Area: Technology and Livelihood Education

Subject: Basic Drafting

LET Competencies:
1. Explain the fundamental elements in drafting.
2. Apply the standards in lettering.
3. Distinguish the different kinds of lines, orthographic projection and pictorial drawing.
4. Apply the fundamentals in dimensioning and sectioning
5. Relate drafting skills to real life situation.

Drafting – is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something
functions or is constructed. It is primary method of communication between designers and clients,
architects and builders, engineers and production personnel and between advertiser and customers.

Common Terms in Drafting

 Drawing - the art or technique of producing images on a surface, usually paper, by means of
marks, usually of ink, graphite, chalk, charcoal, or crayon.
 Dimensioning – is to provide a clear and complete description of measurement of an object.
 Sketching - is a drawing that is done quickly without a lot of details. Artists often use sketches as
a preparation for a more detailed painting or drawing.
 Mechanical Drawing - drawing done with the aid of instruments

Drafting Equipment
In order to do planning or drafting work it is first necessary to learn the names of the tools the
draftsman uses and the way he uses them to produce a good drawing. In addition it is necessary to learn
certain rules and regulations which are the principles of good drafting

1. Drawing Pencils
 Drawing pencils is made of a much better grade of graphite, commonly called lead, than the
ordinary writing pencils so it is possible to draw lines which are of uniform blackness and to do
better quality of line work.
 Type of Drawing Pencils
a. 9H pencil – is the hardest of the drawing pencils is the 9H.
b. HB pencil – is the medium pencil used by draftsman
c. 6B pencil – is the softest of all the drawing pencils. It is used mainly by artists for sketching.

Most work in engineering drawing is done with the 4H, 2H, and H pencils.
d. 4H pencil – is used for layout for construction lines
e. 2H pencil – is for general line work,
f. H pencil – is for lettering
 To do good drawing it is necessary to work with a good sharp pencil point. This is why drawing
pencils are used for our drawing rather than the regular writing pencils.
 The best kind of a pencil point for the beginner is the conical-shaped point.
 The graphite should be exposed about 3/8 of an inch, and the wood about one inch making a total
of 1 3/8 inches.
 A pad of sand paper is useful in keeping pencil points sharp.

2. Ruler
 A ruler is necessary in order to make sketches of objects.
 A rule is necessary to make the measurements from the part. These measurements must then be
placed on the sketch as dimensions.
 The rule is not used to draw straight lines of a mechanical drawing.
 The rule should be graduated into sixteenths or preferably sixty fourths of an inch. Whenever it
becomes necessary to have more accurate dimensions than 1/64 of an inch, a micrometer should
be used.
 For small parts a 6” steel rule is suitable;
 For larger ones a 36” steel rule should be used.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

3. Erasers
 When an error happens when making a drawing like a line is drawn too long or in the wrong place,
the correction is done by using an eraser.
 There are many kinds of erasers available but the draftsman doing only pencil work needs really
just two kinds.
a. Art gum is used mainly for cleaning soiled drawings and tools and for erasing lines which are
not very close to other lines.
b. Rubber eraser is used for erasing with fairly sharp edges. The sharp edges enable the user to
erase a line in a congested area of the drawing without erasing the adjoining lines.
 The eraser should have no coarse abrasive in it. An abrasive eraser is not needed on pencil work;
also, it will ruin the surface of the drawing paper.
 In mechanical Drawing, sharp knife or razor blade is sometimes used by draftsmen in scraping off
incorrectly inked lines.

4. Drawing Board
 Smooth surfaced drawing boards are usually made of soft wood such as basswood or pine in which
thumbtacks can readily be used.
 They are usually made with a cross strip on each end of the board to prevent warping and splitting.
 Large boards usually have cleats fastened to the back side of the board to serve the same purpose.
The edges must be straight, smooth, and square to provide a working edge for the T square.
 Drawing boards come in various sizes such as 12” x 17”, 16” x 21”, and 20” x 24 1/2
 Drawing tables with a drawing board top which can be adjusted to various angles and heights may
be obtained.

