar and Kulasekara.
 Nalayira Divyaprabandham - known as Tamil Veda
o Nayanars: They are the devotees of Lord Shiva + Tirumarai is the compilation of hymns of
Nayanars by the highest priest of Raja RajaCholaI, Nambiyandar Nambi + Important saints
were Tiru Neelakanta, Viralminda, Karaikkal ammaiyar etc.
 Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a
Shiva temple.
9. Shaivism
 Shaivas believe that Shiva is the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that
is.
 Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools,
including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda)
perspectives.
 Sub-sects in Shaiva tradition: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, Kashmir Shaivism, Siddha
Siddhanta, Lingayata and Shiva Advaita
 Kapalika
o Tantric, non-Puranic form of Shaivism in India.
o The word is derived from kapāla, meaning ―skull‖, and Kāpālika means the ―skull-men‖.

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o Extinct sect of Shaivite ascetics devoted to the Hindu god Shiva dating back to the 8th
century CE, which traditionally carried a skull-topped trident (khatvanga) and an empty skull
as a begging bowl.
o Other attributes - revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva by emulating his behavior and
characteristics, smeared their body with ashes from the cremation grounds, wore their hair
long and matted, and engaged in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol
10. Vaishnavism
 Vaishnavites lead a way of life promoting differentiated monotheism, which gives importance to
Lord Vishnu and His ten incarnations.
 Its beliefs and practices, especially the concepts of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga, are based largely on
the Upanishads, and associated with Puranic texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, and the Padma,
Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas.
 In Vaishnavism Lord Vishnu is considered as the supreme being.
 The cause, sustainer and destroyer of all worlds. Vishnu is considered both in the form and as the
formless infinite one.
 Sub-sects in Vaishnava tradition: Lakshmi sampradaya, Brahma sampradaya, Rudra sampradaya,
Kumara sampradaya.
 Vaishnava Acharyas
o Ramanuja (1017 AD- 1137 AD): Earliest exponent of Bhakti movement
 Means to achieve salvation - Karma and Bhakti
 Grace of god more important than knowledge for salvation
 Propagator of Vishishtadwaitavada or qualified monism – There exists a plurality and
distinction between Ātman (soul) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality)
 Sanskrit language used to preach
 Literary works - Vedartha Sangraham, Sri Bhashyam, Gita Bhashyam.
o Nimbarkacharya (1090 AD – 1162 AD): He was a contemporary of Ramanuja and a telugu
Brahman + Propounded the doctrine of Dwaita Advaitvada (dualist monism): world and
souls were different from god (Brahma) but soul could not exist without Brahmas support.
o Madhavacharya (1238 AD- 1317 AD): He expounded the philosophy of Dwaitvad: God
Brahma and individual soul are two distinct realities + He founded Brahma cult and argued
that knowledge leads to Bhakti which leads to salvation + Believed that liberation is possible
only through the grace of God + Wrote a book called as Anuvyakhyana.
o Vallabhacharya (1479 AD- 1531 AD): He propounded the doctrine of Shuddhadwaita (pure
non-dualism) + Founder of Rudra Sampradaya, philosophy known as Pushti marg + He
wrote Subodhini and Siddhant Rahasya + He worshipped Krishna under the title Srinathji.
 Maharastra Dharma
o Jnaneshvara (1271 AD- 1296 AD): He belonged to Varkari sect which worshipped Vithoba,
an incarnation of God Krishna + Pandharpur was main sect of varkari sect + Wrote books
known as Jnaneshvari, Changadeva prashasti and Amratanubhava and composed Abhangas +
Believes that divine order and moral order are one and the same and are inherent in the
universe itself.
o Eknath (1533 AD- 1599 AD): He popularized Vedanta philosophy + His works include
many religious songs called Abhangas, Owees, and Bharuds.

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o Tukaram (1598 AD- 1650 AD): His teachings included in his numerous Abhangas + He
made popular the Vithoba cult + Composed devotional songs on Vithalswamy called
as Abhangs + Preached the message of equality and universal brotherhood.
o Ramdas (1608 AD- 81 AD): He was associated with Dharkari sect, composed Dasa Bodha
and Spiritual guide of Shivaji + His literary works include Karunashtakas, Dasbodh,
Chaturthman, Manpanchak, Janaswabhawgosavi, etc.
11. Rise and Development of Sikhism
 Introduction: The word ‗Sikh‘ in the Punjabi language means ‗disciple‘ + Guru Nanak was the
founder of Sikhism, origin in the Punjab region + It was monotheistic in nature + Tradition of
Gurus is associated with Sikhism + Sikhism was well established by the time of Guru Arjan Dev
(1581-1606 AD).
 Philosophy of Sikhism
o There is only one God and is the same God for all people of all religions.
o Soul undergoes through cycles of births and deaths before it reaches the human form.
o Path to salvation does not require renunciation of the world but living the life of a
householder and earning an honest living.
o It condemns rituals such as fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage, superstitions, idol worship.
o 3 duties: Nam Japna (keeping god in mind at all times), Kirt Karna (earning an honest living)
and Vand Chhakna (sharing one‘s earnings with others).
o Avoidance of five vices: Lust, covetousness and greed, attachment to things of this world,
anger and pride.
 Sikh Gurus
o Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD): He was the founder of Sikhism; belong to Bhakti saint of
Nirguna school + He established Sikh Sangats (association) + He emphasized the equality of
women and rejected the authority of the Vedas + He was the contemporary of Mughal
emperor Babur. He was born at Talvandi village in Pakistan. He believed in Nirguna
(attribute less) and Nirankar (formless) god. Founder of Sikh religion and the first Guru of
ten Sikh Gurus. Preached middle path between extreme asceticism and free satisfaction of
senses. He started langar (free community kitchen) and system of Guru Gaddi. He composed
hymns and sang with the help of instrument called Rabab played by his attendant Mardana.
He promoted ―Tauhid-e-wazidi‖
o Guru Angad (1538-1552 AD): His original name was Lehna + He invented a new script
known as Gurumukhi + He divided Sikh‘s spiritual empire into 22 Manjis or Gadiyan + He
compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru Granth Sahib.
o Guru Amar Das (1552- 1574 AD): He introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for
the Sikhs + Established Manji and Piri system of religious missions for men and women
respectively + completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the custom of Sati and purdah
system + He asked his disciples to lead family life and preach Sikh religion + He was the
contemporary of Mughal emperor Akbar.
o Guru Arjan Dev (1581- 1606 AD):
 5th guru
 Founded Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar
 Completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib (Golden temple) at Amritsar
 Composed Guru Granth Sahib (Adi Granth) in 1604

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 Founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal Sahib

 Organized collection of spiritual tribute through agents known as masands
 Executed by Emperor Jahangir because he blessed Jahangir‘s rebellious son Khusro.
o Guru Hargobind (1606-1645 AD): He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev; known as soldier
saint + He adopted a new policy of Miri and Piri which transformed Sikhs into soldier-saints
+ He has built Akhal Takht (Throne of almighty) and fortified Amritsar + He shifted the
headquarters of Sikhism to Kiratpur + He 99acrifice a small army and became the first Guru
to take up arms to defend the faith.
o Guru Har Rai (1645- 1661 AD): He accepted the Guruship at a young age of 14 years + He
taught simplicity and devotion to God by the means of love and self-sacrifice + He blessed
Dara shukoh and helped him in escape after battle of Samugarh + He avoided conflict with
Emperor Aurangzeb and devoted his efforts to missionary work.
o Guru Harkishan (1661- 1664 AD): He was the youngest of all the gurus; installed at the age
of five + He was contemporary of Aurangazeb.
o Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664- 1675 AD): He composed 116 shabads and 15 ragas; many of
his compositions are included in Guru Granth Sahib + He established the town of Anandpur
+ He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits by Mughal ruler
Aurangazeb and he was consequently persecuted for this.
o Guru Govind Singh (1675-1708): He started Khalsa Panth (an organization of Sikhs) in
1699, changing the Sikhs into a saint-soldier order for protecting themselves + He translated
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas into Punjabi language + He was styled as Sacha
Padshah (veritable sovereign) + He introduced the titles of Singh and Kaur, Panj Piyare (five
beloved warriors) and Panj kakke (5 Ks) + He also introduced a new rite named Pahul
(initiation ceremony into Khalsa brotherhood).
 Important Gurudwaras
o Akal Takhat Sahib (Eternal Throne) : foundation was laid by Guru Hargobind.
o Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib: Brithplace of Khalsa, founded by Guru Gobind Singh, situated
at Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.
o Takht Sri Damdama Sahib: Guru Gobind Singh stayed here for about a year and compiled
the final edition of Guru Granth Sahib, also known as the Damdama Sahib Bir in 1705.
o Takht Sri Patna Sahib: Located at Patna, Bihar.
o Takht Sri Hazur Sahib: Located at Nanded, Maharashtra.
o Nankana Sahib (Pakistan): Birth place of Guru Nanak Dev.
o Gurudwara Darbar Sahib (Kartarpur, Pakistan): Guru Nanak Dev spent the last 18 years of
his life.
 Current Developments
 Kartapur Corridor: It connects the Darbar Sahib Gurdwara in Pakistan with the Dera Baba
Nanak shrine in Gurdaspur district in Punjab + It will facilitate visa-free movement of Indian
pilgrims + It was built to commemorate 550th birth anniversary celebrations of Guru Nanak
Dev, founder of Sikhism.
12. Schools of Philosophy
Goals for Life Meaning Treatise
Artha Economic means Arthasastra

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Dharma Regulation of social order Dharmasastra

Kama Physical pleasures Kamasutra
Moksha Salvation Several texts on Darshana
 Introduction: All the schools agreed that man should strive for fulfillment of four goals.
 Samkhya/Sankya school of philosophy
o It is considered as oldest philosophical tradition; founded by Kapila Muni.
o Shashti- tantra written by Kapila muni is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (soul or mind)
and prakriti (matter, energy).
o Does not believe in existence of god; nature or prakriti responsible for creation and
evolution of world.
o Later, Purusha introduced as an element (4th century AD): now, creation of universe
attributed to both Prakriti and Purusha.
o Purusha is associated with consciousness and cannot be changed.
o Recognizes existence of Tatvas (25 elements) which created the universe.
o Believes in doctrine of three gunas:
 Tamas (darkness): obscurity, ignorance, and inertia
 Rajas (passion): energy, emotion, and expansiveness
 Sattva (goodness): illumination, enlightening knowledge, and lightness.
o Believes in theory of Satkaryavad (cause for every action)
o Salvation can be attained through acquisition of real knowledge: acquired through
perception (pratyaksha), hearing(shabda) and inference (anumana).
o existence of an infinite number of similar but separate purushas, none superior to any other.
o Belived in karma and transmigration of soul.
o Advaita Vedanta derives its base from this school.
o The body consists of the higher functions of buddhi(consciousness), ahamkara (I-
consciousness), manas (mind as coordinator of sense impressions), and prana (breath).
o Ishwar Chandra wrote Samkhyaharika on Samkhya philosophy.
 Yoga school of philosophy
o Sage Patanjali was founder of this sect; closely related to the Samkhya school of
Hinduism.
o Core philosophy: Yogic techniques control body, mind and sense organs: thus considered
as a means of achieving mukti.
o Patanjali‘s Yoga sutras were principal text of school.
o Salvation can be attained through physical training (Ashtanga yoga) and meditation; yoga leads
to full realization of the gulf between purusha and prakriti, and therefore liberation from suffering.
o Believes in existence of god; god is not creator but an exalted soul which exists in eternity.
o Om is considered as a sacred symbol.
o Practice of Yoga includes: Yama (Restraint from violence and theft) + Niyama (building
habits like contentment, purity etc.) + Prathyahara (choosing an object) + Asana (good
posture) + Pranayama (breath control) + Dharana (focused attention on an object) +
Dhyana (meditation)+ Samadhi (concentration).
o Raja Bhoja wrote a commentary called Yoga sutra vritti on Yoga sutra.
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 Nyaya school of philosophy

