Art and Culture 1

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ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Index
Chapter - 1 .........................................................................................................................................2
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Chapter - 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
PAINTINGS IN INDIA
Chapter - 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 41
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
Chapter - 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 48
INDIAN MUSIC
Chapter - 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 54
THEATRES OF INDIA
Chapter - 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 61
INDIAN DANCE FORMS
Chapter - 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 67
INDIAN PUPPETRY
Chapter - 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 70
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INDIA
Chapter – 9 .................................................................................................................................... 101
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH AGES
Chapter - 10 ................................................................................................................................... 105
MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA
Chapter - 11 ................................................................................................................................... 109
PROGRESS OF LITERATURE IN INDIA
Chapter – 12 .................................................................................................................................. 118
FAIRS AND FESTIVALS of INDIA
Chapter – 13 .................................................................................................................................. 128
ACCOUNTS OF IMPORTANT FOREIGN AMBASSADORS AND TRAVELLERS
Chapter - 14 ................................................................................................................................... 131
INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
Chapter – 15 .................................................................................................................................. 134
INITIATIVES OF UNESCO
Chapter – 16 .................................................................................................................................. 138
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
CHAPTER 17 ................................................................................................................................... 140
HISTORICAL PERSONS
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ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Chapter - 1
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
1. Introduction: Architecture  finest expression of human creativity
Classification of Indian Architecture
2. Rig Vedic Culture

o Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare.
o They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying them into
many gods.
o Most important God - Indra (thunder). Other gods - Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and
Vayu (wind).
o There were no rituals for temples and idol worship.
o Rig Veda mentions horse-drawn chariots with spoked wheels
3. Harappan Culture
o Used stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold;
and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
o Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
o Evidences of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a terracotta
figurine from Lothal.
4. Harappan Art and Architecture

 Important features:
o Towns - rectangular grid pattern
o Roads - north-south and east-west direction and cut each other at right angles
o Burnt mud bricks used
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o Public baths (Eg: Great Bath)

o Advanced drainage system
o Importance given to both personal and public hygiene
o Script – right to left + found on bone rods and jewellery + refers to the people of Meluha
 Harappan Forts: oldest forts in Indian sub-continent
o The Upper town - fortified; in Kalibangan and Surkotada even lower town was fortified + At
Chanhudaro, fortification was absent completely
o Lower portion of walls of forts built using stones and sun-dried bricks
o Upper portion of walls of forts built using burnt bricks
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o Forts provided safety from flash floods, wild animals and robbers.
 Important sites and their findings
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 2 rows of six granaries with big platform
 Stone symbol of lingam and yoni, mother goddess figure
Harappa  ai
Wheat and barley in wooden mortar
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(Pakistan)  Copper scale and mirror
 Sculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metal
 Nude dancing girl of stone and a red sandstone male torso.
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 Great Bath
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Mohenjo-daro  Great granary

(Pakistan)  Post cremation burial
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 Sculpture of bearded priest.

 5th largest metropolis of IVC
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 Fortified citadel, a middle town and a lower town with walls made of
sandstone or limestone instead of mud bricks in other Harappan sites.
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 Water management system, giant water reservoir, unique water harvesting

Dholavira system, stadium, dams and embankments.
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(Gujarat)  Copper smelting remains found: indicate knowledge of metallurgy

 Artefacts made of copper, stone, jewellery of terracotta, gold and ivory
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have been found

 No mortal remains of humans discovered at Dholavira unlike graves at
other IVC sites
 Aka Manchester of Indus valley civilization
Lothal
 Dockyard, double burial, rice husk, fire altars, painted jar, modern day
(Gujarat)
chess, terracotta figure of horse and ship
Ropar  Dog buried with human oval pit burials.
(Punjab)
Balathal and  Bangle factory, toy carts, bones of camel
Kalibangan  Decorated bricks and lower town.

ART & CULTURE
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Surkatoda  First actual remains of horse bones.

(Gujarat)
Banawali  Toy plough, barley grains
(Haryana)  Oval shaped settlement - Only city with radial streets.
Alamgirpur  Impression of a cloth on a trough.
(Uttar
Pradesh)
 Key hole skull surgery (trepanation) evidence found at Kalibangan.
Kalibangan Bangle factory, toy carts, bones of camel
 Decorated bricks and lower town
 Early Harappan site located on the left bank of River Sindh.
Kot Diji  A tar is the major object found here
 Statues of bull and mother goddess
 Location: 130 kms south of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh and is the only
harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel.
Chanhudaro  Evidence of factories of various figurines, seals, toys, bone implements.
 It has been interpreted that it was a settlement with lots of artisans and was
an industrial town.
 Mature Harappan site.
Desalpur  Fortified township. The fortification wall was constructed of stones with
mud filling inside. Many houses were constructed just against the inner
face of the fortification wall.

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 Current Developments
o Kotada Bhadli (Gujarat): Earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing and presence
of cattle, water buffalo, goat, cow and sheep found in the area: This could have given rise to
an industrial level of dairy exploitation.
o Bhirrana (Haryana): The oldest discovered IVC site dating back to 7570-6200 BCE + The
antiquities found here include pottery, copper chisels, arrow heads, spear heads, Charred grains
of wheat and barley, female dancing girl (replica of Dancing girl from Mohenjodaro), Multi-
roomed houses were found at this town, which were made of mud bricks and a circular
structure of baked earth (like a tandoor) was found.
o Recent DNA study at Rakhigarhi: People in the Harappan Civilization have an independent
origin and negates theory of Harappans having ancient Iranian farmer ancestry.
o IIT Kharagpur study: Decline of Harappan city Dholavira was caused by drying up of river
like Saraswati river and Meghalayan drought.
o Union Budget (2020-21): It proposed to develop iconic sites with on-site Museums at
Harappan sites of Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat) + National Maritime
Heritage Museum at Lothal: India and Portugal will cooperate in the setting up of the
museum (Implemented by Ministry of Shipping with involvement of ASI, State government
and other stakeholder).
5. Mauryan Art and Architecture

 Court Art
 Megasthenes inform us that the city of Pataliputra was surrounded by a
Forts wooden palisade; wooden fort surrounded by a 60-feet deep and 200-yard
ditch to prevent enemy forces from coming close to walls of the fort
 In whole of ancient history, palaces built only during Mauryan age
 Wood - the principal building material
 Chandragupta Maurya built a palace with wood in his capital Pataliputra
(associated with archaeological remains of Kumrahar (ruins of pillared hall
and wooden platform) and Bulandibagh (wooden palisade and female
Palaces figures))
 According to Megasthenes, Mauryan palace had a massive central pillared
hall and it was more beautiful than that of palaces at Susa and Ecbatana
(located in Iran)
 Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar had a high central pillar and was a 3-storey
wooden structure
 Material: chunar sandstone
 4 parts:
(1) long shaft formed the base
Pillars (3) Capital
(2) Abacus
(4) Animal figure was placed
Ex- Laurya Nandangarh pillar in champaran

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 Independently erected pillars of Ashoka:

The shaft of Ashokan pillars was generally
monolithic + 4 lion capital of Sarnath pillar
was adopted as national emblem of India +
Ashoka mostly used Prakrit as a medium in
the pillar inscriptions.
 Single Lion capital: Vaishali,
Sanchi, Laurya Nandangarh pillar.
 4 lions sitting back to back: Sanchi
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and Sarnath pillars.
 Bull capital: Second Ramapurva
pillar.
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 Elephant capital: Sankisa pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
 Similarities between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars: Both pillars are

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made of stone, had a shaft and bell-shaped portion, abacus and capital.
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Differences between Ashokan pillars and Persian pillars:
 Shaft of Ashokan pillars monolithic; Persian pillars made of stone pieces
joined together.
 Shaft of Ashokan pillars tapered from bottom to top; Persian pillars was
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cylindrical.
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 Bell shaped structure used only at top in Ashokan pillars;

bell-shaped structures were present at both top and bottom.
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 Ashokan inscriptions 1st deciphered by: James Prinsep

 Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions: 7 pillar edicts of Ashoka discovered in
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Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, and Mehrauli.

 Pillar Edict I: Asoka's idea of people protection
 Pillar Edict II: Dhamma having greatest number of virtues,
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compassion, liberality, honesty, and purity.

 Pillar Edict III: Removes sins such as cruelty, rage etc.
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 Pillar Edict IV: Addresses the responsibilities of Rajukas.

 Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which are prohibited for
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slaughtering on certain days.

 Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy of Ashoka
 Pillar Edict VII: Ashoka contribution to Dhamma policy.
 Minor Pillar Inscriptions
 Rummindei Pillar: It documents Asoka’s visit to Lumbini and its
exemption from taxation.
 Nigalisagar Pillar (Nepal): Extension of height of Konakamana
stupa to twice its original size.
 Major Pillar Inscriptions
 Sarnath Lion Capital: Erected by Ashoka to commemorate
Dhammachakrapravartana.

ART & CULTURE
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 Single lion on Vaishali Pillar (Bihar): It has no inscription.

 UP's Sankissa Pillar
 Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar
 Lauriya-Araraj, Bihar
 UP's Allahabad pillar.
 Sohagaura Cu Plate Inscription: in Gorakhpur district of UP + from the
Mauryan period + Brahmi script + records a royal order that the grains stored
in the granary should be carefully distributed. It was discovered in Sohgaura,
a village on the banks of the Rapti River
 Ashoka’s Major Rock Edicts & their Location
- Dhauli Rock edict is
located in dhauli hills,
close to 10 kms from
Bhubneshwar in
Odisha. The edicts are
engraved on a large
peace of rock, written
in Pali. The rock edict
is located near the
historical sight of the
Kalinga war which is
said to transform
Samrat Ashok.
- Erragudi or Yerragudi
rock edict is located in
Kurnool district in
Andhra Pradesh.
- Jaugada is the second
place in Odisha where
there is a major Ashokan rock edict. Ashoka’s inscription in Jaugada is
on a rock face about 30 feet long and 15 feet high.
- Kalsi  between Chakrata and Dehradun on the banks of Yamuna River
in Uttarakhand.
- Shahbazgarhi: The Shahbazgarhi rock edicts are cut into the surface of
two large boulders on the side of a small rocky outcrop in the Vale of
Peshawar. + Dating to middle of the third century BC, they are written
from right to left in the Kharosthi script. + The 14 major edicts recorded
at the site present aspects of Asoka’s dharma or righteous law. + The
edicts are located beside one of the ancient trade routes connecting the
Vale of Peshawar with the valley of Swat, Dir and Chitral to the North
and the great city of Taxila to the South East.

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 Stupas were burial

mounds prevalent in
India since Vedic period
 Core of stupa was made
of unburnt brick while
outer surface was made
by using burnt bricks
 Medhi and toran
decorated by wooden
sculptures
 According to Avadana
Sutta, 10 original stupas opened up by Ashoka and distributed their relics
among 84,000 stupas built by him
 Sanchi stupa (MP) - the most famous of the Ashokan stupas
 Sanchi Stupa: aka Mahastupa, it was originally built by Ashoka with bricks
but it was destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga + The stupa was enlarged to
twice of its original size by addition of more layers to its anda by Agnimitra
Stupa
+ Ornamented gateways known as toranas were added during post-mauryan
Architecture age + The stupa was discovered by General Herbert Taylor in 1818 AD +
The monuments at Sanchi were included in UNESCOs list of World heritage
sites in 1989
 Piprahwa Stupa (Uttar Pradesh) is the oldest one
 Stupas built after death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana
 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan: Grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path
 Amravati Stupa: It pradakshinapatha enclosed within a vedika portrayed
with much narrative sculpture. Domical stupa structure covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs.
o The Torana disappeared over time
o Depicts the events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories
o Early phase devoid of Buddha images except in the later stage during
the second and third centuries CE Buddha images were carved upon the
drum slabs and at many other places
o It lies in the gorge of Krishna river
 Popular Art
 During Mauryan period, caves were generally used as viharas by Jain
and Buddhist monks
Cave Architecture
 They were marked by a highly polished finish of interior walls and
decorative gateways.