5. T Square
 The T square is used to draw all horizontal lines. It is also used for a guide in drawing inclined and
vertical lines with the triangles.
 It is composed of two parts, the head and the blade. These parts are rigidly fastened together so
that the working edge (or top edge) of the blade forms a right angle with the head.
 The better quality T squares have clear transparent edges which enable the draftsman to see lines
through them.
 T squares are usually made in the following lengths: 15, 18, 21, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, and 60
inches.
 To keep T square in good serviceable condition it should receive gentle treatment to protect the
edges of the blade from nicks.
 The joint between the head and the blade must be rigid so as to prevent play, which would result
in inaccuracies in the drawings.
 The head of the T square should be used against the left edge of the drawing board, when the
pupil is left handed; in that case it should be used against the right edge.
 It should be held firmly against the edge when in use so as to insure that all horizontal lines are
parallel and that vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizontal lines.

6. Triangles
 There are two triangles the draftsman needs. They are a 45º triangle and a 30º– 60º triangle.
a. The 45º triangle has two angles of 45º and one of 90º,
b. While the 30º- 60º triangle has one angle of 30º one angle of 60º, and one angle of 90º.
 The better triangles are made of celluloid or plastic; the cheaper ones are made of wood. The
advantages of celluloid triangles are that they do not chip or break as easily as the wooden ones
and they are transparent, which enables the draftsman to see through them.
 To draw vertical lines with the triangle one edge is held along the upper edge of the T square so
that the right angle of the triangle is adjacent to the edge of the T square and is in the lower left
hand position. The pencil point is placed along the edge of the triangle down near the blade of
the T square and then drawn away from the T square. Always rotate the pencil as the line is being
drawn; this produces a line of uniform width.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

 Lines making angles of 45, 30, 60, 15, and 75 degrees with the horizontal or the vertical may also
be drawn with triangles. Triangles may be used as a straight edge in drawing a line through two
given points. The T square may also be used for this purpose

7. Cross-Ruled Paper
 The paper has uniformly spaced lines running both vertically and horizontally is called cross-ruled
papers.
 The lines are commonly spaced at 1/8 inch or ¼ inch apart.
 The paper is used for preliminary drawings of objects, either freehand or mechanically.
 Each unit of space may be used to represent an inch, a foot or a fraction thereof, thus making it
much easier to have the drawing in the proper scale or proportion.
 The ruled lines also help the sketcher to make lines straight either horizontally or vertically.

LETTERING
 Is the process of forming or printing letters, numbers, and other
characters either freehand or with the aid of lettering devices.
 It is used to describe, or provide detailed specifications for, an object.
With the goals of legibility and uniformity.
 Styles are standardized and lettering ability has little relationship to
normal writing ability

Method of forming Letters

1. Freehand Lettering – is done without the assistance of tools
2. Mechanical Lettering – is done using tools such as lettering guides,
templates, or using a small mechanical pantograph.

Classification of Letter Style

1. Gothic Letters – the simplest and easiest to construct among letter style because of its
elementary stroke. All letters are composed of uniform width
A B C D E F G LETTER
a b c d e f g letter
2. Roman Letters – this letters have a thin and thick elements and accented by serif and fillets. It is
also considered as the most formal form of letter styles.
A B C D E F G LETTER
a b c d e f g letter
3. Text Letters – also known as Old English Letter. It is considered as most classical letter style
because of its artistic forms. The appropriate type of letter for diplomas and certificates.
A B C D E F G LETTER
a b c d e f g letter
4. Italic Letter – It refers to all slanting letters regardless of style or forms.
A B C D E F G LETTER
a b c d e f g letter
Guidelines
 It is used to ensure consistency in the size of the letters or any characters.