o Sage Gautama was founder of this school; Nyaya sutras is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and
experience + considered as a technique of logical thinking.
o Salvation can be attained through acquisition of knowledge through:
 Pratyaksha (perception)
 Anumana (inference)
 Upamana (comparison)
 Shabda (verbal testimony)
o four sources of invalid knowledge: memory, doubt, error (false certainty),
and hypothetical argument.
o attaining knowledge through the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation.
 Vaisheshika school of philosophy
o Uluka kanada was founder; Kanada sutras is the principal text.
o Emphasis on material elements or dravya and naturalism; also known as school of
atomism.
o accepted two means to knowledge such as perception and inference.
o Universe is made up of 5 fundamental atomic elements: Earth, air, water, fire and
ether (akash).
o Believes in dualism of matter and soul.
o Prashastapada wrote commentary called Padartha dharma sangraha.
o Laws of karma guide the universe.
o all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu(atoms), and one‘s
experiences are derived from the interplay of substance, quality, activity,
commonness, particularity and inherence.
 Mimamsa/Purva Mimamsa/Karma Mimamsa school of philosophy
o Sage Jamini was founder of this school; Jamini sutras is the principal text.
o Core philosophy: emphasis on power of yajnas and mantras in sustaining the
activities of the universe.
o Vedas are considered infallible, eternal and self-existent by this school.
o Vedic rituals essential to attain salvation.
o It is associated with Akhyativad (existence of illusion is not accepted).
o Kumarila Bhatta is the prominent scholar associated with Mimamsa school.
 Vedanta/Uttar Mimamsa school of philosophy
o Badarayana was founder of this school; Brahma sutra is the principal text.
o Monistic school of philosophy: only reality is Brahman.
o Three fundamental Vedanta texts are Upanishads, Brahma sutras and Bhagavadgita.
o Believes in transmigration of the self (samsara)
o Self (atman) is agent of karma: recipient of consequences, of action.
o Sub-branches are Advaita, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Shuddhadvaita and
Achintya Bheda Abheda.
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 Uchchedavada (Annihilationism): Founded by Ajita kesakamblin + It believed in

materialistic philosophy+ everything ends with death + do not believe in idea of sin+ charvaka
school emerged out of it.
 Ajivikas: Established by Nanda vachcha+ Makkhaliputa Gosala was its third religious
chief+ also referred as Sudra sanyasins+ It is based on philosophy based on Niyati (destiny)+
rejected theory of karma+ did not believe in efficacy of human efforts+ practiced complete
nudity and rigorous practices+ King Bimbisara was follower of this sect+ atheistic in nature.
 Charvakas/Lokayatas: Also known as Barhaspatya+ Barhaspatya sutras is primary
literature+ believes in enjoying luxuries of life (Eat, drink and merry) + monks also known as
Nastika shiromani+ emphasized water, fire, air and earth are only fundamental elements+ there
is no rebirth, no soul, no god and no karma+ pratyaksha (perception) was only way of
acquiring valid knowledge+ rejected vedas as ultimate source of knowledge.
 Anichchitvada: Sanjay Vetiputta was founder of this sect+ doctrine of non-denial and non-
approval of existence of anything+ emphasizes that nothing is certain in this world.
 Akrittavada/Asasvatavada: Pakuda Katyayana was founder+ seven elements constitute the
universe- light, sorrow, happiness, earth, water, air and life+ It got merged with Ajivikas sect+
Vaishesika school of philosophy emerged from it.
 Parivrajaka/Bhikshus: The word Parivrajaka means ‗roaming ascetic‘. They were seekers of
truth who wandered from one village to village and forest to forest. The famous parivrajakas
were Gautama Buddha, Makhkhali Goshala, Vardhamana Mahavira etc.
 Shramana: Shramana refers to seeker who performs acts of austerity, ascetic etc. They
disregarded the higher status of Brahmans and lived in monasteries near villages and towns
denying caste distinctions.
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Chapter – 9
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH AGES
1. Introduction: The progress in science and technology can be traced back to the period of Stone age:
Different colours used to make paintings on walls of caves and teeth drilled to fill cavities.
2. Progress in Mathematics
 Geometry (Rekha Ganita): Town planning of Harappa: Indicate good knowledge of
measurement and geometry + Vedic Aryans used the knowledge of geometry to build fire altars,
descriptions found in Sulvasutras and Taitriya Samhita + Brahmagupta introduced the concept of
Cyclical quadrilateral + Baudhayana discovered the Pythagoras theorem in Baudhayana
sulvasutra + Apastamba provided proof to Pythagoras theorem and concepts of practical
geometry such as acute, obtuse and right angles and approximated square root of 2 + Aryabhatta
formulated the area of a triangle and had given value of Pi.
 Arithmetic (Anka Ganita): Aryabhata invented zero, decimal system, numerals from 2 to 9 +
The first reference of rule of three is found in Aryabhatiyam + Brahmagupta introduced negative
numbers and described them as debts + Mahaviracharya Ganit sara sangraha described finding of
Lowest common multiple.
 Algebra (Bija Ganita): Aryabhatiyam enunciated rules for geometric progression, arithmetic
progression + Bhaskara II developed surds and laws related to their operations + Concept of partial
symbolism + Bhaskaracharya Lilavati contains Chakrawat method to solve algebraic equations.
 Trigonometry: Aryabhata introduced concept of sines known as Jaya + Varahamihira improved
accuracy of sine tables developed by Aryabhata + Nilakantha Somasutvan Tantrasamgraha
contains rules of trigonometric functions.
3. Progress in Astronomy
 Taitiriya Brahmana: Earliest reference of astronomy; makes mention of Sun, Moon,
Nakshatras and seasons; also mention rules of making a panchanga in Vedanga Jyotisha.
 Romaka Siddhanta was composed by Srishena.
 Aryabhatta estimated circumference of earth, postulated a new theory that earth was round and
rotate on its own axis + He was the first to explain true causes of solar and lunar eclipses + He
also put rules of planetary movement.
o Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita, Panchasiddhantika, Yogamaya, Laghukatha and
Vivahapatal. The Brihat Samhita, an exhaustive study on architecture, temples, planetary
motions, eclipses, timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall, agriculture,
mathematics, gemology, fragrances, and many other themes, was one of Varahamihira's most
famous works (It is not exclusive on Astronomy). The Pancha-siddhantika ("Five Treatises"),
a compilation of Greek, Egyptian, Roman, and Indian astronomy, written by Varahamihira.
The Panchasiddhantika treatises of Varahamihira contrasted Surya Siddhanta.
 Brahmagupta was a precursor to Newton: Proclaimed that all things fall to earth automatically,
emphasized that it was nature of earth to attract things towards itself in his book
Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khandakhyadyaka.
 Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani.
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 Aryabhatta stated that earth is round and rotates in its own axis, determining true position of
planets, movement of the sun and the moon, calculation of eclispses.
4. Progress in Medical Science
 Mehrgarh (Neolithic site): Evidences of dentistry, teeth drilled and filled with some material.
 Harappan civilization : Key hole skull surgery (trepanation) evidence found at Kalibangan and
Lothal.
 Atharva veda: Diseases were caused by demons entering human body and can be cured by
magical charms and spells + It mentions cure for diarrhea, sores, cough and leprosy.
 Ayurveda is beginning of rational system of medical science, contains methods of curing
different types of ailments.
 Atreya taught medicine branch at Taxila Universiy: compiled by his disciple Agnivesha : Put in
book form by Charaka in 100 AD.
 Charaka Samhita deals with use of plants and herbs for medicinal purposes + Extensive note on
digestion, metabolism and immune system + Emphasized that human body functioning depends
on three Doshas: Bile, Phlegm and wind + Genetics also finds a mention in charaka Samhita.
 Sushruta Samhita deals with practical problems of Surgery (sastrakarma) and Obstetrics +
Rhinoplasty and Ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts from eye) mentioned + references of
serious kinds of operations and description of plants used for treatment of diseases.
 Vaghbatta Astangasamgraha (7th century AD) also has references to various diseases.
 Dhanvantari Navanitakam: Manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions for treatment of
various diseases.
 Sarangdhara Samhita emphasized use of opium in medicines and for urine examination in
laboratories.
 Unani system came from Greece with book Firdausu hikmat written by Ali-bin-Rabban.
 Uttrantara written by Nagarjuna is supplement to Sushrut Samhita and deals with preparation of
medicinal drugs.
 Other works: Hastyayurveda (Ayurveda of Elephants) authored by Palakappya + Ashvasastra
(veterinary science of horses) written by Salihotra + Nagarjuna developed a new system of
medicine called Ras Chikitsa and propounded theory that metallic minerals have property to cure
diseases.
5. Progress in Physics and Chemical Science (Rasayan Shastra)
 Physics: Materials on Earth classified into Panchbhootas + Last miniscule matter called as
Paramanu; five different types of paramanu for five different elements (idea of splitting an atom
was thus first conceived by Indian Philosophers) + Kanada and Pakudha Katyayana first coined
idea of atoms and material world being constituted of atoms.
 Colours used to make paintings on walls of caves during the pre-historic age.
 Vedic period: Knowledge of tanning of leather, fermentation of grains and fruits for producing
liquor and dyeing of wool.
 Nagarjuna tried to convert base metals such as iron and copper into metals such as gold and
silver : gave impetus to development of metallic salts + Wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara which
deals with preparation of liquids and emphasized on survey of alchemy + Used animal and
vegetable products to prepare elixir of life from Mercury + Wrote Uttaratantra which deals with
preparation of medicinal drugs.
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 Varahamihira claimed presence of termites (Deemaks) and plants to indicate presence of water
in particular area + Earth cloud theory mentioned in Brihatsamhita which related earthquake to
influence of plants, behavior of animals, underground water and unusual cloud formation.
 Advent of Mughals: Manufacture of gunpowder + Saltpetre, Sulphur and charcoal used to
produce different varieties of gun powder + Ain-i-Akbari discusses regulation of perfume office;
Noor Jahan discovered attar of roses. + Casting of canons explicitly mentioned in Tujuk-i-
Baburi.
6. Progress in Ship building and navigation
 Yukti kalpa taru, a Sanskrit treatise deals with techniques used in ship building + Drigha type
of ship (long and narrow hull) and Unnata type of ship (higher hull).
 Important Terms: Nava bandhan kilaha (anchor of ship), Vata vastra (sail), rudder of ship (jeni
pata), keel of ship (nava tala) and machayantra (compass of the ship).
7. Progress in Metallurgy
 Harappan period: Highly developed; reflected in various images of copper and bronze.
 Indian steel known as wootz known for its high quality which was used to manufacture famous
Damascus swords.
 Mehrauli Iron pillar manufactured by Chandragupta II (metal is rust free even after remaining
open for thousands of years) and Sultanganj Buddha statue made of copper using lost-wax
technique are fine examples.
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Chapter - 10
MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
1. Introduction: Earliest reference of martial arts is found in Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Rigveda) which
deals with the science of archery + Oldest recorded organized unarmed martial art in India is Malla-
yuddha (combat wrestling) + Martial artists need to acquire knowledge of Marma Shastra (study of
vulnerable spots in human body).
 One of the oldest martial arts originated during
period 200 BC- 200AD
 Introduced by a legend, sage Parasurama who
built temples.
 Region: Kerala and nearby areas of Tamil Nadu.
 It includes mock duels (armed and unarmed
combat) and physical exercises; It is not accompanied by any drumming or song.
Kalaripayattu
 Most important key is footwork which includes kicks, strikes and weapon-based
practice.
 This is practiced also by women, Unniyarcha; a legendary heroine won many
battles using this martial art.
 Techniques: Uzhichil or the massage with Gingli oil, Maipayattu or body
exercises, Puliyankam or sword fight, Verumkai or bare-handed fight etc.
 It was banned by British colonial rulers.
 Weapon-based Indian martial art and a kind of
staff fencing from Tamil Nadu.
 Techniques: Swift movements of the foot, use of
thrust, cut, chop, sweep to achieve mastery &
development of force, momentum & precision at
Silambam
different levels of the body.
 It also used animal movements of the snake, tiger,
eagle forms and footwork patterns.
 Bamboo staff is the primary weapon; involves stick fighting.
 Kuttu varisai is unarmed variety of Silambam.
 It is a weapon-based art form performed by Sikhs
of Punjab.
Gatka  Involves skillful use of weapons including stick,
kirpan, talwar and kataar
 Unarmed martial art from Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.