ART & CULTURE
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Barabar caves: cut during the reign of Ashoka; donated to monks of

Ajivika sect
 4 caves in Barabar hill - Lomas Rishi
cave, Sudama cave, karna chaupar
cave and Visvakarma cave
 The caves are simple rectangular
halls cut into the hill
 Level of ornamentation is very low
and walls of caves have glossy finish
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Nagarjuni caves: These caves were cut under the patronage of Ashoka’s
grandson Dasaratha
 The caves located in Nagarjuni hill are Gopi Cave (Gopi-ka-kubha),
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Bahayak Cave (Vadithi-ka-kubha)
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and Vedantika Cave (Vapiya-ka-
kubha)
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 The caves divided into two
chambers: Front hall for gathering of
worshippers and back chamber used
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by monks for their residence and

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worship
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6. Post-Mauryan Architecture
 Cave architecture: Commonly referred as ‘Kirti’, it reached pinnacle during the post-Mauryan
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age (200 BC- 300 AD) + The period saw development of Chaityas (place of worship) for the first
time and Viharas (Place of residence for monks and also acted as educational centres).
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 Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves: 18 caves in Udaygiri hill and 15 caves

in Khandagiri located in Odisha carved under the patronage of Kalinga
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ruler Kharavela (193 BC- 170 BC); Hatigumpha inscription refer to

these hills as Kumari parvat and Kumara parvat respectively + The
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Cave interiors of the caves are simple without much ornamentation and their
Architecture facades decorated with sculptures depicting scenes of court activities,
– Eastern India royal processions, hunting scenes and scenes depicting daily life etc +
Ranigumpha, Ganeshgumpha, Swargapuri- Manchapuri and
Hatigumpha are the most prominent caves in Udayagiri hills + Ananta
Gumpha, Ambika Gumpha, Tatowa Gumpha (Parrot caves) and
Navamuni gumpha are the most prominent caves in Khandagiri hill
 Ajanta, Karle, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nasik, Junnar and Kondana are the
Cave prominent centres of cave architecture in western India
Architecture  23 caves carved between 1st century BCE & 3rd century CE
- Western India  Most of them are caves except cave 18, which is chaitya of the 1st
century BCE

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Karle caves: It is located in Pune district, Maharashtra + These caves

were cut out in Bhorghat hill built under the patronage of Bhootpal
Shresti of Vaijanti in 2nd century AD during the reign of Satavahana
king Pulameyi II + It is the largest Hinayana Buddhist chaitya (temple)
in India + It has massive pillars that have figures of males and females,
mounted on animals such as lions, elephants, etc.
 Junar caves: It is the largest cave complex in India, which has around
130 caves + Aka Pandulena
 Bedsa and Kondana caves exhibit transition from wooden
architecture to stone architecture
 Pitalkhora caves are located in Maharastra; these form the oldest of
the rock-cut cave architecture of India and are believed to belong to the
Hinayana period of Buddhism contemporary to Satvahana dynasty
 Pandav Leni Jain Caves: ancient rock cut sculptures complex at
Gomai river around 6 Km north of Shahada, Maharashtra
 Stupa Architecture:
o Stupas became larger and more
decorative
o Stone was used in place of wood and brick
o Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of
torans as beautifully decorated gateways
to stupas + They are carved with patterns
showing Hellenistic influence
o Examples - Bharhut stupa (Madhya
Pradesh): Tall structures like Mauryan
depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini +
illusion of three-dimensionality is
conveyed with slanted perspective in the
relief panels displaying storytelling + One of the sculptures depicts Lakshmi which is the
earliest representation of the goddess.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
7. Gupta Architecture: The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered as
Golden Period of Indian Architecture.
 Cave architecture
 Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh
Bagha caves
 Buddhism
 Bhagalpur district, Bihar
Mandargiri caves
 Jainism.
 Magnificent image of Vishnu in form of great boar (varaha) is
located at the entrance of these caves.
 Location: Vidisha, MP. It contains some of the oldest Hindu
temples and iconography, related to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism.
 Though it is present north of Tropic of Cancer, it is believed that
historically, on the day of summer solstice, the sun was directly
overhead in this place, making Udhyagiri (Mount of sunrise) a
Udayagiri caves (350- place of worship.
550 CE)  Iconic Varaha Scultpure rescuing the earth symbolically
represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar's tusk is a salient
feature in Udayagiri caves.
 These caves are 20 rock-cut caves belong to Vaishnavism and
Shaivism located in Madhya Pradesh.
 The sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the male boar
rescuing the mother earth presenting bhudevi to boar’s tusk as
depicted in Hindu mythology is present here,
 They were built under the patronage of Gupta rulers
 23 Buddhist caves; also known as Pandav Leni developed during
1st century AD
Nasik caves
 Belong to Hinayana period: Buddha indicated through use of
motifs and symbols like throne and footprints.
Mandapeshwar  Aka Montperir caves which belong to Brahmanical religion which
caves was later converted into a Christian cave.
 These are a group of rock-cut caves located in Aurangabad district
of Maharashtra
 29 caves: 4 Chaityas and 25 Viharas
Ajanta Caves  Cut into a U- shaped cliff overlooking River Waghora
(200 BC- 650 AD)  Discovered by Captain John Smith in 1819.
 Features of the caves
o The figures in these caves painted with frescoes and exhibit
a high level of naturalism.

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o Outlines painted in red; absence of blue colour in the

paintings is the most remarkable elements.
o Paintings are themed around Buddhism: Life of Buddha and
Jataka stories.
o Early caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism and later caves
belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
o Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave No. 26 and Naga King
and his consort in Cave.no 19 are some of the most famous
sculptures.
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o Cave no. 10 is the oldest cave and Cave no. 26 is the latest
caves.
o These caves were included in UNESCO’s list of World
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heritage sites in 1983.
o A grand image of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana with numerous
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celestial musicians above and sorrowful figures of his
followers is found at Ajanta.
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 34 caves: Cave No. 1 to 12
belong to Buddhism; Cave
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No. 13 to 29 belong to
Brahmanical religion and
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Cave No. 30 to 34 belong to

Jainism: indicates high level
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of tolerance
 UNESCOs list of world
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heritage sites.
 Features of the caves
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o Cave No. 16: It is also known as Kailasha temple; portrays

Ellora Caves
kailasha mountain (abode of God Shiva) + It is the biggest
(600 AD- 1000 AD)
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monolithic structure in whole world + The cutting of this

cave commenced in 760 AD under patronage of Krishna I.
o Cave No. 10: Vishwakarma cave/Carpenter's cave; it is a
am
Buddhist Chaitya cave; Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana

Mudra, with a Bodhi tree etched behind him.
o Cave No. 14: Ravan ki khai
o Cave No. 15: Dashavatar temple
o Cave No. 29: Dhumal Lena
o Cave No. 21: Rameshwar temple
o Cave No. 32 and 33: Indra Sabha and Jagannath sabha are
important Jain caves
Elephanta caves  Aka Gharapuri caves
(5thcentury AD to 8th  7 caves  5 belong to Brahmanical religion (Shaivism and
century AD) Vaishnavism) and 2 belong to Buddhism.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Features of the caves

o Images of God Shiva depicted in various forms such as
Trimurti, Maheshmurti and Ardhnarishwara and
Nataraja shiva.
o Ravana shaking the Kailash and Tandav dance of Shiva are
notable sculptures.
o Presence of massive images of ‘dwarapalakas or
doorkeepers.
o These caves are included in UNESCO list of World heritage
sites in 1987.
o The caves are constructed using solid basalt rock; older
sculptures have paint splatters.
o Sitabai Temple: It has a vast prayer hall with walls covered
with beautiful sculptures
 Stupa Architecture: Declined during the Gupta period
 Sarnath, Varanasi
 Buddha is claimed to have given his 1st
sermon to his 1st 5 students, led
Dhamek Stupa by Kaundinya, revealing his Eightfold Path
leading to nirvana at the Dhamek Stupa
 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

o 5 Stages of Development in North India
 Flat roof and square shape
 Portico developed on shallow
pillars
 Entire structure built on low
First stage platforms
 Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa and
the Vishnu Varaha temples in
Eran are examples of square buildings with flat roofs and shallow
pillared porches.
 Platforms were higher and were covered
ambulatory passageway around
garbhagriha
Second Stage  Example - Parvati temple at Nachna
Kuthara, MP.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Emergence of Shikara instead of a

flat roof
 Panchayatan style was introduced:
4 subsidiary shrines along with
temple of principal deity
 Shikhara, was the most remarkable
Third Stage
achievement of this stage
 Subsidiary shrine placed opposite
to each other giving the ground
plan a crucified shape
 Examples - Dashavatar temple at Deogarh (U.P) and Durga temple at
Aihole, Karnataka
 Main shrine became more rectangular during this stage of temple
construction
Fourth stage
 Examples - Ter temple at Sholapur and Kapoteswara temple in Cezarla
(Krishna district)
 Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections
Fifth stage on the four cardinal faces
 Maniyar Math shrine in Rajgir, Bihar  sole monument of this form
 Styles of Temple architecture: The architectural principles of temples in India are described in
Shilpa Shastra. It mentions 3 types of temples in India: Nagara, Dravida and Vesara style.
i. Nagara style of architecture: It came into existence during 4th century AD; these temples are
found all over north India from Punjab in west to Bengal and Odisha in the East + Temples
constructed using stones and bricks + Metal was not used in construction + Kandariya
Mahadev temple (Madhya Pradesh), Sun temple at Konark, Sun temple at Modhera are
examples for Nagara style.
 Features of the Nagara temples
- Adhistana/Jagati: Entire temple structure built on raised platform.
- Garbhagraha/Sanctum sanctorum: Main building of temple complex where chief
deities placed.
- Peetha: Seats of deities in Garbhagraha.
- Antarala: Pillared veranda built in front of Garbhagraha for passageway for devotees.
- Panchayatan style: It consisted of minor shrines arranged in a crucified ground plan in
relation to the main shrine.
- Mandapas: Presence of assembly halls or mandapas in front of principal shrine.
- River goddess images: Images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were put
outside the garbhagriha.
- No water tanks or reservoirs in the temple grounds in general.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
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- Shikharas: Latina or rekha Prasad (square at base and walls curve inward to point on the
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top), Phamsana (broader base and shorter in height than Latina), Valabhi (rectangular base
jra
with roof rising into vaulted chambers).

- Amalaka: Spherical shape on top of Garbhagraha.
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- Kalasha: Sacred pot is called as Kalasha which is placed over Amalaka to collect cosmic
energy; Kalasha surmounted by a flag known as Jhanda.
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- No pradakshina path (circumbulatory path) was built.