Parts of Guidelines
1. Cap Line – the upper most horizontal guideline
drawn for upper case letters.
2. Waist Line – It determine the height of lower case
letters. The ascender is the part of the lowercase
letter that extends above the body of the letter. All ascenders are as high as the caps.
3. Base Line – A horizontal guideline where all letters rest or stand.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

4. Drop Line – It indicates the lower limits of the lowercase letters. The descender is the part of the
lowercase letter that extends below the body of the letter.
 Ascender – a stroke of letters that extends up
 Descender – a stroke extend down

Case Letter
 Uppercase Letters – all capital letters
 Lowercase Letters – all small letter

Composition in Lettering
 Composition is the spacing of the letters to form words, the spacing of words to form sentences,
and the spacing of sentences to form paragraphs.
 In order to get good spacing of letters in forming words, the areas between the letters should be
approximately equal. This does not mean the horizontal distances are equal. The space between
two words in the same sentence should be equal to the height of the line of letters; that is, the
body of the lower case letters or the height of the capitals, when only capitals are being used.
 Certain combinations of letters such as the L and T may be overlapped slightly when they appear
in this order. The space between sentences should be about twice as great as the space
between words. This makes the lettering easier to read.
 Sometimes it becomes necessary to fit lines of lettering into a limited space. In order that all of
the letters will fit, it is necessary to condense the letters. These condensed letters are the
regular ones except that the horizontal distances have all been decreased in the same ratio. Also
the space between letters is decreased uniformly.
 When a few words are to be put in a wide space, letters may be extended. Condensed and
extended lettering are very useful in lettering titles on drawings or maps.

Line Techniques
 Drawing can provide a very definite description of an object. The lines are drawn according to
certain standards already recognized by draftsmen and the people who read drawings.
 Certain types of lines are used for object lines, others are used for center lines, and still others
for dimension lines. In making a pencil drawing there are different line widths or weights.
Commonly used are the wide or medium line and the narrow or light line.
 In ink work three line widths, heavy, medium, and light, are used.

Alphabet of Lines
 In drafting it is very essential that each of the various kinds of lines are drawn with the correct
type and width of line; if not, the result is meaningless.
 In order to have good lines on drawings it is necessary to keep the lines the same width from
end to end to make the ends start and stop exactly where they should. Make all corners sharp;
this adds snap and neatness.

Kinds of Lines
1. Visible Line or
Object Line it is
used to represent
the visible edges of
an object when
making a drawing.
When done in
pencil it uses
medium line; when
done in ink, it uses
heavy line.
2. Hidden line or invisible line is a dashed line. It is a medium weight line used to represent edges
of an object which are hidden from the view. The dashes are about 1/8” long and the spaces are
about 1/16” long. It is very important that they be kept uniform in length.
3. Center line is a light line made up of a series of long and short dashes. The long dashes are from
¾” to 1 1/2” long and short dashes are about 1/8” long. The spaces between the dashes are

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Subject: Basic Drafting

1/16”. Here again the spaces and dashes must be uniform in length. Center lines are used to
indicate the centers of holes or the center of symmetrical objects.
4. Phantom Lines are thin lines used to indicate alternate position of the parts of an object,
repeated detail, or the location of absent parts.
5. Cutting plane lines is a heavy lines made up of a series of one long dash about ¾” long and
then two short dashes each about 1/8” long Cutting plane lines are used to indicate the position
of the cutting plane when making a section.
6. Parallel lines these are lines that never meet no matter how far they are extended.
7. Break Line these are extended part of an object has a continuous shape and size using zigzag or
wavy lines. The two types of break lines are:
 Long Break Lines are ruled lines with freehand zigzags that reduce the size of the drawing
required to delineate an object and reduce detail.
 Short Break Lines is too indicate a short break in an object, use thick, solid, wavy freehand
lines.

Methods of Drawing Lines

 In general, drawings are made up of straight lines and curved lines. The straight lines fall into
three groups, horizontal lines, vertical lines, and inclines lines.
 Curved lines may be an arc, a complete circle, or one of the other curves of the conic section or
just an irregular curve.
 A horizontal line is drawn along the top edge of the T square. It is drawn from left to right.
 Vertical lines are drawn along the vertical edge of the triangle. Vertical lines are drawn away
from the draftsman.
 Inclined lines are drawn in the most convenient direction. Angles of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, or 75°
with the horizontal or vertical may also be drawn with the triangles and T square.
 To draw any straight line, place the pencil along the edge of the T square or triangle so that the
pencil lies in a plane which is at right angles to the surface of the paper and inclines in the
direction in which the line is being drawn. The pencil should be inclined about 60°. While
drawing the line the pencil should be rotated slightly so that the point wears uniformly and
produces a line of uniform width.