 Incorporates development of all three aspects physical,
mental and spiritual.
Musti Yuddha
 It makes proper utilization of punches and elbow
strikes; kicks and knee strikes are comparatively less
used in Musti Yuddha, as punches mostly dominate the
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fight
 It is weapon-based martial art form popular in

Kolhapur region, Maharashtra.
 Vita (corded lance) and Pata (sword) are weapons
Mardani Khel
used.
 Focuses primarily on skills of weaponry and swift
movements
 The Rajputs developed this martial art form
originated from Bihar.
 Involves fighting using sword and shield.
Pari Khanda  The steps and techniques used in this form also used
in Chhau dance
 It is the traditional form of combat-wrestling; first reference found in

Mahabharata.
 It incorporates grappling, joint-breaking, punching, biting,
choking and pressure point
 Closely related to Southeast Asian wrestling styles such as
naban.
Malla-
Yuddha  Manasollasa written by Chalukya King Someswara contains
its description.
 It has 4 variants:
o Hanumanti: For technical superiority
o Jambuvanti: Focuses on locking and holding till opponent gives up.
o Jarasandhi: Breaking limbs and joints
o Bhimaseni: Focuses on sheer strength
 It is a popular art form of wrestling originated from
village of Dungtland, Mizoram.
 The contest takes place on a carpet or grass in a
Inbuan
circle of 15-feet diameter.
 Bending of knees and stepping out of marked circle
are prohibited
 Manipur
Cheibi gad-ga  It involves a duel fight; sword and shield used as fighting equipment.
 Skill rather than brute force declares victory during the competition
 It is a popular martial art form from Manipur; also known as Huyen Lallong.
Thang-ta  Swords and spears are primarily used in it.
 Sarit Sarak is the weaponless version of Thang-ta.
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 It is practiced in 3 different ways: Firstly,

ritualistic in nature linked with tantric
practices, secondly, the spectacular
performance involving sword and spear
dances. These routines can be converted into
actual fighting practices. The third way is the
true combat application.
 It is a martial arts form originated in Kullu

region, Himachal Pradesh.
 The competition involves a mix of culture,
sport and martial arts; held on Biashaki
day.
Thoda
 It relies on a player‘s skill of archery and
can be dated back to the time of
Mahabharata where bows and arrows were
used.
 Techniques used: Wooden bows, arrows are used
 It is a performing martial arts form popular
in southern parts of state of Odisha.
 It is made of wood and attached to legs of
Ranapa Nacha paiks to increase their heights
It is an Odia term that means ―warrior scholl‖.

 Served as training schools of the peasant militia in
Odisha, eastern India
 Performance art with rhythmic movements and
weapons being hit in time to the drum
Paika Akhada  Acrobatic maneuvres and use of the
khanda(straight sword), patta(108acrific – sword),
sticks and other weapons
 Paikas were Khandayats (one who has control
over his swords)
 It is a weapon based martial arts form

originated in ancient Kashmir.
 Armed sqay makes use of a curved single-
edge sword paired with a shield, or one
Sqay sword in each hand.
 Unarmed techniques incorporate kicks,
punches, locks and chops. Sqay have
different techniques single sword double
sword free hand techniques and lessons of both freehand and sword.
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 It has 2 events: Combat (Loba) which is one to one and Artistic event which
is one without music.
 It is one of the ancient martial arts of Andhra Pradesh, practiced by the royal
armies
 The place where Kathi Samu is performed is known as ‗garidi.‘
Kara Kathi  Stick fight known as ‗vairi‘ has an important role in Kothi Samu and it is the
Samu prelude to the actual swordfight.
 ‗Gareja‘ in which a participant holds four swords, two in each hand and ‗Dal Farri
Khadga‘ are other important aspects of the sword skills.
 It was patronized by Chera, Chola and Pandya kings of south India.
 It is a weaponless form of martial arts; warriors are empty handed.
Bandesh  Fighters aim at maiming and defeating but not killing
 Weaponless form - practiced by monks in ancient times.
Varma Kalai  It combines disciplined combat, yoga and Ayurveda.
 It was primarily used for self-defense which targets vital points of human body
 It involves weaponless fighting popular in Madhya Pradesh.
Binot
 Wrestling techniques used against armed as well as unarmed attackers
 Saldu is the prominent sports and form of wrestling of the Nicobarese tribe
 The field is divided by a line in the centre, and there are no boundary lines
Saldu
 The number of players is as desired, but each team is to comprise an equal number
of players
 It is an indigenous form of wrestling quite popular with the Nicobarese
tribe
Kirip
 The wrestler, using various parts of the body, including the leg, tries to
thrust the opponent to the ground
 Rod pushing sport is an indigenous game of Mizoram.
 A circle of 16 ft diameter with a straight line across the circle at the center is drawn.
Insu Knawr
 Suk or a wooden rod or bamboo rod shall be approximately 8 ft long and 2.5 – 3
inches in diameter
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Chapter - 11
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
1. Introduction: Indian literature broadly divided into religious literature such as Vedas, Puranas,
Epics etc and secular literature such as Arthashastra, Rajatarangini etc.
2. Literature During Vedic Age
 Vedas: The word ‗Veda‘ signifies knowledge + They are collection of hymns, charms and
prayers revealed by Lord Brahma to sages+ Oldest known works of literature+ Also known as
Shruti literature (knowledge received by sages through hearing) and Nitya (timeless and
universal in nature) + Compiled around 3000 BC- 1000BC + There are four major vedas and
each veda has 4 sub-parts- Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
 Rigveda
o It is the oldest among four vedas and oldest literature of Indo-Europeans.
o Focuses on world prosperity and natural beauty+ Most of hymns lay emphasis on themes
of life, death, creation and for seeking soma.
o Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns (suktas) arranged in 10 Mandalas (2nd, 3rd,
4th, 5th, 6th and 7th mandalas are the oldest).
o First Mandala is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni.
o Gayatri mantra is part of 3rd Mandala of Rigveda: Composed by Vishwamitra dedicated
to god Savitr.
o 9th Mandala : All hyms dedicated entirely to Soma.
o Purusha Sukta hymn is present in 10th mandala of Rigveda.
o Chief deity is Indra+ other gods are Agni, Varuna, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu; female
goddesses like Usha (Goddess of dawn), Prithvi (Goddess of earth) and Vak (Goddess of
speech) also mentioned.
o The Universe devised from Prajapati, the principle basis of creation.
o Hotri priests were associated with Rigveda.
o Aitareya Brahmana (first reference of origin of kingship) and Kaushitaki Brahmana are
part of Rigveda.
o Varna System, Four-fold division of society, ‗Sudra‘, Gamester‘s Lament also find
mention in Rig Veda.
o Thirty manuscripts from Rigveda are accepted into UNESCO‘s Memory of the World
Register.
 Yajurveda (worship of ritual knowledge)
o Collection of hymns used by priests during rituals and ceremonies; originally recited by
Adhvaryu priests; also called as Vajasaneyi 110acrifi and Taittiriya Samhita.
o Shukla Yajur Veda contains only mantras+ It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva
recensions.
o Krishna Yajur Veda (Black Yajur Veda) – it includes mantras as well as prose
explanations+ It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions.
o Upaveda of Yajurveda is Dhanurveda
o Oldest example of prose literature of Indo-Europeans.
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o Taittiriya Brahmana and Satapatha Brahmana (reference to Upanayana, agricultural

rituals) are part of Yajurveda.
o Taittiriya Upanishad, Brihadaranyka Upanishad (first reference to transmigration of
soul), Isa Upanishad are part of Yajurveda.
 Samaveda
o Hymns mostly taken from Rigveda Samhita arranged according to needs of musical
notation; Also known as book of chanters.
o Earliest literary reference about origin of Indian music.
o Udgatri priest was associated with samveda.
o Panchavimsha Brahmana, Jaminiya Brahmana, Chhandogya Upanishad belongs to
Samaveda.
o Upaveda of Samaveda is Gandharva veda.
o It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times+
Recensions (Shakhas) are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya (Talavakara).
 Atharvaveda/Brahma veda
o It is the latest veda and a collection of spells, charms and magic+ purpose is to keep away
evils, gain material success and making new friends.
o Focuses on peace and prosperity and treatment of several ailments.
o Paippalada and Saunakiya recensions are part of it+ also deals with black and white
magic.
o First reference to word ‗Gotra‘ found in Atharvaveda
o Sabha and samiti mentioned as twin daughters of Prajapati.
o Gopatha Brahmana and Mundaka Upanishad (phrase Satyameva Jayate mentioned)
belong to it.
o Silpaveda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.
 Brahmanas
o These are prose explanations of the Samhita portions and give explanations of sacrificial
rituals and their outcome.
o Advocate Karma marga (path of rituals) for attainment of salvation.
o Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it:
 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas to Rig Veda.
 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda
 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda
 Gopath Brahmana, Jaimaniya Brahmana and Panchvish Brahmana to Atharva Veda
 Aranyakas
o Also called as Forest books, they constitute the philosophy behind ritual sacrifices.
o Emphasis on meditation and opposed to sacrifices and rituals.
o They are concluding portion of the Brahmanas and interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
 Upanishads
o They constitute last part of vedas: also known as Vedanta (end of vedas).
o Contain philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the body, and universe+ concept of atman and
Brahman.
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o Early Upanishads written in prose such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya

Upanishad+ Later Upanishads such as Kathopanishad written in verse form.
o Believe in efficacy of Jnana marga (path of knowledge) to attain salvation.
o Tradition was part of guru-shishya 112acrifice.
o Monotheistic elements are predominant: Brahma considered as ultimate reality of
universe.
o Believes that individual soul is identical with supreme soul and his realization leads to
salvation.
o Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
o Upanishads emphasize efficacy of ‗Jnana Marga‘ to attain salvation; Brahm considered as
originator of universe;
o Mundaka Upanishad contains Satyameva Jayate; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains first
reference of transmigration of soul; Chandogya Upanishad refers to first three ashrams and
anuloma and pratiloma marriages.
o Katha Upanishad
 Belongs to the Yajur Veda, consists of two chapters, each of which has three sections.
 It employs an ancient story from the Rig Veda about a father who gives his son to death
(Yama), while bringing out some of the highest teachings of mystical spirituality.
 There are some passages common to the Gita and Katha Upanishad.
o Aitareya Upanishad
 The Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda.
 It is the purpose of this Upanishad to lead the mind of the 112acrifice away from the
outer ceremonial to its inner meaning.
 It deals with the genesis of the universe and the creation of life, the senses, the organs,
and the organisms.
 It also tries to delve into the identity of the intelligence that allows us to see, speak, smell,
hear, and know.
 Recensions (Shakhas)
o Rig Veda- Shakala shakha is the only surviving recension of the Rig Veda.
o Sam Veda- Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya (or Talavkara)
o Yajur Veda- Recensions of Shukla (also known as Vajasaneya) Yajur Veda are
Madhyandina and Kanva + Black school represented by the Kathaka, Kapishthala,
Maitrayani and Taittiriya recensions.
o Atharva Veda- Shaunaka and Paippalada are the recensions of the Atharva Veda.
 Vedangas: mean limb of veda; composed to facilitate proper understanding of vedas.
o Nirukta vedanga deals with etymology.
o Vyakarana vedanga deals with grammar.
o Shiksha vedanga deals with phonetics.
o Chhanda vedanga deals with science of metres
o Jyotish vedanga deals with astronomy.
o Kalpa vedanga deals with ritual portion
 Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for performance of sacrifices and rituals.
 Grihya Sutra –It includes rituals pertaining to Samskaras such as Upanayana (initiation),
Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
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 Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals Dharma.