- Dwarapalas: Images of dwarapalas carved on both sides of the entrance of garbhagraha
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- No boundary walls: The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls in general.
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 Sub-schools under Nagara school

 Exterior walls were lavishly decorated
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 No use of pillars; Iron girders were used to support the roof

 Sikharas were known as rekhadeuls
 Mandapas were known as Jagmohans
Odisha  Presence of boundary walls
School  Sun Temple at Konark: Black pagoda
 Jagannath temple, Bhubaneshwar: It was built by King
Anantavarmana Chodaganga in 12th century AD; only temple in India
where Krishna, Balabhadra and their sisters Shubhadra are worshipped
together + Wooden images replaced with new images every 11 years in a
ceremony called as Navakalevara.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar:

- It was built in 11th century AD by Somvanshi King Yayati I.
- Dedicated to Lord Shiva and is considered as the largest temple of the
city Bhubaneswar (Odisha).
- It is built in red stone and is a classic example of Kalinga style of
architecture.
- Lingaraj is referred to as ‘Swayambhu' – self-originated Shivling.
- It signifies the syncretisation of Shaivism and Vaishnavism sects in
Odisha.
- Bindusagar lake is located in the north side of the temple
 Both interior and exterior walls - lavishly decorated
 Erotic sculptures: themes from Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra
 3 chambers: Garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa
 Panchayatan style
 Khajuraho Temple: In MP- built between 950-1050 AD by the
Chandela Dynasty
- The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their
power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.
- Hindu and Jain temples.
- Included UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites in 1986.
- Reported for the first time by Abu Rihan al Biruni in AD 1022 and
Ibn Battuta in AD 1335.
Khajuraho  Kandariya Mahadev temple (Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh): It is
School dedicated to God Shiva; an example of panchayatna type of temples + It
has 5 shikaras.
 Chaturbhuj temple (Orccha, Madhya Pradesh): It is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu.
 Vishnu temple located at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
 Chausath Yogini temple near Morena:
- Location: Mitaoli village, Morena district in Gwalior
- Patronage: Kachchhapaghata king Devapala (1055 – 1075).
- Associated religion: It is dedicated to Yognis (the female masters of
yoga) and not the Vaishnava cult.
- Inspiration: The Parliament house was inspired by the circular
Chausath Yogini Temple.
 Chausath Yogini temple, Jabalpur:
- Built by the Kalachuris in the 10th century CE

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
- Situated near the river Narmada in the Bhedaghat area, between

Dhuandhar falls and Marble Rocks
- The main temple has a mandapa in front and holds the murti of Shiva
and Parvati on Nandi in the sanctum
 Patronage of Solanki Rulers
 Temple walls - devoid of carvings
 Garbhagriha connected with mandapa both internally and externally
 Presence of step tanks known as surya-kund
Solanki  Materials - sandstone, black basal and soft marble
school  East facing, sun rays fall directly into central shrine
 Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat: Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki
Dynasty in 1026 AD; influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat
is evident.
 Dilwara temple, Mount Abu (Rajasthan): It belongs to Jainism; made of
white marble and built by Solanki minister Vastupala
 Prominent Nagara temples

 Location: Veraval in the western coast of Gujarat
 1st among the 12 jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva
 A description of the temple by Al-Biruni, an Arab traveller, was so
glowing that it prompted a visit in 1024 by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Somnath  The modern temple was reconstructed with the resolve of Sardar Patel
Temple who visited the ruins of Somnath temple on November 13 1947. Then
President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, did the Pran-Pratistha at the
existing temple on 11 May 1951.
 The present Somnath temple is reconstructed in the Māru-Gurjara style
of Hindu temple architecture
 Location: Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh.
 It has its origins in Vaishnavism, which advocates the principles of
Tirupati
equality and love, and prohibits animal sacrifice.
Temple
 It is located on the seventh peak, Venkatachala (Venkata Hill) of the
Tirupati Hill, and lies on the southern banks of Sri Swami Pushkarin
Lhotsava  12th century temple at Ko in Kinnaur region of Himachal Pradesh
Lhakhang
Alchi  It lies about 65 km from Leh on the banks of the Indus River.
Monastery or  Alchi is regarded as one of the most important Buddhist centres in Ladakh
Alchi Gompa and also as one of the monastic jewels of Ladakh.
(monastery  There are 5 shrines in the Choskor Temple Complex which has some
and temple splendid wall paintings.
complex)

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 One of its walls features thousands of miniature sized pictures of the

Buddha. Three large sized images made of clay painted brightly are its
focal attraction.
 Since the last 500 years, religion is not practiced in the Alchi Monastery
 The Sree Seetha Ramachandra Swamy shrine at Bhadrachalam, the most
famous temple in the country dedicated to Lord Rama, is situated on the
Bhadrachala left bank of the Godavari river.
m temple  Constructed in the 17th Century by the local Tahsildar, Kancharla
Gopanna, popularly known as Bhakta Ramadas, a fervent devotee of Lord
om
Sree Rama
ii. Dravidian style of temple architecture
 Stages of Development
l.c
o Mahendra Style
 1st stage of Pallava temple architecture basically rock-cut temples; temples
were known as Mandapas. ai
gm
o Narasimha style
 Mandapas were divided into 3 rathas: Dharmaraja ratha (biggest one),
Draupadi ratha (smallest one)
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o Rajasimha style
 Beginning of development of real structural temples + Emerged under
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patronage of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha + Example - Shore temple at

Mahabalipuram and Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram
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o Nandivarman style
 The temples are comparatively smaller in size + The features are almost
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similar to Dravidian style

 Features of Dravidian style of temple architecture:
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ith
am
o Dravidian temples are surrounded by high boundary walls

o High entrance gateway known as the gopurams
o Panchayatan style: principal temple and four subsidiary shrines
o Presence of only one vimana on top of the main temple; subsidiary shrines do not have
vimanas
o Assembly hall connected with garbhagriha by a tunnel called antarala
o A covered circumbulatory path was built around Garbhagraha for devotees
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o The presence of water tank inside the temple enclosure

o Ex- Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore built by Raja Raja I, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi temple, Tamil Nadu,
Airavatesvara temple etc.
 Mahabalipuram
- Mahabalipuram contains rock-cut rathas, sculptured
scenes on open rocks like Arjuna’s penance, the caves
of Govardhanadhari and Mahishasuramardini, the
Jala-Sayana Perumal temple (the sleeping Mahavishnu
or Chakrin at the rear part of the Shore temple
complex). It is more linked to the Vaishnavites.
- Ratha temples: These are monolithic monuments cut
out of live hills; it appears that these temples are
mobile though they are not in reality.
o Sapta Pagoda: It is located in Mahabalipuram; are cut during reign of Pallava
king Narasimhavarman I in 7th century AD.
 They comprise of Dharmaraja ratha, Draupadi ratha, Arjuna ratha, Bhima ratha,
Nakula-Sahadeva ratha, Ganesh ratha, Pindari ratha and Valaiyan kuttai ratha
 Arjuna ratha is famous for images of Shiva and Draupadi ratha for images of
Goddess Durga
 The entire assemblage collectively was designated a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1984
o Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu;
massive open-air relief carved out on two monolithic rock boulders; all deities of
heaven are depicted here; main depiction is bearded man worshipping God Shiva.
o Shore Temple: It was built probably in the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also
known as Rajasimha (Pallava ruler) who reigned from 700 to 728 CE
 it is built of cut stones rather than carved out of caves
 It has two shrines, one dedicated to Shiva and the other to Vishnu
 Built in Dravidian style characterized by a pyramidal kutina-type tower that
consists of stepped stories topped by a cupola.
iii. Vesara school of art: It is also known as Karnataka school of architecture flourished under
later chalukya rulers in mid-17th century AD + It combined
features of both Nagara and Dravidian school + Emphasis
on vimana and mandapa, open ambulatory passageway +
Prominent example is Dodda Basappa temple at Dambal,
Durga temple at Aihole.
iv. Nayaka school of art: Also known as Madurai school it
flourished under the Nayaka rulers between 16th centuries
and 18th centuries AD + Presence of Prakarns or huge
corridors in the portico + Meenakshi temple in Madhurai
has the tallest gopuram in the world + The temple structure
was filled with intricate carvings

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
v. Vijayanagar school: Walls of the temples are highly decorated with carvings and
geometrical patterns + Gopurams were built on all the sides + More than one mandapa built
in each temple; central mandapa were known as Kalyan Mandap (halls used to celebrate
divine marriage or other ceremonies) + Concept of secular buildings inside the temple
premises was also introduced + Important example is Vittalaswami temple and Lotus Mahal.
o Hampi: It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located near Hospet town in Karnataka on
south bank of Tungabhadra river.
 Name derived from Pampa which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose
banks the city is built.
 Virupaksha temple - Main shrine is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Lord Shiva.
 Stone Chariot- Iconic monument located in front of Vijaya Vittala Temple in Hampi,
Karnataka dedicated to Garuda, the official vehicle of Lord Vishnu
vi. Hoyasala art: It developed from 1050- 1300 AD in the Karnataka region with prominent
seats at Belur, Halebid and Sringeri + Multiple shrines built around a central pillared hall +
Shrines led out in shape of stellate pattern + Soft sope stone was the main building material
+ More emphasis on fecoration through sculptures + Best example is Hoyasaleshwara
temple at Halebid.
vii. Pala school: This style of architecture developed in Bengal region between 8th and 12th
century AD under Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty + Influence of both Buddhism and
Hinduism can be seen + Buildings had a sloping roof popularly known as “Bangla roofs” +
Burnt bricks, clay was the principal building material used + Highly lustrous finish + Best
example is Siddhesvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar.
 SUN TEMPLES:
 Location: bank of the river Pushpavati.
 Built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Solanki
dynasty in 1026 AD.
Modhera Sun  The temple complex has 3 components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine
Temple, Gujarat hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir.
 The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has
steps to reach bottom and numerous small shrines.
 Influence of the wood carving tradition of Gujarat is evident
 It was constructed by the Eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Deva I in
about 1250 A.D.
 Aka 'BLACK PAGODA' due to its dark colour and used as a
Sun Temple,
navigational landmark by sailors to Odisha.
Konark
 It is carefully oriented towards the east so that the first rays of sunrise
strikes the principal entrance.
 The temple is built from Khondalite rocks

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 7th-century AD Sun Temple at Arasavalli in Andhra Pradesh, India.

 Built by king Devendra Varma, ruler of the Kalinga Dynasty.
 One of the oldest sun temples in India.
Arasavalli Sun  The walls in the temple are inscribed saying the creator of the temple
temple was the ruler Devendra Varma, stating it was built in the time period
known to them as the 7th century.
 It takes in architectural skills of Vishwakarma Brahmins or Maharanas
of Odisha

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Martand Sun temple, Kashmir
 Katarmal Sun Temple, Uttarakhand
 Dakshinarkaa temple Gaya, Bihar
Other Sun
l.c
 Bhramanya temple, Unao, MP
temples in India
 Surya Prahaar temple, Assam


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Suryanar Kovil Temple at Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu
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Suryanarayana temple at Arasavalli, Andhra Pradesh
 Amarkantak: It is one of the major pilgrimage centers for Hindus located in the hills of Maikal
la
in Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh.

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o This holy place bordering Chhattisgarh has a meeting point of the hills of Vindhya, Satpura,
and Maidar, whose view is astonishing.
o It is a unique heritage area commonly known as “Tirthraj” or “The King of pilgrimage”.
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o It is the place where the Vindhya and Satpura ranges merge and where the Narmada and Son
river get birth.
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 Jyotirlinga:
ba
 It is a Hindu temple dedicated to God Shiva located in Khandwa in

Indian state Madhya Pradesh.
ith
 It is one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.