Pictorial Drawings

 To express an idea clearly a drawing is made which is understandable by those who will see it.
There are several kinds of drawings which may be grouped into two general classes – pictorial
drawings, and working drawings. Under the general heading of pictorial drawings are isometric,
oblique, and perspective drawings.
 The word “pictorial” comes from the word picture; therefore, a pictorial drawing resembles a
picture. As a matter of fact, a photograph taken with a regular camera represents a true
perspective, which is one type of pictorial drawing.
 In engineering work an isometric type of drawing is quickly made and easily read, but the
appearance of the object is somewhat distorted. It shows three sides of the object. Oblique
drawings are also frequently used in engineering. They also show three sides of the object and
may be used to show the front in true shape.

Isometric Drawings
 In isometric drawings, all the principal edges of the object except the
vertical edge are drawn at 30 degrees to the horizontal. The bottom and
top edges, which would normally be horizontal, are drawn 30 degrees with
the horizontal.
 All edges are measured their true distance in isometric drawing. Isometric
drawings are used to show the front, top, and side of an object in their
actual relation to each other.
 Some objects have inclined surfaces or edges. To show an inclined edge of
an object in isometric drawing it is necessary to locate carefully each end
of the line by making measurements from the respective vertical and horizontal edges and then
draw the line between these two points. This type of line is called a non-isometric line.

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Subject: Basic Drafting

 A disadvantage in isometric drawing is that any surface of the object having a circular hole, or
circular shape presents a problem in drawing. However, circles or arcs may be drawn in isometric.

Oblique Drawings
 Another commonly used type of pictorial drawing is the oblique. The
oblique differs from the isometric in that only two faces are drawn at
an angle.
 The receding faces-top and right and left sides -maybe drawn at any
angle. Most commonly used, is
 45 degrees.

Perspective Drawings
 This used more by artists and architects than by engineers.
 Is the pictorial view as seen by observer’s eyes.
 is a drawing technique used to illustrate dimension through a flat surface.

Kinds of Perspective Drawing

1. One-point perspective all horizontal lines point toward the one
vanishing point, which is located on the horizon.

2. Two-point perspective the horizontal lines running in one

direction lead to one vanishing point and the horizontal lines
running in the other direction lead to a second vanishing point.
Both vanishing points are located on the horizon line.

3. Three-Point perspective the viewer is looking up or down so that

the verticals also converge on a vanishing point at the top or
bottom of the image.

 Vanishing point is the point on the horizon line where the angular
perspective lines of an object visually continue past its edges and
eventually converge.

Orthographic Projection
 It is common method of representing
three-dimensional objects, usually by
three two-dimensional drawings in
each of which the object is viewed
along parallel lines that are
perpendicular to the plane of
the drawing.
 The working drawing provides the
mechanic with the information about
the size and shape which is necessary
for the construction of the object.
 Working drawing may contain two, three, or more views. Three views are adequate for giving
the construction information for a majority of projects and two views are adequate for some.
 The draftsman must learn to arrange his work neatly and in a well-balanced manner. It is
necessary for the draftsman to show the tie rack so that all points are in their true relationship
and all dimensions are shown as they actually are. This enables any person who can read
working drawings to understand the size and shape of the tie rack.
 It is necessary to draw the tie rack in three views in order to show how it looks from side, top,
and end. When objects are drawn in several views, all dimensions can be shown clearly.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

 Since each view can show only two dimensions, the third dimension has to be obtained from
one of the other views. With the three views it is easy to show entire dimension and to indicate
the depth and placement of the thirteen holes for the dowels. Also, it is easy to show details of
the chamber.
 The auxiliary views are drawn to describe the block ore completely. It is usually not necessary to
draw more than one or two auxiliary views.
 Two views are adequate to completely describe a plane cylinder or a cone and one view is
adequate to describe a sphere.