3. Literature during Post-Vedic age
 Sutra Literature: These are created by reorganizing hymns in short forms + They are 4 in
number:
o Srautasutra used by priests during rituals and ceremonies.
o Sulvasutra deals with methods of making fire altars
o Grihyasutra deal with rules and regulations of householders
o Dharmasutra was book of the rulers.
 Puranas
o These consist of narrative stories about the creation of universe and illustrate till supposed
destruction of the universe.
o Mostly written in Sanskrit with few in vernacular languages.
o Period of Composition: Overlap to some extent with Vedas, but their composition stretched
forward into the 4th-5th centuries CE.
o Total of 18 major puranas; important ones include Bhagvata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni,
Garuda, Padna and Matsya.
 Upa- Puranas
o Sarga: primary creation of the universe.
o Pratisarga: recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
o Manvantaras: reigns of the various Manus.
o Vamsha: genealogy of gods and rishis.
o Vamshanucharita: history of Solar (Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.
 Dharmashastra: Sanskrit texts which deal about morality and religious duty + They provide
guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and righteous conduct.
Eg – Vaishyas‘s duty is to engage in trade + It refers to fulfilment of Purusharthas such
as Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha; It is further subdivided into:
o Dharmasutras (600-300 BCE)
o Smritis (200 BCE – 900 CE)
o Tikas and Bhashyas
 These are based on ancient Dharmasūtra texts, which emerged from the literary tradition
of the Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva) composed in 2 nd millennium BCE to the
early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE
 The hymns of Ṛigveda are one of the earliest texts composed in verse.
 The Brāhmaṇa which belongs to the middle vedic period followed by the vedāṇga are
composed in prose.
 The basic texts are composed in an aphoristic style known as the sutra which literally
means thread on which each aphorism is strung like a pearl.
4. Literature During Mauryan Age
 Arthashastra: This book is written by Kautilya in Grantha script+ It deals with politico-
administrative and a book on statecraft+ It is divided into 15 Adhikaranas (parts) and 150
prakaranas (chapters)+ Bhattasvamin wrote a commentary on it called as Pratipada-
Panchika.
5. Literature During Post-Mauryan Age
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Author Book Main Theme

Nagarjuna Satasaharika, Prajnaparamita Deals with Mahayana Buddhism
and Madhyamika karika
Milinda panha Discussion between Nagasena and Indo-Greek
ruler Menander
Ashvagosha Sariputra-prakarana It mainly deals with Buddha‘s life.
Visuddhimagga Buddhaghosa It is a collection of Theravada teachings
Charaka Charaka Samhita It deals with medicine
Patanjali Mahabhashya Commentary on Panini‘s treatise Ashtadhyayi.
 Panini (520-460 BC): Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of
phonetics, phonology, and morphology
o He is considered the founder of the language and literature
o Astadhyayi (Astaka)  around the 3rd-4th century BC; it consists of 8 chapters, each
subdivided into quarter chapters
o Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar
6. Literature During Gupta Period
Author Works Main Theme
Dramas: Abhijnana Shakuntalam:
 Abhijnana Shakuntalam  Story of king Dushyanta, and Shakuntala.
 Malavikagnimitram Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvasiyam  Love story of Sunga king Agnimitra (son
of Pushyamitra Sunga) and Malvika
Epics:  Mentions that Pushyamitra Shunga
 Raghuvamsa performed Rajasuya sacrifice
 Kumarasambhava Vikramorvasiyam
 Love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and
Kalidasa (court of of
Poetry: Urvashi in Sanskrit.
Chandragupta II
(Vikramaditya))  Ritusamhara Raghuvamsa
 Meghaduta.  Sanskrit epic poem narrating genealogy
of Lord Rama‘s Raghu Vamsa beginning
with King Dileep up to Agnivarna.
Ritusamhara
 Mentions the feelings, emotions and
experiences of lovers in six seasons.
Meghaduta
 It is a poem around Yaksha, who is
subject of Lord Kubera.
Asanga Sutralankara It deals with Yogacara school of Buddhism
Sushruta Sushruta Samhita It deals with surgical branch of medicine.
(Father of Surgery)
Abhidammakosa It deals with a wide range of philosophical,
Vasubandhu cosmological, ethical, and salvational
doctrine.
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Mrichchakatikam Love story of Charudatta of Ujjain and

Shudraka
courtesan Vasantasena.
Kiratarjuniyam Describes the combat between Arjuna and
Bhairavi
Kirat (Lord Shiva) at Indrakeeladri Hills
Mudrarakshasa and Mudrarakshasa: It describes how
Devichandraguptam Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne
after defeating Nandas.
Vishakadatta Devichandraguptam: It is a Sanskrit
political drama narrating king Ramagupta
surrendering his queen Dhruvadevi to a
Shakas.
Vatsyayana Kamasutra It is a treatise on human sexual behavior.
Panchatantra and Treatise on political science and human
Vishnu sharma
Hitopadesha conduct.
Aryabhatta Aryabhattiyam Astronomy
Brihatsamhita and Pancha- Astronomy
Varahamihira
Siddhantika
 Amarasimha: Sanskrit grammarian and poet from ancient India and was one of the Navratnas
during the Gupta dynasty‘s rule
o Amarakosha: It is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots consists of verses that can be easily
memorized; it is divided into 3 khaṇḍas or chapters.
o Svargadi-khaṇḍa (heaven and others) has words pertaining to gods and heavens.
o Bhuvargadi-khaṇḍa (earth and others) deals with words about earth, towns, animals and humans.
o Samanyadi-khaṇḍa (common) has words related to grammar and other miscellaneous words
7. Literature of Post-Gupta an Early Medieval age
Author Works
Bhavabhuti Mahavirachitra – based on Ramayana, such as the
 Dramatist of the later Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great Hero), which depicts the
Sanskrit dramatic period early life of Rama and Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of
 Court poet of King Rama), which shows the final years of Rama‘s life as written in
Yashovarman of Kannauj, Uttara Kanda of the115amayana.
in north India in 8th CE. Malatimadhava – His 3rd drama + based on Malati and
Madhava, is a Prakarana play centered on the love story of
Malati, the daughter of a minister and Madhavya, her beloved.
Haribhadra suri Yogashastra
Mallisena Syadavadamanjari
Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta
King Harshavardhana Nagananda, Ratnavali (Theme – devious path adopted by minister
Yaugandharaya of Vatsa king Udayana of Kaushambi to get his
king married to Ceylonese princess Ratnavali) and Priyadarshika
Banabhatta Kadambari, Harshacharita
Kalhana Rajatarangini
Hemachandra Kumarapalacharita and Parishistaparvana
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Bhaskaracharya Siddhanta Shiromani

8. Sangam Literature: It refers to assembly of Tamil poets organized under the patronage of Pandya
kings + Sangam age called as Augustan age of Tamil literature + Classified into two categories:
Puram (deals with material aspects) and Agam (deals with love) + Compiled during 3rd century
BC to 3rd century CE in poetic format around theme of love and war + The heroic poems were
composed on the principle of oral bardic literature.
 Ettutogai: It consists of eight works which are Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
 Pattuppattu: It has a collection of 10 poems + Some large poems belong to Agam group and
others to Puram group.
 Pathinenkilkanakku: It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals + Most important is
Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
 Silapaddikaram: It is the oldest tamil epics composed by Ilango Adigal+ Major theme is story
of kovalan and Madhavi.
 Manimekhalai: Written by Sittalai Sattanar continues the story of Silappadikaram in next
generation in which Manimekhalai is the daughter of Madhavi and Kovalan.
 Tolkappiyam: written by Tolkappiyar and it is a work on Tamil grammar and poetics + It
provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
 Agattiyam: It was written by sage Agastya on grammar.
 Tirrukural: Also known as Bible of Tamil land+ it was written by Tiruvallur+ It deals with
matters related to government+ It speaks about an ideal king and largely limited to ruling elites.
 Jivaka Chintamani: Written by Liruttakkadevar; themed around story of Jivaka who possessed
supernatural powers; it is alos known as marriage book.
 3 Major sangams
Sangams Place Chairman Texts compiled
Agatiyyam, Paripadal, Mridukugu
First sangam Ten-Madurai Agastya
etc. No book has survived.
Second sangam Kapatapuram Tolkappiyar Tolkappiyam
Third sangam Madurai Nakkikar Manimekalai and Silapaddigaram
 Sangam poems contain several incidental references to material culture, often as part of the
poem‘s setting or in similes and allusions.
 The social classification of varna was known to Sangam poets. There is mention of the Arashar
(kings), Vaishiyar (traders), and Velalar (farmers). The Brahmanas are also mentioned, some of
them closely associated with the courts of kings and patronized by ruling elites.
 Sangam Poems are pervaded with a warrior ethic. Puram in sangam litrauture are the War Poems
that deals with the outer life of people. Speak of public celebration of the feats of the heroes even
the death of heroes in wars.
 Sangam literature reflects a belief in sacred or magical forces called ananku that were supposed
to inhabit various objects.
9. Miscellaneous
Author Works
Gangadevi Maduravijayam
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Allasani peddana Manucharitam

Krishnadeva raya Amuktamalyada (in Telugu language), Jambavati kalyanam (in Sanskrit
language) and Usha parinayam (in Sanskrit language).
Pampa Adi Purana and Vikramarjiva Vijaya
Bandhuvarma Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva sambodhana
Ponna Shanti purana
Nandi Timmana Parijathapaharanam
Hastimalla 13th century Kannada poet and writer in Hoysala Empire. He wrote
Purvapurana.
Kshemeshvara 11th -century Sanskrit poet from Kashmir in India. His work is called
Dasavatar Charita.
Abul Fazl Akbarnama: history of Akbar‘s forefathers from Timur to Humayun and
Akbar. The 3rd volume of the book is Ain-i-Akabari, which gives the
administrative details of Akbar‘s time.
Ruqaat: collection of letters to the princes of Akbar.
Insha-i-Abu‘l Fazl: collection of letters written by Akbar to his
contemporary rulers and nobles.
Ain-I Akbari: Persian language which deals with the administration of
Mughal Emperor Akbar, household, army, the revenues and geography of
his empire. It also describes statistical details about crops, yields, prices,
wages, and revenues.
Din Bandhu Mitra Play ‗Neel Darpan‘ to portray the oppression of indigo farmers.
Bankim Chandra Novel ‗Anand Math‘- set in the background of the Sanyasi Rebellion
Chattopadhyay (1770-1820), when Bengal was facing a famine
Somadeva Kathasaritasagara
Bilhana Vikramankadeva Charita
Subandhu Sanskrit romantic play ‗Vasavadatta‘
 Yogavasistha
o Translated into Persian multiple times throughout the Mughal Dynasty, as commanded by
Akbar, Jahangir, and Darah Shikuh.
o Nizam al-Din Panipati completed one of these translations, known as the Jug-Basisht, in
the late 16th century AD.
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Chapter – 12
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS of INDIA
1. Introduction: Fairs and festivals are an important aspect of any society. In India, traditional fairs
and festivals are connected with religious beliefs, local customs, changing seasons, harvests, etc.
 Important Festivals of India
Festival Name Significance
Torgya Dance Festival  3-day monastery festival observed by the Monpa
(Arunachal Pradesh) tribe of Arunachal Pradesh.
 Purpose: to send away evil forces and avert
natural calamities.
 It includes performance of sacred dances by
brightly costumed monks in the monastery‘s
courtyard.
Lohri Festival (Punjab)  People celebrate passing of biting cold of winters
with bonfire within communities.
 It is celebrated on the last day of the Paush month
(12-13 January); coincides with Pongal and Makar
Sankranti.
 It is the coldest day of the year.
 Rice-flakes and sweets made from jaggery (gur) and
sesame seed like Gajak are tossed into the bonfire.
Makar Sankranthi  It is a Hindu harvest festival dedicated to Sun god

Surya celebrated in the month of January.
 This marks the beginning of Uttarayana or the half
year long northern sojourn of the Sun.
 Other names:
 Andhra Pradesh, Telangana- Pedda Panduga;
Sikhs – Maghi
 Central India- Sukarat
Kavadi Attam (Kerala)  Tamil Nadu- Thai Pongal
 Assam- Magh Bihu
 Kite flying is a special feature of this festival.
 Lord Murugan is worshipped in this festival.
 Devotees invoke Murugan for healing their spiritual
debt.
 Kavadi is a semi-circular wooden structure carried by
devotees on shoulders.
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Nazu Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Pochury tribe of Nagaland.