 It is on an island called Mandhata or Shivapuri in the Narmada river at
am
Khandwa district in Madhya Pradesh.

Omkareshwar  It is a Hindu pilgrimage site; one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines
of Shiva located on Mandhata Island on banks of Narmada River in
Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh.
 The temple dates back to the Krita Yuga.
 River Narmada flows here around the Mandhata hill in the form of an
Om (Omkaram)
 Mallikarjuna Temple or Srisailam Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated
Srisailam to the deity Shiva located on Nallamalla hills.
 It is referred to as one of the twelve Jyothirlingas of Lord Shiva.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Inscriptional evidence from the Satavahana dynasty place the temple to

be existent from the 2nd century.
 The veerasheromandapam and paathalaganga steps constructed during
the time of Reddi Kingdom.
 The temple complex houses many halls; the most notable is the Mukha
Mandapa built during the Vijayanagar period
8. Indo-Islamic Architecture
a. Introduction: After the establishment of Turkish rule in India: Indian architecture elements +
Islamic elements = Indo-Islamic architecture.
b. Features of Indo-Islamic architecture:
o Introduced use of minars around mosques and mausoleums.
o Mortar was utilized as a cementing agent.
o Avoided use of human and animal figures.
o Usage of calligraphy and arabesque method as means of decoration.
o Heavy usage of principles of geometry
o Intricate jaali works: signify importance of light in Islamic religion.
o Use of water in the premises of constructions in form of courtyard pool and small drains.
Charbagh style of gardening: square block was divided into four adjacent identical gardens.
o Used Pietra-dura technique for inlay of precious stones and gems into stone walls.
o Foresighting technique : inscriptions appear of same size from any place.
o Arches and Domes (Arcuade style): Arches were introduced to India by Qutb al-Din Aibak
during the year 1206 + Domes were introduced by the Turks during the 1500s by Persian
architects + Minarets were introduced by Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
c. Architectural achievements of Delhi Sultans

 Qutb-ud-din-Aibak:
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque - in 1195 AD at
Delhi; material procured by demolishing
Hindu and Jain temples
o Adhai din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer
o Started construction of Qutub minar dedicated
to sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar
kaki, could only finish basement, 3 more
Slave storeys added by Iltutmish and 5th and the last
Dynasty storey by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
 Iltutmish:
o He constructed his tomb near Quwwat-ul-
Islam mosque
o Built Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shamsi Idgah, Gandha
k ki Bawali and Jama masjid at Baduan.
 Balban:
o He constructed his tomb at Delhi (true arch was used for the first time)
o 1st sarai built in 1266 with largest being built during Tughlaq period
 From 1290 until 1320 AD, the
Khilji Dynasty ruled and
developed the Seljuk
architectural style.
 Red sandstone was the main
building material + Technique
Khilji of laying bricks as headers and
Dynasty stretchers was invented which
increased the strength and
stability of monuments.
 Alauddin Khilji: He constructed Jamat-i-khana mosque at Dargah of
Nizam-ud-din Auliya + He also constructed Alai Darwaja in 1311 near
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Hauz-i-Khas and fort of Siri to protect the people
of Delhi from external invasions such as Mongols
 Features: Lavish display of ornaments and richness replaced by puritanical
simplicity + Introduced sloping walls known as Salami and four-centered
arch + Grey stone and red sandstone used largely in construction of
Tughlaq buildings + Pentagonal and octagonal layouts introduced in construction of
Dynasty buildings + Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was first pentagonal building
and tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Telangani was the first octagonal building.
 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq: He built the city of Tughlaqabad which is
pentagonal in design.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq: He built the fortress of Adilabad and city of

Jahan Panah.
 Firoz shah tughlaq: He built Kushk-i-Sikhar and Kotla Firoz Shah + He
also laid foundation of cities like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and
Firozpur
 Only tombs were constructed during this period
 Emergence of double domes was a significant aspect of architecture at this
time
Lodi
 A sloping verandah provided support.
om
Dynasty
 Sikandar Lodi founded the Lodi Gardens and the city of Agra.
 The first double dome was used in the construction of tomb of Sultan
l.c
Sikander Lodi in Delhi
d. Mughal Architecture Features
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i. Mix of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural styles.
gm
ii. Building materials - red sandstone and white marble.
iii. Charbagh gardens with noticeable bulbous domes, thin turrets at corners, large entrances,
magnificent calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and royal
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halls supported on pillars.

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iv. The arches, chhatri, and other forms of domes were extremely popular in Indo-Islamic
architecture, which was further developed by the Mughals.
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e. Architectural achievements of Mughal rulers

 The Kabuli Bagh Mosque of Panipat and Jama masjid of Sambhal
bu
Babur
 He brought Charbagh style of architecture to India
 He constructed the city of Din Panah at Delhi in 1533 AD
ba
Humayun  Humayun Tomb built by his widow Haji Bega Begam

 Double dome in developed form was used for first time in Humayun tomb
ith
 The golden age of Delhi began in 1556 when Akbar came to the throne of
am
Delhi
 Popularised "Tudor arch" (four centered arch).
 Agra Fort: It has 2 gateways called Delhi gate and Amar Singh gate +
Principle of construction based on the use of beam and bricket.
Akbar  Fatehpur Sikri:
o Tomb of Salim Chishti - erected in 1581 AD at Sikri; white marble
o Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid are also part of the imperial complex
o Panch Mahal - 5-storey edifice built of columns that is based on the
Persian badgir idea (wind-catcher)
o Ibadat Khana where Akbar would meet with religious authorities to
address issues.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Buland Darwaza: It was built in 1601 A.D. by Akbar to commemorate

his victory over Gujarat.
 40-meter red sandstone edifice
 It is the main entrance to the palace at Fatehpur Sikri, a town which
is 43 km from Agra.
 It is known as gate of magnificence, is the highest gateway in the
world and is an example of Mughal architecture.
 It incorporates almost all the essential features of Akbar’s
architectural traditions: red sandstone, stone carvings, and relief by
inserting white marble.
 Inspired by Timurid architecture.
 Material: red and buff sandstone, decorated by white and black
marble and is higher than the courtyard of the mosque.
 Shaikh Salim Chishti (1478-1572) khanqah is located near the
present-day World Heritage site of Fatehpur Sikri
 The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula was built by Nurjahan at Agra
Jahangir
 Pietra Dura technique of decoration was used for the first time in his tomb
 He constructed a fort at Agra: Shish mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas,
Moti Masjid, Nagina masjid and Musamman Burj are located in this fort
Shah Jahan  White marble was used on a large scale in construction of monuments
 He also constructed the city of Shahjahanabad, Taj Mahal, Qila Mubarak
(Red Fort) in Delhi and Shalimar Bagh in Lahore
 He has constructed Moti Masjid which is located inside the Red Fort and
Aurangzeb
Badshahi mosque in Lahore in 1674
 He built Purana Qila at site of Dinpanah and mausoleum at Sasaram which
Shershah
represents harmonious combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural
Suri
ideas
9. Regional Architecture
a. Regional Architecture in India during Medieval Age
 Aka Sharqi style
Jaunpur  Atala Mosque was completed by Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
school of  Jhanjhari mosque was erected by Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi in honour
architecture of Hazrat Said Sadr Jahan Ajmali
 Jami Masjid of Jaunpur was built by Hussain shah.
 It is characterized by large-scale use of bricks and rare use of stone
Bengal school
+ Adina Masjid at Pandua was built by Sikandar Shah
of architecture
 Lotan Masjid was built by Yusuf Shah at Gaur.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 The usage of various colored stones and marbles was the most
conspicuous element of the structures
 The structures had big windows, possibly as a consequence of
European influence
Malwa school
 Aka Pathan School of architecture
of architecture
 Man-made reservoirs known as 'baulis' were built
 The introduction of the batter system by the Tughlaqs improved the
situation
 Example - Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.
 It was developed under the patronage of Adil Shah
 He built a variety of mosques, and tombs notable for 3-arched facades,
bulbous domes, and cornices
Bijapur school
 The structures were reinforced with iron clamps and a thick plaster of
mortar. The walls were adorned with intricate sculptures
 Example - Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur.
 The city of Ahmedabad was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1414 AD
Gujarat school  Jami Masjid at Ahmedabad was built by Ahmed Shah
 Sultan Mahmud Begarha built a city and palace citadel at Champaner.
 The city of Nauraspur was founded by Ibrahim Adil shah of Bijapur +
City of Hyderabad was founded by Md. Quli Qutub Shah
Bahamani
 Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur is the largest dome
school
 The city of Ahmednagar was founded by Ahmed Shah of Nizam Shahi
dynasty
b. Regional Architecture in India during British Age

 Built by Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula in 1784 at Lucknow to provide food to
the famine stricken subjects of the Nawab.
 No pillars or beams were used to support the roof.
 During Muharram, Shia muslims mourn at this shrine.
 The complex includes large Asafi mosque, tomb of Asaf-ud-daula and
Bara
a step-well.
Imambara
 The architecture reflects maturation of Mughal design.
 Instead of stones and marble, brick and lime were used.
 Stucco ornamentation (gajkari) was used to decorate the monuments,
giving it a deep relief effect even on flat walls.
 Mother of pearl and shells deposited in lake beds were used in the
stucco ornamentation to give a shine finer than marble.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Built under the patronage of Nawab Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784 in

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
 Aka Turkish Gate.
 It is an imposing gateway which was built under the patronage of
Nawab Asaf-Ud-daula in 1784.
 It is believed that the gate is called Rumi gate, simply because it was
Rumi Darwaza modelled after the gateways of then Constantinople or Modern
Istanbul.
 The architectural style of the Rumi Darwaza is completely in sync with
om
the Nawabi architecture of Lucknow, and its significantly different
from the Mughals.

l.c
Material: bricks coated with lime, while the Mughals often used red
sand stone
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gm
10. Modern Indian Architecture
● Iberian architectural style
● Imported the notion of 'patio homes' and the 'Baroque style
la
Portuguese ● To produce a dramatic impact, it featured an extensive, complex, and

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Influence theatrical design

● The Sé Cathedral in Goa, which was built in 1619 AD, is one of the most
va
prominent structures
● The French brought with them the concept of urban city planning +
bu
The Cartesian grid layouts were used to build the French colonies of
French Puducherry and Chandernagore + They established the notion of faceless
ba
Influence architecture, which is characterized by facade devoid of embellishment +

Puducherry's Sacred Heart Church and Chandannagar's Sacred Heart
ith
Church are two examples

 Indo-Gothic style: Constructions were extremely large and walls are
am
thinner + Pointed arches and use of large windows + The churches had a
crucified ground plan + Examples include Victoria Memorial in Kolkata
and Gateway of India in Mumbai.
British ● Neo-Roman style: Anonymous constructions, focus on circular buildings,
Influence overuse of oriental motifs to realise western architectural designs +
Concept of upturned dome as can be seen in Supreme court and
Rashtrapati Bhavan.
● Indian Parliament: foundation stone laid in 1921, by Duke of Cannaught;
designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens & Sir Herbert Baker

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
11. Post-Independence architecture

● Architect of the Poor
● Revolutionized mass housing concept in Kerala
Laurie Baker ● Introduction of the concept of filler slab construction to reduce steel and
cement consumption
● Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangements.
******