Dimensioning Drawings

The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object.

A complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part.
Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.
 Accuracy: correct values must be given
 Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions
 Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing
duplicated
 Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used
for legibility.

Dimension lines is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the dimension value, with
arrowheads at each end.

Arrow Head is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide.

Extension Lines is the extend line on the object to

the dimension line. It begin 1/16” or 1.5mm from the
object as gap. Every extension lines measure 1/8’’ or
3mm.

Parallel Dimension Lines is a multiple dimension in

one section of the object. Each dimension should be
a minimum ¼” or 6mm apart.

Stagger Dimensions these are dimension figures for

parallel dimensions lines

Leader Lines these are straight thin line used to indicate alternate position of the parts of an objects,
repeated detail, or the location of the absent parts.

Sectioning Drawings

Section is an imaginary cut taken through an object so as to reveal a

shape or interior construction. The cut usually lengthwise or
crosswise; vertical or horizontal although the section cut is
sometimes at an angle.

Section lines or crosshatch lines distinguish between two separate

parts that meet a given point. The section lines are used to depict a
particular type of material. In assembly drawings, where many kinds
of material may be used, individual parts may be crosshatched with
the symbol for a particular material.

Types of Section View

1. Full Section View: the view is made by passing the straight cutting plane fully through the part.
2. Half Section View: the view is made by passing the cutting plane hallway through an object and
of the removes a quarter of the object.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

3. Offset Section View: the view is made by passing the bended cutting or bending cutting plane
4. Broken-out Section View: the view is made by passing the cutting plane normal to the viewing
direction and removing the portion of an object in front of it.
5. Revolved Section: the view is made by revolving the cross-section view 90 degrees about a
cutting plane line and drawn on the orthographic view.
6. Removed or Detailed Section: is created with the same concept as a revolved section. But, the
cross section view is shown outside the view.

Geometric Construction
Knowledge of simple geometric construction is essential to the draftsman or engineer and is
useful to the layman in reading drawings, making plans, and developing sketches of the objects to be
made.

Kinds of Angles
 An obtuse angle is one which is greater than 90° and less than 180°.
 Acute angle is one which is less than 90°.then zero degrees is called an acute angle.
 Right Angle: An angle whose measure is 90 degrees is called right angle..
 Straight Angle: An angle whose measure is 180 degrees called a straight angle.
 Reflex Angle: An angle whose measure is greater than 180 degrees and less than 360 degrees.
 Complete Angle: An angle whose measure is 360 degrees is called a complete angle.

Kinds of Triangle
 Triangles are just shapes with 3 (straight) sides. They can be big or small and can look somewhat
different. Depending on the angles and the sides we can sort the triangles into different types.

The simplest way to sort triangles is by their angle size:

 Acute triangle is one in which all the angles are acute (less than 90°).
 Obtuse triangle is one in which one of the angles is obtuse (more than 90°).
 Right triangle is one in which one of the angles is a right angle (exactly 90°).

Another way to group triangles is by looking at the lengths of their sides:

 Equilateral triangle is one in which all three sides have the same length.
 Isoceles triangle is one in which two sides have the same length.
 Scalene triangle is one in which all three sides have different lengths

Quadrilateral - A polygon with four sides. The 4-gons can be irregular like the succeeding figures.

Squares - A quadrilateral with four equal-length sides and four right angles.

Rectangles
 Rectangle: A quadrilateral having four right angles.
 Rectangles come in different sizes and we can draw them at different angle, as long as all the
angles are 90 degrees, it will be a rectangle.

Parallelograms
 Parallelogram: A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
 Parallel means, that the two segments never meet, even if they were to continue.
 Known examples are for instance the left and the right side of a ladder, or the double lines you
see on some freeways.