 It is held in February for 10 days prior to sowing of
seeds.
 Phek is the venue of festival in Nagaland.
 Khupielilie dance is performed by women of Pochury
tribe.
Sekrenyi Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Pochury and Angami tribe of

Nagaland in the month of February.
 It is also known as Phousnyi by Angami tribals.
 Thekra Hie: Young people sing traditional songs
during this event.
 On eighth day, village gathers for the bridge pulling
ceremony
 Rice beer and meat are served to participants.
Sammakka Saralamma Jatra  It is held by Koya tribe of Telangana to celebrate
/Medaram Jatara (Telangana) fight of a mother (Samakka) and her daughter
(Saralamma) against local rulers to oppose unjust
laws.
 Medaram is located in Eturnagaram wildlife
sanctuary.
 It is the biggest Tribal festival in Asia which is
attended by one crore people on an average.
Khan festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is celebrated by Miji tribe of Arunachal Pradesh.
 A piece of wool is tied by a priest around everyone‘s
neck as part of a ceremony; thread is supposed to bring
good luck to everyone.
Lui Ngai Ni Festival (Manipur)  It is a seed sowing festival of Naga tribes of Manipur;
symbolizes the beginning of seed-sowing season.
 It is celebrated annually in the month of February.
 It is organized to honour the gods of crop.
Losar festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is the famous festival of Tawang district of

Arunachal Pradesh.
 It is celebrated by tribes who believe in Mahayana
sect of Buddhism like Sherdukpens, Khamba,
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Memba, Monpa tribes etc.
Nyokum Festival (Arunachal  It is celebrated in the month of August in the state of

Pradesh) Arunachal Pradesh.
 Goddess Lakshmi and other deities are worshipped.
 Animals such as chicken, pigs and dogs are sacrificed.
Maha Shivratri  It is a Hindu festival celebrated every year to honour

Lord Shiva.
 It marks the day of marriage of Lord Shiva.
Sankarni Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by Zemi tribe of Nagaland.
 Zemis accept contributions from families both in cash
and kind.
Mlokom Yulo Festival  It is celebrated by Bagni community of Arunachal for

(Arunachal Pradesh) five days.
 Festival starts with the worship of god Doni- Yulo and
Kamio-Yulo worshipped by offering rice beer.
Holi  It's known as the 'Festival of Colours,' and it's

celebrated with enthusiasm across the country.
 Holi is celebrated in many ways around the country;
for example, in Vrindavan and Mathura, Lathmar Holi
is observed, in which the ladies of the family come out
and beat their husbands with sticks.
 In many regions of rural Maharashtra, it is known as
Rangapanchami
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Ganguar Festival (Rajasthan)  It is also celebrated by people in some parts of West

Bengal and Gujarat.
 People celebrate harvest, spring season and fidelity in
marriages.
 It commences after Holi and continues for 16 days.
Ugadi (Andhra Pradesh and  It is the new year celebrated by the people of Andhra
Karnataka) Pradesh and Karnataka.
 Maharashtra –Gudi Padwa
 Marwaris of Rajasthan – Thapna
 Sindhi people- Cheti Chand
 Manipur- Sajibu Nongma Panba
 Punjab- Baishaki
Nowruz  It is the Persian new year festival celebrated by Parsi

community of India.
 It celebrates beginning of season of regeneration.
 Sacred prayer site holds image of Zarathustra.
Gudi Padwa (Maharashtra)  It is a Marathi new year festival started by Chhatrapati

Shivaji Maharaj to welcome new year.
Mopin Festival (Arunachal Pradesh)  It is celebrated by Gallong community of Arunachal

Pradesh.
 People worship goddess Mopin to get rid of evil spirits
and diseases.
 Popir dance is associated with this festival.
Baishaki  It is a harvest festival celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs;

commemorate creation of Khalsa Panth by Guru
Gobind Singh.
 Hindus celebrate it as solar new year.
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Bihu (Assam)  Three Bihus: Bohag Bihu is celebrated in mid-April

which heralds coming of new year.
 Second is Magh Bihu observed in mid-January is
related with agriculture
 Third is Kati Bihu commemorated in mid-October in
which people perform rituals in the midst of paddy
fields to wish for good paddy crop
Mahavir Jayanti  It is the birth anniversary of Vardhamana Mahavira,
the 24th and last Jain thirthankara.
 Also called as Veer Teras representing 13th day of
Chaitra month in Jain calendar.
Moatsu Festival (Nagaland)  It is celebrated by the Ao people of Nagaland in the

first week of May every year.
 It is celebrated after sowing of seeds
 The festival provides them a period of recreation and
entertainment after the stressful work of clearing
fields, burning jungles, sowing seeds, cleaning up the
Tsubu (wells).
 Symbolic celebration known as Sangpangtu is
observed during this festival.
Eid-UL-Fitr  It marks the end of the holy month of Ramzan, during
which pious Muslims have fasted from dawn to sunset
 It is celebrated on the 1st Rabi-ul Awwal of Arabic
calendar. This festival is commonly referred to as
‗sweet Id‘ by children, as vermicelli or ‗seveyian‘ are
offered to all
Rath Yatra (Odisha)  It is a Hindu festival celebrated at Jagannath Puri
where idols of Lord Jagannath, Subhadra and
Balabhadra carried in a procession to Gundicha
temple; return journey is called Bahuda yatra.
Hemis Festival (Ladakh)  Hemis festival is celebrated to mark the birth

anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava.
 During this festive season, Lamas called 'chhams,'
perform masked dances and sacred plays to the
accompaniment of cymbals, drums and long horns.
 It is celebrated in courtyard of Hemis Gompa, biggest
Buddhist monastery in Ladakh.
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Bonalu (Telangana)  ‗Bonalu‘ is a traditional folk festival celebrated every

year in the Telugu month of Ashadham (falling in
June/July), in Telangana.
 It involves devotees offering the traditional 'bonam'
(derived from Bhojanam, meaning meals) to the
goddess Mahankali at 25 temples.
Paryushana  It is a Jain festival celebrated in the months of August-
September. Also known as Pajjosavana.
 The two sects of Jains refer to it by different names:
 Svetambaras refer it Paryushana. They observe it for 8
days. Recite Kalpa sutra on fifth day.
 Digambaras refer it Das Lakshana. They observe it for
10 days. Recite Tattvartha sutra on fifth day.
Onam (Kerala)  It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Sravana on the
day of Sravana Nakshatra (September-October)
 The festival commemorates the appearance of Vamana
avatar of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of
the legendary King Mahabali.
 Snake boat race (Vallam kali) is organized on the day
of this festival.
Dusshera  It is celebrated in the month of Ashvin (September-

October).
 First nine days are celebrated as Navratri. The Navratri
festivities of Gujarat, with its music and dance (Garba)
are of exceptional appeal.
 The festival marks Lord Rama‘s victory over Ravana.
Deepawali  India‘s ‗Festival of Light‘ (Dipawali) falls 20 days

after Dusshera on the Amavasya or ‗New Moon‘ night
of the Hindu month of Kartik (October-November)
 In Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India, Kali
is worshipped on this occasion.
 Dipawali marks the beginning of new commercial year
for many and businessmen finalize their old account
books and open new accounts.
 People welcome Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity
and wealth.
Hornbill Festival (Nagaland)  It starts in the 1st week of December; celebrated with
great fanfare in Kohima.
 Conserving, sustaining richness of heritage and culture
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of Nagas is the main theme of the festival.
Christmas  It is celebrated on 25th December every year to

commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ.
 Gifts exchanged on Christmas eve; popular belief that
Santa claus brings gifts for kids on Christmas day.
Chapchar Kut (Mizoram)  It is a harvest festival named after the bamboo that
has been cut and is drying for burning and
subsequent cultivation.
 The traditional bamboo dance performed by
women called cheraw, is a big part of the festival.
Kati Bihu  It is a harvest festival celebrated in Assam.

 It is observed annually on the first day of the Kati
month in the Assamese calendar and usually falls
during mid-October.
 All three Bihu festivals have agricultural significance
and mark different farming cycle stages. Kati Bihu,
also known as Kongali Bihu, occurs when rice
saplings are transplanted.
 A special lamp called Akash Banti or Sky Candle is lit
in paddy fields.
Kharchi Puja  It was recently inaugurated in Tripura.
 It is centred on the worship of Chaturdasa Devata, the
ancestral deity of the Tripuri people. It is also called
the ‗Festival of 14 Gods‘.
 Observed annually on Shukla Ashtami day, which
falls on the eighth day of lunar month of Ashadha.
 It is believed that the Mother Goddess or Tripura
Sundari, the presiding deity of the land who protects
the people of Tripura, menstruates during the time of
Ambubachi, which is observed in June.
 During the festival, the people of Tripura also worship
the earth along with their 14 other deities.
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Bathukamma Festival  It is a flower-festival celebrated by the women of

Telangana and some parts of Andhra Pradesh.
 Bathukamma is a beautiful flower stack, arranged with
different unique seasonal flowers in seven concentric
layers in the shape of a temple gopuram.
 Local flowers like 'gunuka,' 'tangedu,' 'banti,' and
'nandi-vardhanam' are abundantly used.
 Every year this festival is celebrated for nine days as
per Sathavahana calendar coinciding with the months
September–Oct of Gregorian calendar.
 Important Fairs of India

Fairs/Melas Significance
Kumbh Mela  It is the world's largest religious gathering conducted
in four sites on a rotating basis: Allahabad, Haridwar,
Nashik-Trimbak, and Ujjain.
 The mela is held every three years at various locations
and every twelve years at any given location.
 Simhastha Kumbh is hosted in Nashik and Ujjain
when a planet is in Leo at the time of the mela.
 Ardh-Kumbh Melas are conducted every sixth year in
Haridwar and Allahabad, and a Maha Kumbh is held
once every 12 years.
 Every year in the month of Magh (January-February),
Allahabad hosts the Magh Kumbh.
 It has been recognized by UNESCO as Intangible
cultural heritage of humanity.
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Pushkar Mela (Rajasthan)  It is an annual 5-day camel and other livestock fair
organized at Pushkar in Rajasthan.
 Camel races, moustache competitions, turban tying
competitions, dancing and camel riding, and other
events take centre stage once the festival begins.
 The Pushkar valley is formed between the Aravalli
hills.
 The Pushkar Camel Fair was started to attract the local
camel and cattle traders for a business meeting during
the holy Kartik Purnima festival.
Ambubachi Mela (Assam)  It is an annual fair held during monsoon at Kamakhya
temple in Guwahati (Assam).
 It is the celebration of yearly menstruation cycle of
goddess Kamakhya
Sonepur Mela  It is one of Asia's major cattle fairs.

 The mela takes place at the confluence of the Ganga
and the Gandak rivers in Sonepur, Bihar.
Chitra Vichitra fair  It is Gujarat's largest tribal fair, attended primarily
by the 'Gharasia' and 'Bhil' tribes.
Kolayat Fair (Kapil Muni Fair)  Bikaner, Rajasthan hosts the Kolayat fair.
On Kartik Poornima, devotees flock to the
holy Kolayat Lake to wash away their sins.
Gangasagar Mela  It takes place near the mouth of the Hooghly