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Chapter - 2
PAINTINGS IN INDIA
1. Introduction: The art of painting has a long tradition in Indian subcontinent as progress commenced
very early during stone age; Chitrasutra, part of Vishnudharmottara purana is oldest known
book on painting in the world; Mudrarakshasa by Vishakadutta mentions numerous paintings.
2. Six Limbs (Shadanga) of Indian Paintings: Emerged in 1st century BC explained by Vatsyayana
Kamasutra.
 Rupabheda: Knowledge of appearances E.g: Padmapani, Cave No.1, Ajanta
 Sadrisyan: Portrayal of likeliness of subject
 Bhava: Expression E.g: Padmapani cave no.1 Ajanta
 Lavanyayoganam: Immersion of emotions E.g: Radha & Krishna with gopis, Pahari miniature.
 Pramanam: Correct depiction of size and other measurements E.g: Mayadevi, Ajanta
 Varnikabhanga: Use of brush and colours in artistic manner
3. Pre-Historic paintings: By Upper Palaeolithic period:

proliferation of artistic activities; subjects were human
figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols.
 Discovery of pre-historic rock paintings: First discovery
in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold
Carlleyle, before discovery of Altamira in Spain;
remnants found on walls of caves in M.P, U.P, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and from Kumaon hills in
Uttarakhand; executed on rocks and rock engravings
called Petroglyphs.
o Lakhudiyar Painting: On banks of river Suyal, Uttarakhand; superimposed painting is
found; earliest painting in black and then Red ochre and white painting; humans painted
in stick-like form; colours used are black, red and white ochre; hand linked dancing
human figure; long-snouted animal, a fox and a
multiple legged lizard are the main animal motifs.
o Granite rocks of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
provided suitable canvases to the Neolithic man for
his paintings; famous sites are Kupgallu, Piklihal
and Tekkalkota.
 Upper Paleolithic period:
 Walls of rock shelter caves made of quartzite
walls: used minerals for pigments; linear
representations in green and dark red.
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 Common minerals were ochre or geru mixed with lime and water; Red was used for hunters
and the green mostly for dancers.
 Mainly depict huge animal figures such as bisons, elephants, tigers besides stick-like
human figures and geometrical patterns.
 Richest paintings reported from Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their Kaimurean
extensions.
 Mesolithic period:
 Largest pre-historic paintings belong to this
period; more themes than Paleolithic period;
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smaller in size than the upper paleolithic period.
 painting of both fear and affection towards
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animals; animals painted in naturalistic style
but humans were painted in a stylistic manner;
mainly sees the use of red colour.
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 Hunting scenes depicting people hunting in
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groups, community dancing, people gathering
fruit or honey from trees, women grinding etc;
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 Remarkable inclusivity: young, old, animals, etc all found space in Bhimbetka paintings
 Men adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes painted with head masks
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 Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu in

Karnataka are prominent Mesolithic painting sites.
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 Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish and at times
birds are also depicted.
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 Chalcolithic Period:
 Paintings reveal association and mutual
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exchange of cave dwellers with settled

agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
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 common motifs are cross-hatched squares,

lattices, pottery; vividness and vitality of the
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earlier periods disappear from these paintings.

 intrinsic passion for storytelling depict that
both men and animals engaged in the struggle
for survival; predominant use of green and
yellow colour; concentrate on depicting battle
scenes (men riding horses and elephants);
 Complex geometrical shapes like spiral, rhomboid and circle; paintings to show skins of
spotted deer left for drying : evidence for art of tanning skins.
 paintings from later period seen in Jogimara caves in Chattisgarh; another site Chitwa
Dongri show Chinese figure riding a donkey, pictures in dragon and agricultural sceneries;
other sites are Limdariha in Bastar district, and Oogdi, Sitalekni in Sarguja district.

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 Bhimbetka Rock Paintings = Located in the Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh ; discovered by
Dr Vishnu Wakankar; estimated to be 30,000 years old and have survived due to its location
deep inside the caves; around 400 paintings on the walls of Bhimbetka caves: oldest belong to
Paleolithic age; paintings at Bhimbetka belong to Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic,
early historic and medieval period; most of the paintings belong to Mesolithic age; Various
colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and green are used, obtained from natural
resources; brushes were made up of plant fibre; declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 2003;
Hunting scenes and war scenes with armed men; Zoo Rock which depicts elephants, bison,
deer, and Sambar is the most striking feature.
 Themes
o Paleolithic period paintings: Huge figures of animals and stick like human figures
painted using green and dark red colour.
o Mesolithic period paintings: Scenes of hunting, communal dance, mother and child,
pregnant women and communal drinking.
o Chalcolithic period paintings: Contact with agricultural communities residing in Malwa
region.
o Early Historic age: Portray horse riders, different types of script, religious symbols
etc; red and white colours were primarily used.
 Recent developments: On the roof of the Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, researchers recently
uncovered three fossils of the earliest known living species, the 550-million-year-old
Dickinsonia : adds to the evidence of similar paleoenvironments and verifies the 550 Ma
assembly of Gondwanaland.
4. Harappan paintings: The art of painting was highly advanced in Harappan civilization; made
paintings on outer surface of their pots in black colour; depict geometrical designs, birds and
animals, flowers and pictographic scripts.
5. Paintings of Vedic age: Later vedic paintings made on outer surface of pots; colours of pots was
grey and paintings were made in blue colour; depict floral and geometrical designs.

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6. Paintings of Gupta period: Kalidasa, Varahamihira and vatsayana provide information about
painting during the Guptan age; formal training was imparted to painters; most remarkable found in
Ajanta and Bagha caves.
7. Mural paintings: Works on walls or a solid structure referred as Murals; existed between 2nd
century BC and 10th century AD; major ones are at Ajanta, Armamalai cave, Ravan Chhaya cave
shelter and Kailashnatha temple in Ellora; known for their sheer size.
 Ajanta cave paintings: only surviving painting of the first century BCE and the fifth century CE;
contains a set of 29 caves; depict religious and spiritual scenes: mostly associated with Jataka
stories of Lord Buddha; portray human values and social fabric; emotions expressed through
hand gestures; each female figure has a unique hairstyle; even animals and birds shown with
emotions medium of paintings was vegetable and mineral dyes; outline of figures is red ochre.
o Prominent paintings
 Paintings of Padmapani and Vajrapani at Cave no. 1
 Story of Mahajanak Jataka depicted at Cave no.1
 Story of Kapi Jataka portrayed at Cave no. 17
 Painting of Dying princess: full of expressions, located at Cave No. 16.
 Painting of Mother and Child located at Cave no. 17.
 ceiling decoration from cave no. 17; pink elephant is also from the same decorative
painting.
 Few Brahmanical figures such as Indra is depicted flying amid clouds together with
celestial nymphs holding musical instruments.
 Ellora cave paintings: Mural paintings in Ellora caves found in 5 caves, mostly limited to
Kailasha temple; paintings portray scenes related to Buddha’s enlightenment; Vishnu with
Lakshmi borne through clouds by garuda, Lakshmi, Shiva and apsarasas; white, green and
brown colours used by painters; scenes of court life, women involved in various activities,
festivals etc are portrayed; birds and flowers also found in paintings of Ellora caves.
 Cave No. 10 known as Vishwakarma Cave: Buddha seated in Vyakhyana Mudra and
Bodhi tree is carved at his back.
 Cave No. 14 is themed “Raavankikhai”.
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 Bagha cave paintings: Located in Dhar

district of Madhya Pradesh; Cave no.4
known as Rang mahal or chitrasala
depict Buddhist and Jataka tales; close to
Ajanta caves in design, execution and
decoration.
 Chola murals: Paintings in temples done
at the initiative of Mahendravarman I;
Panamalai figure of a female divinity is
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drawn gracefully; Faces are round and
large; lines are rhythmic with increased
ornamentation; Tirumalaipuram caves
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and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal are prominent examples; paintings at Brihadeshwara temple
show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka,
Shiva as Nataraja etc. ai
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 Vijayanagara murals: In Hampi, Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its
mandapa narrating events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana
and Mahabharata; evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown in profile
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and figures and objects two-dimensionally; lines become still but fluid, compositions
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appear in rectilinear compartments.

 Kerala murals: Many sites found with mural paintings: Dutch palace in Kochi,
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Krishnapuram palace in Kayamkulam and Padmanabhapuram palace.

 Armamalai cave paintings: Situated in vellore district of Tamilnadu; converted into jain
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temples in 8th century; paintings depict Jain religious stories and tales Astathik palakas.
 Sittannavasal cave: Located in Tamil Nadu; known for paintings in jain temples; medium
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used is vegetable and mineral dyes; common colours include yellow, green, orange, blue and
white.
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 Ravan Chhaya rock shelter: Located in Keonjhar district of Odisha; most noticeable painting
is royal procession; they have unique tempera paintings belonging to 7th century.
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 Lepakshi paintings: Located in Andhra Pradesh: made during Vijayanagara period; complete
absence of primary colours; decline in painting in terms of quality; costumes, forms and figures
outlined in black colour.
 Jogimara cave paintings: Located in Chattisgarh; walls covered with paintings of dancing
human beings and animals.
 Saspol caves: Located at Ladakh; caves adorned with paintings related to Buddhism.
 Thirunadhikkara cave paintings: Located in Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu; paintings
depict Ramayana and Mahabharata scenes.
 Chintakunta cave paintings: Located at Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh; it is first rock painting site
to be discovered in South India; red and white colours were predominantly used; throw light on
the life of megalithic period.

ART & CULTURE
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 Badami Paintings:
o Cave 1 is oldest among the four caves. Paintings on the ceiling of the cave are of Lord Shiva
as Nataraja, and Shiva and Parvati with a coiled serpent which has high aesthetic value.
o Cave 2 is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and his many incarnations.
o Cave 3 is also inspired by Brahmanical forms and thus has giant figures of many avatars of
Vishnu like Paravasudeva, Bhuvaraha, Harihara and Narasimha.
o Cave 4 is based on Jain ideology and it has a huge image of Lord Mahavira.
8. Miniature paintings:
 Paintings should not be larger than 25 square inch
 Subject should be painted in not more than 1/6th of actual size
 Human figurine is seen with side profile; bulging eyes, pointed nose and slim waist; women figurines
have long hairs and colour of their eyes and hair are generally black.
 Red, blue, black, white colours – primary colours
 Found as part of manuscripts and executed on palm leaf or vellum paper.
 Shows a naturalistic style, sinuous lines, delicate nervous lines, sensuous
elegance and subdued tones of colour, linear and decorative account; lonely
Pala School
single paintings
of Art
 surviving examples of the Pala illustrated manuscripts mostly belong to the
Vajrayana School of Buddhism.
 Finest examples manuscript of Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, or the
perfection of Wisdom written in eight thousand lines
 Origin to Gujarat and Mewar region in Rajasthan; most common themes
Apabhrams related to Jainism; concept of Gita Govinda and secular love.
a School of  Colours used had symbolic meaning usually red, yellow and ochre
Art  Fish shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose and double chin
 Famous example is of Kalpasutra and Kalakachya katha from 15th century
 Miniature paintings of Delhi Sultanate:
o Bring together Persian elements with Indian traditional elements
o Preference to illustrated manuscripts
o Example - Nimatnama during reign of Nasir shah.
o Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-ud-din Siraj: earliest reference of murals in sultanate period;
Human beings and animals painted on main arch of palace to welcome representative of caliph.
o Sultan Firoz shah Tughlaq banned tradition of making paintings on walls of palace of Delhi.
o Veerabhadra temples, Lepakshi has fresco paintings in bright colours; themes drawn from
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
 Mughal era miniature painting: Focus shifted from depicting god to glorifying the ruler;
focused on hunting scenes, historical events and other court related paintings; use of brilliant
colours and focus on ensuring accuracy of line drawing; brought the foresightening tecgnique.