Rhombuses is a quadrilateral having all four sides of equal length, like the shape of the diamond.

Polygons in General
 A polygon is a closed planar figure made by joining line segments. The segments may not cross,
and each segment must connect to exactly two others at its endpoints.

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

Classification of polygon depending on the number of sides:

# of sides Name
3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Enneagon

Drawing Tangents
 Tangent lines are frequently used by the draftsman. A straight line is tangent to a circle when it
touches it at only one to a point, and the radius of the circle drawn to the point of tangency is
perpendicular to the tangent.

Constructing a Regular Hexagon

 Hexagons are six-sided figures which are frequently used in machine drawing for showing
hexagonal heads of bolts and screws.
 Regular hexagons have six equal sides and six equal angles.
 A vertical line and two 30 degrees line are drawn through the center of the circle. This divides
the circumference of the circle into six equal parts, When the points, the circumference of the
circle are connected the hexagon is formed.

Ellipses
 In mathematics, an ellipse (from Greek, a "falling short") is a plane curve that results from the
intersection of a cone by a plane in a way that produces a closed curve.
 Circles are special cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is orthogonal to the cone's
axis.
 An ellipse is also the locus of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to
the same constant.
 Ellipses are closed curves and are the bounded case of the conic sections, the curves that result
from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane that does not pass through its apex; the
other two (open and unbounded) cases are parabolas and hyperbolas.
 Ellipses arise from the intersection of a right circular cylinder with a plane that is not parallel to
the cylinder's main axis of symmetry.
 Ellipses also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection and the bounded cases
of perspective projection, which are simply intersections of the projective cone with the plane of
projection.
 Ellipses are necessary in drafting when oval shapes are required. The pin and string method is
often used in laying out an ellipse.

Graphs, Charts, and Maps

 Graphs and charts are widely used to show in an objective manner the relationship of different
numbers, sizes of object, speeds, and surface areas.
 The ability to read charts intelligently and to make simple graphs and charts to illustrate your
ideas is an important part of general education. Graphs and charts provide an effective method
of portraying ideas quickly and interestingly.
 Lines graphs, bar graphs, area graphs, volume graphs, pictorial graphs, and organizational charts
are common devices for portraying ideas graphically.

Kinds of Graphs
1. Line Graphs
 Line graph is usually constructed by placing two sets of figures in relation to each other on axes
formed by two lines perpendicular to each other which intersect at a point.
 Horizontal line is the abscissa or the X axis. The zero point is called the origin

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Area: Technology and Livelihood Education
Subject: Basic Drafting

2. Bar Graphs
 Bar graphs are excellent for comparing quantities, values, and percentages. The height of each
bar represents different percentage or quantity.
 Bar graphs are most effective when only a small number of bars are used. The bars should all be
spaced equidistant
3. Pictorial graphs
 Pictorial comparisons can be made effectively by using geometric or pictorial symbols
 Like the volume graph, pictorial graphs often give the impression of the third dimension and are
useful in comparing volumes.

Kinds of Charts
1. Organizational Charts
 Organizational charts are useful in showing the relationships and functions of different
departments of an industry, a school system, or a government organization.
 The organizational chart enables the reader to grasp the whole organizational framework at a
glance.

2. Pie Chart
 Pie chart is useful in making percentage comparisons. It is easily used, easy to make, and easy
to read.
 The circumference of the circle is 360°, and it is common practice to think of the circumference
of the circle as being divided into 100 equal parts.
 Each part is equal to 3.6° on the circumference. The sum of all divisions of a circle or pie chart
should be equal to the circumference.
 The percentage divisions of the circumference are connected with the center of the circle, and
the segments are cross hatched and labeled.

Maps
 The ability to read maps enable one to find directions easily and, improve means of
transportation.

The common types of maps

1. The geographic map shows the boundaries of countries, important town, cities, mountain
ranges, main roads, rivers and lakes.
2. The topographic map is used to show in some detail the top view of a section of a country
3. A relief map shows the relative elevations of the ground surfaces.
4. Contour map are made when contour are given with elevation.

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