River in West Bengal throughout January and
February.
 Hindus consider a sacred dip in the Ganges,
especially on Makar Sankranti day, to be
extremely auspicious.
Hemis Gompa fair  The Hemis Gompa fair is a religious event that is
considered one of India's most auspicious occasions
for the Buddhist community.
 The world-famous Hemis Gompa, often known
as "the world's largest Buddhist monastery," is
located in Ladakh and hosts a magnificent fair in
January/February.
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Chapter – 13
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
1. Megasthenes: He was the ambassador of Bactrian king Seleucus Nicator in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya; stayed in India from 304 BC to 299 BC and wrote a book called Indica.
 References from Megasthenes Indica:
o There are seven castes in Indian society during Mauryan period: Philosopher,
Farmers/Husbandmen, Herdsmen, Trades and artisans, warriors, overseers and councilors.
o Slavery and Usury (money lending) was completely absent in India.
o Laws in India were severe and crimes were rare.
o Pataliputra was surrounded by a wooden palisade; had well-developed municipal
administration.
o There was peace and prosperity throughout Mauryan empire; there was no famine in
India.
o Indians worshipped Dionysius (Shiva) and Heracles (Krishna).
o India has a number of mountains with a wide variety of fruit trees.
o Indian elephants are far superior to Libyan elephants in terms of strength and size.
o Gold, silver, copper, and iron are all abundant in India.
o India's plains are extremely fertile; Rice, millet, a crop called bosporum, cereals, pulses, and
other food plants were main crops.
2. Deimachus: He was sent as an ambassador by Syrian King Antiochus I to court of Bindusara + As
per his accounts, King Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I to send dried figs, sweet wine and a sophist;
but he did not send sophist as Greek law prohibited it.
3. Fa-hien: He visited India during reign of Gupta king Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
 References from Fo-Kwo-Ki (The Travels of Fa-Hien)
o Government in India was quite competent.
o There were no restrictions on movements of the people.
o No executions were given by kings, only fines were imposed on criminals + repeated
offenders had their right hand cut off as a punishment.
o No wine shops found in market places in India.
o Bodyguards and attendants received salaries in cash for their work.
o Mode of payment for buying commodities was cowries (shell).
o Chandalas were untouchables and lived separately from rest of people.
o Fa-Hien did not record anything about India's political situation and Chandra Gupta II, under
whose rule he must have spent more than five years.
4. Hiuen Tsang: He visited India during the reign of emperor Harshavardhana; compiled his
observations in his book Si-yu-ki. His main observations are:
 Houses were constructed of wood, bricks and dung + Streets were circular and dirty.
 He was amazed at the prosperity of India; wrote that people had high standard of living.
 Prayag and Kannauj were important cities during that time.
 Nalanda and Valabhi were important centres of Buddhist learning.
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 Criminal law was severe and offenders were given imprisonment + roads were not safe and he
himself got robbed.
 Govt was liberal in case of tax and revenue collection; tradesmen should pay duties at ferries.
 Caste system dominated Hindu society; Sati system was prevalent; women were respected in
general.
 Onion and garlic were rarely used in India.
5. Al Masudi: He was an arab merchant who visited Indian Pala kingdom of Bengal about 850 AD +
Called Pala kingdom as ‗Ruhma‘ and wrote about its military power + Describes about brisk trade
between the eastern seaboard of India and Malacca + Turks who emigrated to India lost their
national characteristics and acquired new characteristics suited to the new environment.
6. Al-Biruni: He was the first Muslim Indologist who accompanied invading horses of Ghazni (1018
AD- 1019 AD) + He compiled his observations in his book called as Kitab-ul-Hind + He praised the
knowledge of Indians in science and mathematics but extremely critical of Indian socio-cultural life.
7. Marco Polo: He visited India in 1292 AD- 1293 AD on his way from China to Persia + Popularly
called the ‗Prince of medieval travellers‘ + visited south India during reign of Pandyan king
Maravarman Kulashekar + Also finds mention Kakatiya queen Rudramma.
8. Ibn Batuta: He came to India during reign of Sultan Muhammad- bin- Tughluq + wrote a
travelogue titled Kitab-i-Rehala + visited Vijayanagar empire during the reign of King Harihara I.
9. Nicolo Conti: He was a native of Italy; visited India during king Devaraya I of vijayanagar + Noted
that king was more powerful than other kings in India + About 90,000 men in Vijayanagar city could
bear arms.
10. Abdur Razzaq: He was ambassador of King Shah Rukh of Persia to court of Zamorin of Calicut +
All the inhabitants of vijayanagar wore jewels and gold ornaments + Vijayanagar city had 7
concentric fortified walls.
11. Duarte Barbosa: He was a native of Portugal who visited Vijayanagar in 1516 AD during the reign
of king Krishnadeva Raya + Mentions that practice of sati was prevalent rampantly in India.
12. Fernao Nuniz: He was a native of Portugal; visited during the reign of Achyuta Raya (1535- 1537
AD) + noted presence of women soothsayers, astrologers and wrestlers in vijayanagar + Child
marriage was common and Brahmins were honest and good at accountancy. + wrote a book titled
‗The Chronicles of Ferno Nuniz‘.
13. Francois Bernier:
 Bernier's expedition to Abyssinia was diverted to India. In1658 A.D., he set out for India and
arrived in Surat.
 On his route from Surat to Agra, he met the vanquished Prince Dara Shikoh and became
acquainted with the Mughal emperors.
 He took refugee with Daneshmand Khan (Mughal Nobleman), who escorted him to Aurangzeb
court when Dara Shikoh left owing to treason from his servants.
 Bernier spent 12 years in Aurangzeb's court and wrote a book called 'Travels in the Mogul
Empire' on his experiences.
 He intricately detailed the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics, Shah Jahan's four
sons' succession war, social and economic aspects of the empire, and its geographical and
strategic scope.
14. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689)
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 French gem (particularly diamond) trader and traveller in the 17th century.
 Between 1638 and 1643 AD, during his second voyage, he came to India and travelled as far as
Agra before arriving in the Kingdom of Golconda.
 He also paid a visit to the Shahjahan's court and went on his first excursion to the diamond
mines.
 Tavernier wrote Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier in 1675 at the behest of his patron
Louis XIV (6 Voyages, 1676): great detail on diamonds and Indian diamond mines.
 He is best known for his discovery or purchase of the 116-carat Tavernier Blue diamond, in
1666.
 The diamond was likely sourced by Tavernier in 1666 at the Kollur mine in Guntur district of
Andhra Pradesh. Tavernier sold it to Louis XIV of France.
15. Jean de Thevenot (1666 AD): French traveller, who has given a good account of cities like
Ahmedabad, Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda.
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Chapter - 14
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
1. Glassware: First reference of glass making found in Mahabharata + The first material evidence
comes from beautiful glass beads from the Ganges Valley PGW culture (1000 BC) + It was referred
to as kanch or kaca in the Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana + Archaeological evidence discovered
at Maski, a Chalcolithic site in Deccan + The most beautiful glass bangles are made
in Hyderabad and are known as Churikajodas. + Ferozabad (UP) is famed for its glass bangles and
utilitarian glassware.
2. Ivory Crafting: Practised since vedic times; referred as ‗danta‘ + An inscription from Sanchi has
been discovered dating from 2 BCE: mentions the Vidisha guild of ivory workers and sculptures in
Sanchi stupa + Archaeological remains of an ivory comb discovered at Taxila (2 nd century A.D) +
Traditional ivory carving centres include Delhi, Jaipur, and parts of West Bengal.
3. Terracotta crafts: It means baked earth which is a type of semi-fired ceramic clay + Bankura
Horse, Panchmura Horse, Terracotta temples and Buddhist viharas are the best examples of
terracotta art.
4. Silver Jewellery: Filigree work is one of the most well-known methods + Silver anklets known
as painri and paijam are very popular in Odisha + Gunchi is silver crocheted decorations that are
one-of-a-kind + Bidri work done in Karnataka's Bidri village employs silver inlay work against dark
backgrounds.
5. Pottery: Earliest evidence of pottery discovered from Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh) + People of
chalcolithic culture were the first to make paintings on their pottery.
 Black and Red ware (BRW) pottery (2400 BC to 1 st century CE): Discovered for the first
time at archaeological site of Atranjikhera + These are oldest pottery which are black from inside
and their outer body was red; attained through inverted firing method.
 Ochre coloured pottery (OCP) (2000 BC to 1500BC): Discovered for the first time at Bisauli
and Rajpur Parsu in Uttar Pradesh + This pottery was ochre or brownish red in colour + OCP
was used in Punjab, Haryana, UP and Northern Rajasthan, Lal Quila, Ahichhatra and Katpalan +
Painting of humped bull on a pot discovered at Lal Quila + Structures made of wattle and daub
used by people of OCP culture.
 Painted Grey ware (PGW) pottery (1000 BC- 600BC): The concentration of PGW sites are in
Indo-Gangetic plains (Haryana), Sutlej basin and Upper Ganga plains + PGW used by Aryans
during later vedic age + They are painted by using black colour and deep chocolate colour on
their outer as well as inner surfaces + PGW users practiced agriculture; evidence of cultivated
crops found at only Hastinapura and Atranjikhera + Spread of PGW culture from Punjab,
Haryana to eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh.
 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery (600 BC to 100 AD): These are made using a
fast turning wheel + Fragments of NBPW found at Bairat, Rupar, Sonpur and Kumrahar riveted
with copper pins + Main concentration of NBPW was in Gangetic valley; influence of Greek
culture was more in Afghanistan-Pakistan region.
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 Red wares (100 BC to 300 AD): Red wares were entirely monochrome and turned on wheels +
Pots decorated using geometrical designs such as opposed triangles, religious motifs like
swastika, fish, taurine, chaitya and Dharmachakra found.
 Pottery of Harappan civilization: They used six types of pottery such as Black and red ware,
lustrous red ware, buff ware, red ware, coarse red ware and grey ware + Harappan pottery was
made on fast wheels + Naturalistic designs consisting of flowers, palm tree, leaves, animals and
snakes painted + Story of cunning fox mentioned in Panchatantra found at Lothal + Rakhigarhi:
Deceased women offered more than double number of earthen wares + Widows were denied
burial rites with pottery and other items.
Name of Pottery Place of Origin
Khurja Pottery Uttar Pradesh
Black Pottery Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh
Blue Pottery Jaipur, Rajasthan
Kagzi Pottery Alwar, Rajasthan
Pokhran Pottery Pokhran, Rajasthan
Dalgate Pottery Jammu and Kashmir
Karigari Pottery Tamil Nadu
Surai West Bengal
Gopichandan Saurashtra
6. Bronze crafts: Oldest art forms, as evidenced by the bronze statue of a Dancing Girl from
Mohenjodaro + Matasya Purana contains the earliest literary evidence about various methods of
casting bronze + Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of bronze crafts, with major centres such
as Etawah, Sitapur, Varanasi, and Moradabad.
 Important centres of Brass work:
Gaja Tandava (Kerala) Shiva dancing in Tandava position
Dokra Casting (Odisha and West Bengal) Used for ornaments made of brass
Pahaldar Lamps (Jaipur and parts of U.P) Copper and brass lamps in different styles and
shapes.
 Dokra is a form of ancient bell metal craft practiced by the Ojha metalsmiths living in states like
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West Bengal and Telangana. Their technique of lost wax
casting is named after their tribe, hence Dhokra metal casting.
 Bidriware is a metal handicraft from the city of Bidar in Karnataka. The metal used is white
brass that is blackened and inlaid with silver. Bidri artisans blacken their wares using soil
obtained from a 15th-century fort in Bidar, which is rich in potassium nitrate.
7. Leather products: Art of leather tanning documented since 3000 BCE + Rajasthan has the largest
leather market, where camel leather is used to make bags of various shapes and sizes + Kolhapuri
chappals are popular in Maharashtra + Punjabi juttis are also well-known due to the use of an
applique technique on the footwear + Manoti Art is another major technique of leather art practised
in Bikaner.
8. Important tribal crafts:
 Toda tribe: The embroidered cloth is used as a shawl which is locally known as putkuli.
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 Kota tribe: Musical instruments like tambourine, hard drum and brass cymbals are
manufactured.
 Irula tribe: Musical instruments such as drum, conch, Nagasore and long flute (Buhin).
 Paniya tribe: Known for their basketry.
9. Jewellery related crafts:
 Kundankari Jewellery: It is a traditional form of gemstone jewellery from Rajasthan.
 Meenakari Jewellery: It is an art of embellishing different types of metals such as gold and
silver + It has its roots in Rajasthan introduced by Raja Man Singh of Amer.
10. Fabrics of India
 Cloth is used for a variety of handicraft techniques, including weaving and printing.
 The artists create patterns on other materials by using wooden blocks or printed cloths.
 Tie and dye creates beautiful designs on fabrics, and there are various techniques in India.
 Bandhani or Bandhej, often known as the 'Tie and Dye' method in English, is one of the most
significant arts. This technique is prevalent in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
 Kalamkari, which uses the art of hand painting on fabrics with vegetable dyes of deep colours,
is another ancient process that is still used today. It is widely used in Andhra Pradesh.
 Another lovely method of fabric decoration is Batik Art, in which one end of the fabric is
permeated with molten wax and then dyed in cold to produce multicoloured batik saris and
dupattas. Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal are well-known for their batik art.
 The skill of creating elevated patterns using threads or wooden blocks is unique among textile
crafts. This is known as embroidery, and it is done with the use of needles and gold, silver, silk,
or cotton threads on cloth.
 Weaving refers to the process of interlacing yarn to produce textiles and fabrics.
o The vertical thread is called the warp, while the horizontal thread is referred to as the weft.
o Warp and weft are usually laced in fixed patterns using a loom. The different ways of lacing
result in varied types of weaving
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Chapter – 15
INITIATIVES OF UNESCO
1. UNESCO World Heritage sites: UNESCO selects, recognizes and maintains a list of heritage sites
having historical, cultural, scientific or any other form of significance.
 Selection criteria: World Heritage committee prescribes that at least one of the following 10
criteria should be fulfilled to be included in World heritage sites.
o 10 parameters: Human creative genius + Interchange of values + Testimony to cultural
tradition + Significance in human history + Traditional human settlement + Heritage with
events of universal significance + Natural phenomena or beauty + Major stages of Earth‘s
history + Significant ecological and biological processes + The significant natural habitat for
biodiversity.
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 Recent Updates: Dholavira (2021) and Ramappa (2021) temple are the latest addition to the list
under the ‗Cultural‘ category + Decision was made in UNESCO World Heritage committee‘s
44th session held in China + In 2023 Santiniketan of West Bengal and Hoysala temple of Belur,
Halebid and Somanthpura have been added to the list. +At present, total World Heritage sites in
India are 42.
 Presently, India has the sixth largest number of (UNESCO) sites in the world. The countries that
have 42 or more world heritage sites are Italy, Spain, Germany, China and France
o Dholavira (Gujarat)
 It is the 1st site of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization in India to get the tag.
o Kakatiya Rudreswara temple/ Ramappa temple (Telangana)
 It was built by Racherla Senapati Rudrayya, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapatideva
around 1213 AD.
 The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, where Lord Ramalingeswara is worshipped.
 Features of the temple:
 The structure is of the pyramidal type,
consisting of four storeys
 It stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped
platform with walls, pillars and ceilings
adorned with intricate carvings.
 Sandbox technique: flooring is granite
and the pillars are basalt; act as cushion in
case of earthquakes.
 The lower part of the temple is red sandstone while the white gopuram is built with
light bricks that reportedly float on water.
 Distinctive and pyramidal Vimana made of lightweight porous bricks called floating
bricks that reduced the weight of the roof structures.
 European merchants and travellers were mesmerized by the beauty of the temple and
remarked that the temple was the "brightest star in the galaxy of medieval temples of
the Deccan".
o 6 sites added to tentative list: Maratha military architecture in Maharashtra, Hire Benkal
megalithic site in Karnataka, Bhedaghat-Lametaghat in Madhya Pradesh, Ganga ghats in
Varanasi, temples of Kancheepuram, Satpura Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh.
2. UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage list: It is a list established in 2008 made up of intangible heritage
elements that demonstrate diversity of cultural heritage and raise awareness about its importance.
3. LIST OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGES IN INDIA( Recognized by UNESCO)
1. BUDDHIST CHANTING 2. KALBELIA
The sacred texts chanted by the Buddhist A folk song and dance form of Rajasthan.
lamas (priests) in the Ladakh region. Each Khanjari‘ percussion instrument and
of the Buddhist sects has several forms of Poongi‘, a woodwind instrument are used
chanting. during the performance. Kalbelia songs
disseminate mythological knowledge
through stories. At times, the lyrics are
spontaneously composed and improvised
during the performance
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3. CHHAU DANCE 4. KOODIYATTAM