ART & CULTURE
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Patronised Persian artist called Bihzad: made illustration of Mughal family

Babur tree; however, he did not have much time to commission the paintings
Real progress in field of painting commenced; brought Khwaja Abdus Samad and
Humayun his son Mir Sayyid Ali with him; Mir Sayyid Ali was appointed as Akbar’s teacher
o Established separate department known as Tasvir Khana under command of
Khwaja Abdus Samad; predominance of wall paintings; best example is
paintings on walls of Mariam’s palace; established Karkhanas where artists
Akbar developed their own styles; 3 dimensional figures and use of calligraphy; more
emphasis on depiction of scenes of court life.
o Famous painters: Daswant (greatest painter), Basawan, Kesu, Lal Mukund,
Tara chand, Mir sayyid ali, Farukkh beg and Abdus Samad
o Great lover and patron of paintings; art of painting was essentially Indian
during his period; gave title Nadir ul zaman to Abul Hasan and Nadir-ul-Asar
to Mansur; appointed head of department of painting after Abdus samad;
Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad were famous foreign painters.
Jahangir o Features: Paintings on material life and of natural scenes were prominent;
emphasis on court scenes and life of common man generally not depicted;
bringing naturalism to portrait painting; decorated margins around the
paintings; most famous miniature paintings include naturalistic paintings of
zebra, turkey, cock
o Use of Golden colour on a large scale; liked to create artificial elements and
tried to reduce liveliness of paintings; inspired by European influence in his
Shah court; eschewed use of charcoal; attained technical perfection but without real
Jahan beauty and emotions; Human figures painted amidst flowers and leaves
o Famous painters: Mir Hasan (greatest painter), Anupa chitra, Muhammad
Fakir Ullah and Chintamani
o Considered painting as un-islamic; destroyed paintings of Bijapur and
Aurangzeb Golkonda; forbade royal patronage and banished from Mughal court
 Characteristic features of Mughal paintings:

o Shift in focus from depicting god to court art
o Combination of Persian, Indian and European elements
 Persian influence: visible in form of narrative paintings, two dimensional paintings
during initial phase.
 Indian influence: portrait painting, use of 3-D effect, use of peacock blue and red colours.
 European influence: Use of light and shadow effect, use of halo and depiction of
roaring clouds.
o Secular in outlook (religious themes not portrayed); oil paintings were absent.
o Themes: Revolved around life in and around court; some natural beauty also painted; rose
flowers enjoyed remarkable significance.

ART & CULTURE
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9. Regional Schools of Art

 Rajasthani School of Paintings:
Characterized by deep influence of
Mughal style; folk themes such as
story of Dhola-Maru, Roopmati-
Baaj Bahadur portrayed commonly;
both male and female are full of
Rajput School emotions and feminine beauty of
highest order was portrayed; Havelis
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of Shekhawati famous for their wall
paintings; painting is marked by bold
drawing, strong and contrasting colors; Mughal influence seen in refining
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of drawing and some element of naturalism introduced in figures and
trees; Paper, ivory and silk used as canvas
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Developed in the Hindu principality of
Mewar; characterized by simple
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bright colour and direct
Mewar School emotional appeal; The expressive
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and vigorous style continued with

of Painting
some variations; increased
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number of paintings were

concerned with portraiture and the
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life of the ruler, though religious themes were popular

: arose in the princely state of Kishangarh, central
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Rajasthan state; distinguished by its individualistic

facial type and its religious intensity; notable for
elongated style, with arched eyebrows, lotus-like
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Kishangarh elongated eyes and pointed chin; characterised by a

School of religious fervour and is associated with most
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Painting romantic legends of Sawant Singh and Bani Thani

Bani Thani: painted by Nihal chand, labeled as
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Indian Monalisa; depicted with elegant and

graceful features, including arched eyebrows,
lotus-like elongated eyes and pointed chin
Themes from the life of Krishna is a major theme; rich and glowing
colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon,
Bundi School overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees; Mughal influence is
of painting visible in the refined drawing of the faces; element of naturalism in
the treatment of the trees; Bhairavi Ragini is earliest examples of
Bundi painting
Malwa school show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-
brown backgrounds; primitive charm and a simple childlike vision;
of painting
earliest work is an illustrated version of the Rasikapriya

ART & CULTURE
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 Pahari school of painting

Flourished in the areas of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand;
religious and spiritual scenes depicted commonly; Guru-Shishya
Kangra School tradition portrayed; use of thick Sialkoti paper which is hand-made from
cotton, bamboo; Nayaka-Nayika themes and love stories such as Madhu-
Malti and Nala-Damayanti.
Expressive faces with receding hairline; lot of primary colours; used
Basholi school Mughal technique of painting on clothing but developed their own styles
and techniques; most famous painter was Devi das.
 Miniatures in South India
Famous for decorative paintings; created on glass and board instead of
cloth and vellum; usage of gemstones and cut glasses for embellishments;
Tanjore paintings
depicted smiling Krishna in various poses; child god Krishna and his
pranks constituted a common theme
Major theme is Hindu gods and goddesses; two or more figures in each
Mysore paintings painting; use ‘gesso paste’: develop sheen on background
10. Modern paintings

Hybrid style which combined elements of Rajput, Mughal and European
Company style; distinguished by use of water colour; several painters engaged in painting
paintings exotic flora and fauna; most famous were Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad and
Ghulam Ali khan
Bazaar Influenced by European encounter; school prevalent in Bengal and Bihar
region; famous genres were of depicting Indian courtesans dancing before
paintings
British officials
Raja Ravi Originator of school of modern painting; brought together elements of South
Indian painting with western techniques; also known as ‘Raphael of the
verma
East’; most famous works include Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India etc.
Characterized by predominance of Indian nationalist theme; unique as they use
Bengal simple colour; painting of Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore is finest
school of art creation; Gajendranath Tagore, Nandalal bose and Jamini Roy were famous
painters.
11. Folk painting traditions in India

 Practised by women in Mithila region of Bihar; multiple mediums such as
cloth, handmade paper and canvas were used; main theme around Hindu
deities such as Lord Shiva, Krishna, Goddesses Durga and Saraswati;
Madhubhani
brush is made of cotton wrapped on a bamboo stick; colour shading is
paintings
not used and it is two-dimensional; outlines made using double line and gap
between these lines; flowers, trees and animals used to fill any gaps in
paintings; it has GI status.

ART & CULTURE
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 Common themes: Scenes from royal courts, social events like marriage and
natural themes such as sun, moon and plants like Tulsi are depicted.
.
 It is a traditional painting of
Odisha; picture painted on a
piece of cloth; inspired by the
Bhakti movement and by
religious themes; famous for
their bold lines and brilliant
Pattachitra colours; materials used in this
painting are natural
substances; disciplined form
of art with a set of rules and restrictions; painting is given a coating of
lacquer to give a glossy finish; themes are inspired from Jagannath and
Vaishnava cult; popular themes are Thia Badhia– depiction of the temple of
Jagannath; Dasabatara Patti, the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
 Originated from Bengal; started by painters of telling Mangal kavyas; done
Patua art on scrolls and painted on cloth; usually comment on political and social
issues
 Originated in 19th century around the area of Kalighat kali temples;
Kalighat
watercolours were used on mill papers using brush papers; depicted
painting
religious note especially Hindu gods and goddesses
Paitkar  Practiced by tribal people of Jharkhand; common theme is ‘what happens
paintings to human life post death’.
 Art form belonging to the state of Andhra
Pradesh; natural dyes used on cotton and silk
fabric to make paintings; use date palm with
pointed end to make their brush; vegetable
Kalamkari
dyes used alongwith minerals such as iron,
paintings
tin etc; Kalahasti and Masulipatnam are
two main centres; Hindu mythology and
gods are the main themes; transferred hereditarily and practiced mainly by
male members of families

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Married women play a central

role in creating important painting
called Chowk to mark special
occasions; revolve around marriage of
God Palghat; closely associated with
the rituals of marriage, fertility,
Warli
harvest and new season of
paintings
sowing; Palaghat, who is chiefly
worshipped as the goddess of fertility
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and represents the corn goddess,
Kansari; central motif is surrounded by scenes of everyday life, portraying
acts of hunting, fishing, farming etc.; circle and the triangle come from
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their observation of nature
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Belong to state of Sikkim; originally used as a medium of reverence that evoked
ideals of Buddism; painted on a base of cotton canvas; colours have their own
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significance; once painting is done: framed in colourful silk brocade
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Thangka
paintings
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bu
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This art belongs to Bhagalpur region of Bihar; also known as Angika art;
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manjushas are temple shaped boxes having 8 pillars made of jute and bamboo:
paintings of various deities made on these boxes; used during Bishahari puja in
am
which snake is worshipped; Serpentine designs, snake motifs, birds and natural
scenes painted in three different colours
Manjusha
paintings

ART & CULTURE
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ART & CULTURE
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Chapter - 3
SCULPTURES IN INDIA
1. Sculptures of Harappan civilization
 Introduction: Highly advanced; materials used are stone, terracotta, metal and bronze alloy
to make sculptures; both secular and religious elements present; female goddess figurines are
abundant; stones such as Limestone, alabaster and steatite used.
 Stone sculptures
o Bearded priest (Mohenjadaro): It is made of steatite; shawl in trefoil pattern covers the
left shoulder; right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace; appearance as
of Greek style.
o Dancing Girl: The dancing girl made of steatite is found at Harappa.
o Male Torso: Red sandstone was used; legs are broken and head attached to the neck and
shoulders through socket openings.
 Copper and Bronze sculptures: Lost wax method used to make sculptures: made both solid
and hollow figures.
o Bronze Dancing girl (Mohenjadaro): Oldest bronze sculpture in whole world; stand in
tribhangi posture of Nataraja; Ernest Mackay discovered it; full of expression and bodily
vigour; girl is naked wearing only a necklace and bangles; figure is lanky, thin and
rhythmic in character.
o Bull from Mohenjo-Daro: Bull massiveness and the charge's wrath are vividly depicted;
seen standing to the right with his head cocked; cord is wrapped around the neck.
o Bronze sculptures of Buffalo and Ram (male sheep) found at Mohenjadaro.
o Bullock cart and Ikka made of Bronze found at Harappa and Chanhudaro.
o Bronze bull with head raised found at Mohenjadaro.
o Copper dog and bird found at Lothal
o Daimabad hoard: Four bronze objects Elephant, two-wheeled chariot, buffalo and
rhinoceros were found; southernmost limit of Harappan civilization.
 Terracotta sculptures: Less sophisticated compared to metal and stone figures; majority are
cult objects and toys; red colouring on clay employed commonly; most frequently depicted
animal was Unicorn; others include rhinoceros, elephant, monkey, turtle, dog and sheep.
o Mother Goddess: Found at Mohenjadaro; wearing a loin robe and a girdle; adorned with
jewelry dangling from her large breast; distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped
headpiece with a cup-like protrusion on either side.
o Toys depict Ikka (small chariot), rhinoceros, monkey discovered at various places.
o Animal resembling horse found at Mohenjadaro.
o Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds and animals etc
o Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes; more realistic in
Gujarat sites and kalibangan.