A tradition from eastern India that enacts A Sanskrit theatrical tradition of Kerala,
episodes from epics like Mahabharata and traditionally performed in theatres called
Ramayana, local folklore and abstract as Kuttampalams located in the Hindu
themes. It is closely connected to regional temples.
festivals specifically Chaitra Parva.
5. KUMBH MELA 6. MUDIYETT
The festival of a sacred pitcher where the A ritual dance drama from the state of
pilgrims bathe or take a dip in the sacred Kerala based on a mythological tale of the
river. battle between Darika - the demon and
goddess Kali.
7. NAWRUZ 8. RAMLILA
The Persian New year celebrated The traditional performance of Ramayana
worldwide. It involves street performances performed across North India during the
of music and dance, public rituals festival of Dussehra. Most representatives
involving water and fire, traditional sports are those performed in Sattna. Vrindavan,
and the making of handicrafts. Varanasi, and Ramnagar.
9. RAMMAN 10. SANKIRTANA
A religious festival in honour of tutelary Includes a set of arts performed to mark
god, Bhumiyal Devta practised in villages religious occasions and various stages in
of Saloor-Dungra in state of Uttarakhand. the life of the Vaishnava people of the
Each of caste and occupational groups has Manipur plains.
distinctive roles in the festival.
11. TRADITIONAL BRASS AND COPPER 12. VEDIC CHANTING
CRAFT OF UTENSIL MAKING Tradition of Vedic chanting, chanted
The craft of the Thatheras of Jandiala during sacred rituals and recited daily by
Guru constitutes the traditional technique the Vedic communities known not only for
of manufacturing brass and copper utensils rich content of its oral literature but also
in Punjab. for the ingenious techniques employed by
Brahmin priests.
13 YOGA 14. DURGA PUJA
The art of unifying the mind with body Annual festival celebrated in Sep-Oct, in
and soul for greater spiritual, mental and Kolkata, in West Bengal + 10-day worship
physical well-being. It consists of a series of Hindu mother-goddess Durga. Small
of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, artisanal workshops sculpt images of
word chanting etc. Durga and her family using unfired clay
pulled from Ganga River. Worship begins
on inaugural day of Mahalaya, when eyes
are painted onto clay images to bring
goddess to life. It ends on 10th day, when
the images are immersed in the river from
where the clay came + signify ‗home-
coming‘ or a seasonal return to one‘s roots.
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15 Garba
It is a form of dance and performed on
festivals and occasions in Gujarat.
4. Draft National list of intangible cultural heritage: Launched by the Ministry of Culture  to raise
awareness about various intangible cultural heritage elements from different states of India, at
national and international level + It is also a part of the Vision 2024 of the Ministry of Culture.
 It has been classified into 5 broad domains:
 Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural
heritage
 Performing arts
 Social practices, rituals and festive events
 Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe
 Traditional craftsmanship.
5. UNESCO Creative cities network: It was created in 2004 to promote cooperation with and among
cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development.
 7 fields: Crafts and Folk Arts, Media Arts, Film, Design, Gastronomy, Literature and Music.
 6 Indian cities in the network
o Hyderabad – Gastronomy (2019)
o Mumbai – Film (2019)
o Chennai - Creative city of Music (2017)
o Jaipur - Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)
o Varanasi - Creative city of Music (2015)
o Srinagar- Creative city in crafts and folk arts (2021)
o Kozikhode-Literature (2023)
o Gwalior-Music(2023)
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Chapter – 16
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
[Refer Sunya CA Notes for more!]
1. Artworks presented by PM Modi to Greece
 Meghalaya Shawls: Originally woven for the Khasi and Jaintia royalty, who considered
them a symbol of their power and status + The designs used are highly symbolic (E.g: use of
tigers and elephants was a symbol of power and strength) + Renowned for their warmth and
softness.
 Dokra Art: Mainly come from Central and Eastern India + It is one of India‘s prehistoric art
forms. One of the earliest expressions of this ancient art is the dancing girl artefact found
from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan excavations + It is named after the Dhokar Damar, a
nomadic Indian tribe indigenous to the central and eastern regions of the country + Prevalent
motifs features depictions of Hindu deities, goddesses and a variety of animals + Use of non-
ferrous metal casting through the intricate lost-wax casting method.
 Bidri Artware: Metal handicraft of Karnataka + Developed in the 14th century during the
rule of the Bahmani Sultans + The engravings are inlaid with silver wire + Bidri can be seen
on a variety of products from showpieces to utensils to textiles + It has Geographical
indication tag.
2. World Sanskrit Day
 It is celebrated on the full moon day of the Hindu calendar month of Shravan or Sawan month.
This year it was observed on 31st August.
 The first World Sanskrit Day was celebrated in 1969, when Indian Government declared to
celebrate the day to commemorate work of Pāṇini.
 Sanskrit is known as Dev Vani, meaning the language of Gods.
3. Tankai method
 The Ministry of Culture and the Indian Navy signed MoU to revive and preserve the 2000-year-
old technique of shipbuilding known as the stitched shipbuilding method, also known as the
Tankai Method.
 The stitched ship holds significant cultural value in India, due to its historical importance and the
preservation of traditional craftsmanship.
 Throughout history, India has had a strong maritime tradition, and the use of stitched ships
played a vital role in trade, cultural exchange, and exploration.
 These ships, constructed by stitching wooden planks together rather than using nails, offered
flexibility and durability, making them less susceptible to damage from shoals and sandbars.
4. Namda art
 Namda craft is a rug made of sheep wool through felting technique instead of normal weaving
process.
 It is said to originate when Mughal Emperor Akbar wanted to get a covering for his horses to
protect them from the cold.
 Sufi saint named Shah-e-Hamdan introduced Kashmiris to the Namda art.
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 Namda works are used by Kashmiris in the form of carpets, rugs, floor mats, and even bed
covers.
 Namda has been practiced by the Pinjara and Mansuri communities and Sama Muslims in
Kachchh. They are mainly seen in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Kashmir.
5. Lambani art
 Lambani embroidery is a vibrant textile decoration characterized by colourful threads, mirror
work, and a rich arrangements of stitch patterns practised in several villages of Karnataka.
 Upheld by the skilled women of the Lambani community, serves as a vital source of livelihood
and sustenance, bringing together living practices with economic empowerment.
6. Recent Geographical Indication tags
 Amroha Dholak: Musical instrument made of natural wood in Uttar Pradesh + Mango, jackfruit
and teakwood is preferred for making the dholaks + Wood from mango and sheesham trees are
used to carve the multiple sized and shaped hollow blocks, which are later fitted with animal
skin, mostly goatskin, to create the instrument.
 Mahoba Gaura PattharHastashlip: Stone craft in Uttar Pradesh known for its very unique and
soft stone with scientific name, the ‗Pyro Flight Stone‘ + Made of radiant white-coloured stone
that is predominantly found in this region.
 Karuppur kalamkari paintings: These are traditional dye-painted figurative paintings done in
Thanjavur region, Tamilnadu + It had canopies, thombai (cylindrical hangings) and ‗thoranams‘
(door hangings) comprising of motifs of yazhi, peacock and images of deities + They evolved
under the patronage of Nayaka rulers in the early 17th century.
 Mainpuri Tarkash: Tarkashi, a popular art form from Mainpuri in Uttar Pradesh + Tarkashi is
a technique of inlaying brass, copper, and silver wires in wood. It is a unique and artistic product
of the Mainpuri district + It is used for decorating jewelry boxes, name plaques, and other similar
items + It was mainly used for khadaous (wooden sandals), a necessity for every household,
since leather was considered unclean.
 Kallakurichi wood carvings: These carvings are done for designs and ornaments + It is
indigenous to Madurai region, Tamil Nadu + It is made using pens, palm stems, date trees,
brushes made of bamboo sticks and coconut tree stems.
 Kapdaganda Shawl: Woven by the women of the Dongria Kondh tribe in the Niyamgiri hills in
Odisha.
 Lanjia Saura Painting: The art form belongs to the Lanjia Saura community, a PVTG of
Odisha + Exterior murals painted on the mud walls of homes + White paintings figure over a
crimson-maroon background.
 Koraput Kala Jeera Rice: The black-coloured rice variety, also known as the ‗Prince of Rice‘
in Odisha.
 Similipal Kai Chutney: Made with red weaver ants in Odisha.
 Odisha Khajuri Guda: Natural sweetener extracted from date palm trees.
 Dhenkanal Magji: Sweet made from cheese from buffalo milk.
 Wancho Wooden Craft: Ethnic wood craft integral to Wancho tribes in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Adi Kekir: Ginger variety from Arunachal Pradesh.
 Other products: Baghpat home furnishings (Uttar Pradesh); Kalpi handmade paper (Uttar
Pradesh); Tangai saree and Korial sarees (West Bengal); Kalo Nunia rice (West Bengal);
ART & CULTURE
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Sundarban honey (West Bengal); Kachchhi Kharek (date palm of Gujarat); Ramban Anardana
(fruit of J&K).
7. Thirunelli Maha Vishnu Temple