ART & CULTURE
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om
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 Harappan seals: Discovered by General Alexander Cunningham in 1853 AD; maximum
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number of seals found at Mohenjadaro; Steatite was the most common material; seals are
made of copper, ivory, shell, agate, faience and terracotta.
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o Copper seals found only at Jhukar (sind), Lothal (Gujarat) and Desalpur (Gujarat).
o Dimensions varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch; most seals are quadrilateral in shape; square
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and rectangular shaped seals found most commonly.

o Symbols such as circles, crosses, dots, swastikas and leaves of peepal tree were depicted.
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o Elephant, bull, tiger, rhinoceros, antelope and crocodile were depicted; Unicorn was most
frequently depicted; fish was most common zoomorphic sign; cow was not depicted on
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seals.
o Inscriptions in pictographic script, written in right to left; seals primarily used for
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commercial purposes and might have also used as amulets.

 Important seals
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o Pashupati Mahadev seal: It is made of steatite found at

Mohenjadaro; yogi-like figure sitting in cross-legged
ith
surrounded by elephant and tiger on right side; rhinoceros

and buffalo on left side; two antelopes below the seat of
am
figure.
o Bull seal and seal depicting Mother Goddess with plant
growing from her womb found at Mohenjadaro.
o A seal depicting rhinoceros found at Amri (Sind).
o Seal depicting Garuda with snake in his claws found at
Harappa.
o Seals are not discovered at Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
 Pottery during Harappan period
o Red and Black pottery: It is among the oldest pottery used in India; pots are black from
inside and outer body is red in colour (inverted firing method); river sand mixed with clay
to make pottery; mostly wheel turned, organic resins applied to their outer surface.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Discovered for first time at Atranjikhera; Harappans were the first to use BRW pottery.
o Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were recurring themes.
o Usage: Plain pottery used for household purposes; miniature vessels for decorative
purposes; perforated potteries used for straining liquor.
 Ornaments and Beads

o Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings.
o Girdles, earrings and anklets worn only by women.
o Beads are made from Cornelian, Amethyst, quartz, steatite etc.: evidence from factories
in Chanhudaro and Lothal.
o Cemetery found at Farmona in Harappa where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
2. Sculptures during Mauryan age

 Dr. Coomarswamy divides Mauryan sculptures into Court art and Popular art.
 The pillars and their capitals are considered court art.
Sarnath (Uttarpradesh) Four lions
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Four lions
Rampurva (West champaran district, Bihar) Bull and single lion
Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar Single lion
Lumbini, Nepal Horse capital (Hiuen Tsang mentions about
it in Xuanzang)
Sankisa, Uttarpradesh Elephant capital
 Popular art includes the Manibadra Yaksha found at Parkam and the Yakshini figure from
Besnagar.
 Yakshini at Didarganj: in sandstone with a polished surface; right hand is holding a chauri
(flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Dhauli Elephant: Located in Puri

district, Odisha; only front half of
elephant visible: elephant walking out of
rock; carved over the Edicts of Asoka,
including the two expressly intended for
Kalinga.
 Facades of Lomus Rishi cave: located in
the Barabar hills near Gaya, Bihar; front
is adorned with a semicircular chaitya
arch that serves as the entrance; For Ajivika sect, Ashoka patronized the cave.
 Kanganahalli: It is about 3 km from Sannati, Karnataka.
o Stone sculptured slab bearing the name Ranyo Ashoka. This was the first inscribed portrait of
Ashoka (surrounded by female attendants and queens) that was unearthed from the ruined
Buddhist stupa.
3. Sculptures during Post -Mauryan age
a. Gandhara school: Flourished in north western parts of Indian
subcontinent; also known as Greeco-Indian school of art.
o Known for its use of bluish-grey sandstone and later school used mud
and stucco.
o Shakas and Kushanas were patrons (Not Indo-Greeks).
o Secular elements were absent; associated with Buddhist religion.
o Important sites are Taxila, Bamiyan and Begram.
o Characteristic features:
 Roman influence: Realistic representation of human beings; hair
in wavy curls; wearing a Roman toga like dress.
 Greek influence: Protruding eyes, portrayed with a moustache, mechanical rigidy in
expression and emphasis on depiction of physical beauty: like those of Apollo, the
Greek god of beauty.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Bharhut sculptures: narrative panels are shown with fewer

characters; availability of the space is utilized to the
maximum by the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives
as well as single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are
shown flat clinging to the chest; Examples include
sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and
Jagayyapetta.
b. Mathura school
o Flourished in and around the Mathura region; oldest school which emerged in 2nd century
om
BC.
o Locally found white spotted red sandstone was used.
o Initially Brahminical figures of god such as Shiva, parvati, Vishnu, Surya, Balarama was
l.c
made; first to make sculptures of Buddha.
ai
o Secular elements were present: headless figure of Kanishka at Mathura; figures of trees
and animals; figures of kanishka, Vima kadphises found in Mat village.
gm
o Important sites are Mathura city, Mat village and Kankali tila.
la
 Seated in yogic posture (padmasana posture) and involved in

meditation.
jra
 Emphasis on depicting inner beauty (calmness).

 Upper half of body half covered; yakshinis, Buddhas and
va
Boddhisatvas portrayed; physical mass of female sculptures; dealt

with Shaiva and Vaishnava themes: Shiva depicted as
bu
Ardhanarishvara and Umamaheswara.

 Striking use of symbolism in images E.g: Shiva is shown through
ba
linga and Mukhalinga.

 Buddha shown in Abhaya Mudra (gesture of fearlessness).
ith
 Buddha shown surrounded by Boddhisatvas: Padmapani holding a lotus and Vajrapani

holding a thunderbolt.
am
c. Amaravati School
o Developed in Amaravati and Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh under patronage of
Satavahana, Ikshvaku and Vakataka rulers.
o White marble was the most common material.
o Foreign influence was absent completely.
o Secular elements: Large number of female figures in various postures; kings, queens and
princes and palaces also made.
o Important sites are Vengi, Amaravati, Goli, Nagarjunakonda and Jaggayyapeta.
o It never declined: got assimilated with Pallava and Chola schools of sculpture; spread
into Sri Lanka and South-East Asian countries.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 More emphasis on use of dynamic images or

narrative art; excessive use of Tribhanga posture.
 Focus on depiction of feminine beauty; female
figurines made in various gestures and postures.
 Physical and worldly aspects highly
developed; characterized by naturalistic and
sensual appeal.
 Life-size figures were made (more than 16 feet in height)
d. Sanchi sculptures: Four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from life of
the Buddha and the Jataka; figure compositions are in high relief, filling up the entire space;
symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha and Manushi Buddhas or the past
Buddhas; siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with details
e. Buddhist gestures and postures
o Padmasana mudra: cross-legged; common way of sitting during rituals and ceremonies.
o Abhaya mudra: Indicates fearlessness
o Dhyana mudra: also known as Samadhi mudra; facilitates cleansing human consciousness
of any impurities.
o Namaskara mudra: Also known as Anjali mudra; evokes greeting with utmost respect and
adoration.
o Bhumisparsa mudra: calling mother earth to witness the truth; represents unshaken belief
and commitment.
o Varada mudra: boon granting mudra and represents compassion and liberation.
o Karana mudra: warding off the evil gesture.
o Vajrapradama mudra: unshakable self confidence
o Vitarka mudra: evokes energy of teaching and facilitates intellectual discussion.
o Dharmachakra mudra: continuous flow of energy of cosmic order.
4. Gupta Sculpture
 Characterized by use of cream coloured sandstone and use of metal.
 Halo around Buddha was intricately decorated.
 Human figure is pivot of Gupta sculpture; ideal is based upon
an explicit understanding of the human body in its inherent
softness and suppleness; elaborate draperies, jewellery, etc.
 Synthesis between symbolism of post-mauryan and nudity of early
medieval age.
 Sultanganj Buddha: Made of copper which is 7.5 feet portrayed in
Abhaya mudra.
 Great Varaha figure at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh)
 Mehrauli iron pillar represent pinnacle of genius

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
5. Medieval school of sculpture

 Pallava sculpture
o Descent of Ganges: It is a monument located at
Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu; massive
open-air relief carved out on two monolithic
rock boulders; all deities of heaven are depicted
here; main depiction is bearded man
worshipping God Shiva.
 Chola Bronze sculpture: Devoid of
ornamentation yet elegant and expressive; created using Cire Perdue; union of Shiva and
Parvati is very ingeniously represented in the Ardhanarishvara murti in a single image;
most important sculpture is Nataraja.
o Nataraja
- Shiva shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara, the
demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of the same leg.
- Raises his left hand in Bhujangatrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is
kicking away the veil of maya.
- His four arms are outstretched and the main right hand is posed in Abhayahasta.
- The upper right hand holds the damura to keep on the beat tala.
- The upper left hand carries a flame while the main left hand is held in the Dolahasta
and connects with the Abhayahasta of the right hand.
- His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala mala which surrounds
the entire dancing figure.
******

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Chapter - 4
INDIAN MUSIC
1. Introduction: Tradition of Music in India is one of the oldest musical traditions in the entire world
tracing its origin since the Stone age + All the seven notes of the raga karaharapriya can be found in
descending order in the Sama veda + Bharat Muni Natya Shastra: Most authoritative text on music,
dance and drama.
om
2. Fundamental Elements of Music
 Shruti: It is the pitch of music; shortest interval of pitch that human ears can detect and a musical
l.c
instrument can produce + It is the base of music + According to Natya Shastra, there are 22 shrutis
in number.
ai
 Swara: It was originally associated with the recitation of the Vedas; Over time, the term has come
gm
to refer to a composition's 'note' or 'scale degree + The notational system of Hindustani music is
currently defined by these abbreviated swaras: Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni.
 Raga: It is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Ranj,' which literally means to delight, make happy,
la
and satisfy someone + Serve as the foundation for the melody, while the tala serves as the
jra
foundation for the rhythm.

o Three categories based on number of notes in Raga
 Audav/Odava raga: This raga is a 'pentatonic' raga with five notes.
va
 Shadava raga: It is a 'hexatonic' raga with six notes.

bu
 Sampurna raga: It is a 'heptatonic' raga with seven notes.

o Three categories on the basis of their originality
ba
 Shuddha raga: Retains its original nature and form even if any element of other raga is
present in it.
ith
 Chhayalag raga: The nature and form of this raga changes when elements of any other
raga are present in it.
am
 Sankeerna raga: It has a combination of elements of two or more ragas.