 The INTACH has urged the government to conserve the historically significant structures,
including the 600-year-old Vilakkumadom. Vilakkumadom is an exquisite granite structure, at
the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Wayanad district.
 It is the only temple in the world where the devotees can perform all the rituals related to one‘s
life, starting from birth to death and life after death.
 It is one of the most ancient temples in Kerala. It is believed that here the prathishta of Lord
Vishnu was performed by Lord Brahma. It is also known as ''Sahyamala Kshetram'' and ''Kashi
of the South''.
 The rituals are performed on the banks of the stream Papanasini which flows down from Mount
Brahmagiri. It is believed that this stream has divine power to dissolve sins of all the mortals.
 The beautiful Brahmagiri hills and the surrounding lush green forests have made the temple
premises a valley of tranquility.
 On the western side of the temple is the cave temple Gunnika, dedicated to Lord Shiva. Thus
Thirunelli becomes blessed by the unique presence of all the members of the trinity.
8. Pritzker architecture prize: British architect and urban planner Sir David Chipperfield was
recently awarded the 2023 Pritzker Architecture Prize + It is an international architecture award
presented annually to honour a living architect or architects + Criteria: Their work should produce
significant contributions to humanity and built environment through the art of architecture + It is the
highest international honour for architects and often referred to as the Nobel Prize of Architecture.
9. Statue of Equality: It is the statue of the famous saint Ramanujacharya located in Hyderabad + The
statue was designed by DNV Prasad Sthapathy + It was constructed by Aerosun corporation of
China + It is made of Panchaloha (amalgam of gold, silver, brass, copper and titanium).
10. Statue of Unity: It is the statue of Sardar Vallabhai Patel located on banks river Narmada at
Kevadia in Gujarat + It is the world‘s tallest statue (182 metres) + It was designed by Ram V Sutar +
Spring temple Buddha located at Lushan (China) is second highest statue in the world.
11. Vedic heritage portal: Vedic Heritage Portal of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
(IGNCA) was recently launched + It aims to map the Vedic heritage of the country and is a
repository of Vedic knowledge and traditions from across the country + It gives detailed information
about oral traditions, textual tradition in form of published books/manuscripts, or implements (yajna-
related objects).
12. Yangli festival: Celebrated by Tiwa community in Assam + people pray for a good harvest and ask
the Gods to protect their crops from pests and natural calamities + This festival is celebrated once
every five years by the members of the community +. Ceremonious sacrifices of animals including
poultry and goats are done on eve of puja to welcome goddess to ―NoBaro‖ or the granary of the
Tiwa people.
13. Bumchu festival: The festival is celebrated at Tashiding Monastery in Sikkim on the 15th day of the
first month of the Lunar calendar + It commemorates a supernatural occurrence that took place in the
18th century under Chogyal Chakdor Namgyal + The word ‗Bhumchu‘ means ‗sacred pot of water‘.
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14. Guru Ravidas Jayanti: Guru Ravidas was a 14th century Bhakti saint who gained prominence due
to his belief in one God and his unbiased religious poems + His devotional songs made an instant
impact on the Bhakti Movement and majority included in Guru Granth Sahib + He is considered to
be a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda and a contemporary of the bhakti saint-poet Kabir +
He preached about omnipresence of God and rejected the idea that lower caste people cannot meet
God.
15. Fossils of ‗Dickinsonia‘ found at Bhimbetka: Researchers have discovered three fossils of the
earliest known living animal, the 550-million-year-old ‗Dickinsonia‘ on the roof of the Bhimbetka
Rock Shelters + It is further proof of the similar paleoenvironments and confirms Gondwanaland by
the 550 mega annum.
16. Kathak legend Birju Maharaj passes away: He was a wonderful singer with a strong grip over
Thumri, Dadra, Bhajan and Ghazals + He was an exponent of the Kalka-Bindadin Gharana of
Lucknow + He received India's second-highest civil honour, the Padma Vibhushan, in 1984 for his
contributions in the field of dance.
17. PM Modi pays tributes to Tamil poet Thiruvalluvar: Also called Valluvar he was a Tamil poet-
saint regarded as a cultural and moral icon for Tamils + His primary work Thirukkural (contribution
to Tamil Literature) contains 1330 couplets (kurals) divided into three parts with teachings on
dharma, artha, and kama (virtue, wealth and love).
18. Adi Shankaracharya‘s statue unveiled at Kedarnath: He wrote Brahmasutrabhasya,
Bhajagovinda Stotra, Nirvana Shatakam + He established four Mathas in the four corners of India
at Shingeri, Puri, Dwaraka and Badrinath for propagation of Sanathana Dharma + He propounded
Advaita Vedanta: brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality; seeks to establish
that the essential core of one‘s self is brahman.
19. Wanchuwa festival of Tiwa tribe: This festival is celebrated by Tiwa tribesmen of Assam to mark
their good harvest + With bamboo sticks in hand, the people proceed to rhythmically beat the rice
powder, and occasionally pause to move around the circle.
20. Rare black rock art depictions: Recently rare black stick-like
drawings of human beings have been discovered in two caves at
Paibogula village in Kurnool distt of Andhra Pradesh + These
drawings are supposed to be dating back to the Megalithic Period
(1500 to 500 BC) and early Historical period (500 BC to 600 AD)
+ These caves are locally known as Yedoorlagayi, Siddhulagayi,
and Gurralapadah.
21. Buddhist site of Thotlakonda: It is found at a hill of
Mangamaripeta Village, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh + Findings of excavations-
Ancient pottery such as tan ware, black red ware, coins from the Satavahana period and labels with
Brahmi inscriptions + It housed remnants of a monastery, practising Hinayana Buddhism.
22. Menhir from Megalithic period found in Basrur: The discovery takes back the antiquity of Basrur
to between 1,000 BC and 800 BC, which is the Megalithic period + It was found on the roadside
near the Venkataramana temple.
23. ASI discovers 1300 year-old Buddhist stupa: Discovered in mining site in Odisha‘s Jajpur district,
where Khondalite stones are mined + Khondalite is a foliated metamorphic rock, found in the
Eastern Ghats between Vijaywada and Cuttack in India + It is also called Bezwada Gneiss and
Kailasa Gneiss.
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24. Cherry Blossom Festival: It is a three-day Festival, held annually inaugurated by CM of Meghalaya
+ It coincides with actual blooming of cherry blossom flowers + Cherry Blossom is a flower of
many trees of genus Prunus or Prunus Cerasus. These flowers are also known as Japanese cherry and
Sakura.
25. mYoga App: It was launched to provide yoga training videos to be available across the world in
different languages + Currently it is available in English, Hindi and French languages but will be
launched in other UN languages also + It was developed in collaboration between WHO and
Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
CHAPTER 17
HISTORICAL PERSONS
 One of the 9 jewels of Akbar‘s court and is credited with composing many ragas.
 He is remembered for his epic Dhrupad compositions and two classic books on music Sri
Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.
 Aka Sangit samrat.
 He composed many dhrupads on Ganesha, Shiva, Parvati and Rama. Kalpadruma
is a compliation of 300 of his dhrupads.
Tansen
 The title of Tansen was given by Raja Vikramjit Singh of Gwalior. Akbar gave the title
of ‗Mian‘.
 He became one of the Navaratnas (nine jewels) at the court of the Mughal
Emperor Jalal ud-din Akbar.
 He invented the night raga Darbari Kanhra, morning raga Mian Ki Todi, mid-day
raga, Mian ki Sarang, seasonal raga Mian ki Malhar.
 He was an Indian classical vocalist, belonging to the Mewati Gharana
 Known for unconventional mixing of khayal with elements of bhakti rasas;
employs harkats and murkis.
 Also performed semi-classical old musical forms such as Haveli Sangeet -> in
praise of Lord Krishna.
 He created a unique form of jugalbandi called Jasrangi -> male and a female
singer sing different ragas in their respective scales to merge their individual
Pandit Jasraj displays into one unified performance.
 He took Indian classical music, Pushtimargiya music and Bhakti Pad of Vaishnav
tradition to greater heights.
 The International Astronomical Union (IAU) named an asteroid after
him, formally known as 2006 VP32, as Panditjasraj.
 Recently, Union Home Minister Shah released a commemorative Postal Stamp,
to mark 50 years of Pandit Jasraj's music festival – 'Pandit Motiram Pandit
Maniram Sangeet Samaroha.
 Matua Dharma Maha Mela was recently organised to celebrate the 212th birth
anniversary of Shri Shri Harichand Thakur.
Harichand
 Thakur founded a sect of Vaishnavite Hinduism called Matua which was adopted
Thakur by members of the Namasudra community, who were then also known as
Chandalas and considered untouchable. 
 The sect, opposed to caste oppression, later attracted adherents from other
communities marginalised by the upper castes, including Malis and Telis.
Sri  Founded a Sanskrit-Tamil school at Srirangam in Tamil Nadu state, which continues to
Ranganathamuni be a great Vaishnavite centre in South India.
 He composed the song Vande Mataram in Sanskrit, which was a source of inspiration to
Bankim Chandra
the people in their freedom struggle.
Chattopadhyay
 Founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872.
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 His famous novels - Kapalkundala (1866), Debi Choudhurani, Bishabriksha (The Poison
Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877), Rajmohan‘s wife and Krishnakanter Will.
 Tyagaraja was born on 14th May 1767 in the village of Thiruvayaru in the Thanjavur
district of Tamil Nadu.
 Saint Tyagaraja was a renowned composer of Carnatic music.
 He has composed thousands of devotional compositions, mostly in Telugu in the praise
of Lord Rama, many of which remain popular today.
Tyagaraja  He saw the reigns of four kings of Maratha dynasty — Tulaja II (1763-1787),
Amarasimha (1787-1798), Serfoji II (1798-1832) and Sivaji II (1832-1855), but he
served none of them.
 He took music training from Sonti Venkataramayya.
 In his praise and honour of Lord Rama he wrote numerous musical operas, and created
several new ragas
 He was a 15th-century Hindu saint and is the earliest known Indian musician to compose
songs called sankirtanas in praise of the god Venkateswara, a form of Vishnu.
Annamacharya  He was born in Tallapaka, a village in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, India.
 He is believed to have been the avatar of Nandaka, the sword of Vishnu. He is widely
regarded as the Andhra Pada kavitā Pitāmaha(Godfather of Telugu songwriting).
 A disciple of Nagarjuna, is a central figure in the development of early Indian
Aryadeva (3rd Madhyamaka philosophy.
century)  Aryadeva‘s Hundred Verses Treatise (Bai lun) was one of the three basic texts of the
Chinese Madhyamaka school founded by the central Asian monk Kumarajiva.
Dignaga, (born c.  Buddhist logician and author of the Pramanasamuccaya (―Compendium of the Means of
480 CE—died c. True Knowledge‖), a work that laid the foundations of Buddhist logic.
540)
******

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ART AND

Our Offline Centers: Delhi, Bengaluru, Pune, Indore, Jammu, Hyderabad

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Classification of Indian Architecture

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(Haryana)  Oval shaped settlement - Only city with radial streets.

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o Single Lion capital: Vaishali, Sanchi, Laurya Nandangarh pillar.

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o Dhauli Rock edict is

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 Stupas were burial

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illusion of three-dimensionality is conveyed with slanted perspective in the relief panels

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 Features of the caves

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century AD) Vaishnavism) and 2 belong to Buddhism.

 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

 Emergence of Shikara instead of a flat roof

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 Subsidiary shrine placed opposite to

 Main shrine became more rectangular during this stage of temple

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 Antarala: Pillared veranda built in front of Garbhagraha for passageway for

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 3 chambers: Garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa

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o Prominent Nagara temples

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Pradesh have been used for the construction.

 Dravidian style of temple architecture

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 A covered circumbulatory path was built around Garbhagraha for devotees

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navigational landmark by sailors to Odisha.

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be existent from the 2nd century.

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 Architectural achievements of Delhi Sultans

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 From 1290 until 1320 AD, the

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 The Kabuli Bagh Mosque of Panipat and Jama masjid of Sambhal

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Suri represents harmonious combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas

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No pillars or beams were used to support the roof.

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 Story of Kapi Jataka portrayed at Cave no. 17

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 Finest examples manuscript of Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, or the

Origin to Gujarat and Mewar region in Rajasthan; most common themes