Music Raga Season associated Time of Day Emotions Produced
Raga Hindol Spring Dawn time Sweet and soft love
Raga Bhairav Autumn Morning time Tranquility
Raga Megh Rainy Mid-day time Bravery
Shri Raga Winter Evening time Satisfaction
Raga Deepak Summer Night time Compassion
Raga Malkauns Winter Midnight time Intense love
 Tala: It is the rhythm element of music + It is a sequence of beats performed by singers using
hands and fingers at fixed time cycles + Most common variety of tala used in Carnatic music is
Adi tala + It is intricately related to Lasya (repetitive nature of any activity)
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Rasa: These were created to elicit emotional responses in both the performer and the audience.
Rasas are the emotions that are evoked by singing and playing instruments + Originally, there
were eight rasas, but later 'shanta' rasa was added, bringing the total to nine rasas.
3. Progress in Music and Dance during Ancient age

 Communal dance scenes at Bhimbetka cave paintings: Indicate the practice of dance by people
during Mesolithic period.
 Images of Dancing girl found at Harappa (made of steatite) and Mohenjodaro (made of bronze)
indicate dance was practiced by Harappans + Harappans ware of musical instruments; Seals found
at Lothal depicts Harp-like musical instrument.
 Hymns of Samaveda have been set to musical tones; hymns chanted by Udgatri priests during
rituals and ceremonies + Gandharva veda (Upaveda of Samaveda) deals exclusively with music.
 Panini Ashtadhyayi: Developed music on scientific basis and gave it a classical bent; 7 swaras
represented through 7 letters.
 Samudragupta is depicted playing Veena in his coins.
 Women like Amrapali was famous for their expertise in music and dance.
 Ilango Adigal mentions in the silappadi kaaram that the basic musical ideas were developed by
the ancient Tamils as early as the first century AD.
 Mahendra Verma (7th century) mentioned all contemporary Carnatic musical facts
in Kudumiyamalai inscriptions.
4. Progress in Music during Medieval Age

 Delhi Sultanate period
o Amir Khusrau invented 19 ragas of which Khayal, Tarana and Qawwalis were most
important; also invented Tabla and Sitar by combining Veena (Indian) and Tambura (Iranian).
o Ragdarpan translated from Sanskrit language into Persian language during the reign of Sultan
Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
o Lahjat-i-Sikandari was written under patronage of Sikander Lodi.
o A treatise titled Ghunyat-ul-Munya was compiled in Persian at instance of Malik Shamsuddin
Abu Raja.
o Sufi saint Pir Bodhan was a great musician of this age.
 Mughal period
o According to Abul Fazl, Akbar patronized and loved music in all forms.
o It is considered that Ragh Megh performed by Tansen could cause rainfall any season and his
raga Deepak could set candles alight.
o Kathak dance was also patronized by Akbar.
o Aurangzeb himself was a proficient player of Veena; After Aurangzeb banned singing and
dancing in his court, only instrumental music was allowed.
o Tuhfatul-Hind written by Mirza Muhammad Ibn Fakhruddin Muhammad.
o Sadarang and Adarang were great patrons of music during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah.
ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 Development in Regional kingdoms

o Sharangadev (musician in the court of Yadava ruler of Devagiri Singhana) wrote Sangeet
Ratnakar.
o Lochan Kavi wrote Raag Taringini in 11th century.
o Haripal Dev composed Sangeet Sudhakar which deals with both forms of Indian classical
music- Hindustani and Carnatic music.
o Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur invented Kalwanti Khayal, Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu
bhairavi and also devised Jaunpurit raga.
o Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior wrote a book titled Man Kautuhal on music.
o Earliest available treatise written in South India is Svaramela-kalanidi of Kondavidu’s
Ramamatya in Andhra Pradesh.
o Vijaya Vithala temple with its 56 carved pillars emitting musical notes is located in Hampi.
o Somanatha wrote Ragavibhoda in 1609 AD.
5. Folk Music traditions

Important
Important Features
Regional Music styles
 ‘Rasiya’ word is derived from the word rasa (emotion)
Rasiya Geet  It flourished in Braj, sacred land of Lord Krishna’s charming leelas.
(Uttar Pradesh)  It is closely woven into the very fabric of daily life and day to day chores
of its people.
 It is sung in the chaitra month during the festival – ‘Lotia’.
Lotia
 Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash filled with water from
(Rajasthan)
ponds and wells.
Pandavani  Themes: Tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two
(Chhattisgarh) episodes are chosen for the night’s performance.
 It is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and
Mando
both social injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in
(Goa)
Goa.
 It is a group song form of Kashmir’s folk music.
Chhakri, Kashmir  It is sung to the accompaniment of the noot (earthen pot) rababs, sarangi
and tumbaknari.
 Amir Khusrau created Qawwali through fusion of Persian and Indian
musical traditions.
Qawwali  It is devotional in nature
 It is sung in a group with a solo voice against a chorus.
 It is a recital of a religious mythological story with music.
Harikatha
 Themes taken from epics, Puranas and lives of saints.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
 It is the most popular medium of religious instruction in South India.

 It is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of camel
Tappa riders in the Punjab.
(Punjab)  It is characterized by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic and
rapid notes.
 It is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra.
 Narratives are odes in praise of an individual hero or an incident or place.
Powada
 The chief narrator is known as the Shahir.
(Maharashtra)

om
The tempo is fast and controlled by the main singer who is supported by
others in chorus.
 It is a highly dramatic form of ballad.
l.c
Burrakatha
 A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is played by the main performer while
(Andhra Pradesh)
reciting a story.
Daskathia ai
 It is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha.
gm
 The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the “Das”,
(Odisha)
the devotee.
 These are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both for their
la
Bihu Songs literary content and for their musical mode.

jra
(Assam)  They are blessings for a happy new year and the dance is associated with
an ancient fertility cult.
va
Chai hia  During the Chapchar Kut festival a special occasion for singing and
(Mizoram) dancing is called ‘chai’ and songs are known as ‘chai hia’.
bu
 It is celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan.

Teej Songs
 The theme of the songs sung during this festival revolve around the union
(Rajasthan)
ba
of Shiva and Parvati, the magic of monsoon, greenery, peacock dance etc.
ith
6. Classical Music
 Hindustani Music: It came into existence in 13th century due to assimilation of elements of
am
Persian Music with traditional Indian music.

 Important Features: Six primary ragas are Bhairava, Kausika, Hindola, dipak, sriraga and
Megh + Ragas used to strictly observe the time theory + It has a highly formalized grammar,
dictated by textual as well as oral tradition + Leisurely introductory section (alap) followed
by solfege and fast section with fast melodic phrases and rhythmic play + Musical instruments
used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin + Main styles are Dhrupad, Khayal,
Tappa, Chaturanga, Tarana, Sargam, Thumri etc.
 Dhrupad: Performed by a solo singer
o Mridang is used during its performance rather than the Tabla
o Oldest vocal style
o Greater emphasis on music rather than words

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
o Chanting of Om, Chhand and Parbandh

o Main exponents - Swami Haridas and Tansen
o Udaipur, Gwalior and Banaras are major Gharanas.
o Musicians – Baiju Bawra (at the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat)
 Khayal: It evolves out of Qawwali singing style + It is flexible in nature and provides scope
for improvisation + Amir Khusrau invented it + It is more romantic and delicate than Dhrupad
+ Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela patronized it in his court.
 Thumri: It is romantic as well as devotional in nature, famous for sensuality + Themes revolve
around a girl’s devotion and love for Krishna + Lyrics are usually in UP dialects of Hindi called
Awadhi and Brij Basha + Poorab style and Punjab style are its two main branches.
 Tappa: It originated from folk songs of camel riders of Punjab + It is a crisp and highly
volatile in nature + It was originated by Mian Ghulam Nabi shori + The word Tappa stands
for jumping, bouncing and skipping.
 Ghazals: It is a product of Persian influence composed of independent couplets + These are
essentially poetic compositions in Urdu depicting love + The Golconda and Bijapur rulers
encouraged this tradition of Urdu. Some important patrons of Ghazal and Urdu were Nusrati,
Wajhi, Hashmi, Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah and Wali Dakhini.
 Tarana: It is a vocal form of Hindustani music invented by Amir Khusrau + It uses poetry that is
full of powerful words + It is characterized by use of meaningless syllables in a very fast rendition.
o Carnatic Music: It is an indigenously developed style of classical music + It is strongly kriti-
based + Unity of raga, tala and shruti; equal importance to melody and rhythm + Even balance
between re-creativity (soulful interpretation of the compositions of great masters) and
creativity + Important compositions are Gitam, suladi, svarajati, Jatisvaram, varnam,
kritanam, kriti, pada, javali, pallavi etc
o Pallavi: This portion is often repeated in each stanza + It is considered to be the best part of
Carnatic composition called Ragam Thanam Pallavi where artist has great scope for
improvisation.
o Gitam: It is the simplest type of composition with an easy and melodious flow of music + It
is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end + Theme of the song is usually
devotional + Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha.
o Jatiswaram: It is noted for its rhythmical excellence + In some cases the Pallavi and
Anupallavi are sung to jatis and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis.
o Varnam: It is a complete composed piece, designed to show the characteristic phrases and
melodic movements of a raga and is usually performed at the beginning of a concert.
o Ragamalika: This is the concluding part of the Pallavi + Soloist is allowed to freely indulge
in improvisation.

ART & CULTURE
(REVISION NOTES)
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

 It originated in North India; influenced  It originated in South India and has no foreign
by Arab, Persian and Afghan traditions. influence.
 No strict adherence to unity of raga, tala  Unity of raga, tala and Sruti in every piece.
and Sruti.
 Prevalence of number of sub-styles  Only one particular prescribed style of singing.
called gharanas – Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur
and Indore Gharanas.
 More importance to vocal than  Equal importance to vocal and instruments.
instruments.
 There are six major ragas  There are 72 ragas.
 Instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Sita  Veena, Mridangum and Mandolin.
and Santoor.
 Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Ravi  Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Shankar, Ustad Alla Khan etc. Shyama shastri (Trinity of Carnatic music)
7. Music Communities of India

Music Community State
Langha (Muslim tribal community) Gujarat and Rajasthan
Manganiar Rajasthan
Bauls West Bengal
Bhopa Rajasthan
Jogi Rajasthan
Muria tribes Madhya Pradesh
Moken tribes Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Idu Mishmi tribes Arunachal Pradesh
Kamar community Chattisgarh
******

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Classification of Indian Architecture

2. Rig Vedic Culture

4. Harappan Art and Architecture

o Public baths (Eg: Great Bath)

Mohenjo-daro  Great granary

 Sculpture of bearded priest.

 Water management system, giant water reservoir, unique water harvesting

(Gujarat)  Copper smelting remains found: indicate knowledge of metallurgy

have been found

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Surkatoda  First actual remains of horse bones.

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5. Mauryan Art and Architecture

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 Independently erected pillars of Ashoka:

 Bell shaped structure used only at top in Ashokan pillars;

 Ashokan inscriptions 1st deciphered by: James Prinsep

Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, and Mehrauli.

compassion, liberality, honesty, and purity.

 Pillar Edict IV: Addresses the responsibilities of Rajukas.

slaughtering on certain days.

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 Single lion on Vaishali Pillar (Bihar): It has no inscription.

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 Stupas were burial

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Barabar caves: cut during the reign of Ashoka; donated to monks of

by monks for their residence and

 Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves: 18 caves in Udaygiri hill and 15 caves

ruler Kharavela (193 BC- 170 BC); Hatigumpha inscription refer to

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 Karle caves: It is located in Pune district, Maharashtra + These caves

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o Outlines painted in red; absence of blue colour in the

Cave No. 30 to 34 belong to

o Cave No. 16: It is also known as Kailasha temple; portrays

monolithic structure in whole world + The cutting of this

Buddhist Chaitya cave; Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana

 Features of the caves

 Temple Architecture: Emerged in the Gupta period.

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 Emergence of Shikara instead of a

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with roof rising into vaulted chambers).

- No pradakshina path (circumbulatory path) was built.

 Sub-schools under Nagara school

 No use of pillars; Iron girders were used to support the roof

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 Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar:

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- Situated near the river Narmada in the Bhedaghat area, between

 Prominent Nagara temples

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 One of its walls features thousands of miniature sized pictures of the

patronage of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha + Example - Shore temple at

similar to Dravidian style

o Dravidian temples are surrounded by high boundary walls

o The presence of water tank inside the temple enclosure