scholars may need to revise their estimates in the

Art of earliest times future.

Long before our prehistoric ancestors could write

or make tools, they created images on the walls  The Paleolithic Period,
of cave dwellings -also known as the Old Stone Age, is a
historical era believed to have spanned from
around 30,000 B.C. to about 10,000 B.C.
People abandoned their caves,
This period is significant for containing some
built homes, domesticated of the earliest known artworks, particularly
animals, and raised crops. vivid and lifelike paintings of animals found
Families, clans, and tribes on the ceilings and walls of caves.
gathered and built villages,
towns, and cities. This led to the
development of art, reli-gion,
science, and social and political
organization. Civilization was  The Cave Paintings of Lascaux
born. -The cave paintings found in southern France
and northern Spain, particularly in the
Lascaux cave in the Dordogne region, have
Prehistoric Art in Western sparked controversy among scholars due to
their skillful execution and remarkable
Europe preservation. Some questioned whether
ancient cave dwellers, using primitive tools,
could have created such splendid artworks.
People before could write or use metal to There were even suggestions that these
make tools, they were painting and paintings might be the work of more recent
scratching pictures of animals on the artists. However, contemporary scholars now
uneven walls of caves and rock shelters. agree that the paintings discovered in caves
like Lascaux and Altamira are indeed the
Every person fought a daily battle for creations of ancient peoples.
survival. The lives of prehistoric people
were filled with danger, hunger, and fear.
Use of Paintings in Hunting Rituals
 During prehistoric times, cave painting was
Examples of Prehistoric art limited almost entirely to the depiction of
animals. This was probably due to prehistoric
 The Cave Paintings of Altamira peo-ple’s dependence on animals for food.
-is a painting of a bison from the ceiling in  Painting of animals almost certainly played a
Altamira part in magic rituals performed before a hunt.
Determining the age of prehistoric art involves  Prehistoric hunters may have turned to magic
uncertainty due to varying opinions among to place a spell over their prey. This was
historians and archaeologists about the early intended to weaken it and make it eas-ier to
stages of human development, with some hunt.
suggesting an era dating back around 30,000  Prehistoric hunting rituals likely involved ceremonies
years. Techniques for dating such art include where hunters painted images of animals on cave
assessing the age of the surrounding earth layer walls or ceilings, believing that by creating lifelike
or using radiocarbon dating of nearby organic pictures, they could capture the animals' strength and
materials. Radiocarbon dating relies on measuring spirit. These rituals likely boosted the confidence and
the decay of radioactive carbon 14 in once-living courage of the hunters, who believed their prey
organisms, such as charcoal or carbonized bones, would be easier to kill as a result. Similar to modern-
to estimate their age. When these materials are day pep rallies, these prehistoric rituals aimed to
found near prehistoric paintings, scholars can inspire confidence and courage in participants, albeit
estimate the approximate age of the artworks. in the context of hunting rather than sports.
However, as dating methods continue to advance,
 -The pigment was applied to the smoothest
surfaces with the fingers, although more
advanced techniques— perhaps involving
some kind of reed or bristle brush—were
a l so u se d .
PETROGLYPHS.
-Symbols carved in stone by settlers in prehistoric North
America give us a glimpse into belief systems and ways of • Technique.
life just as the cave paintings of Lascaux and Altamira do.
- The artist scratched the outline of the animal
on the stone and then filled in the lines with
TOOLS AND UTENSILS.
black or dark brown pig-ment to give it a
- Cooking utensils and tools from the Neolithic era, around firm edge. Next, the animal was filled in
7000 B.C., are adorned with decorative patterns. They with different shades of reddish brown hue.
represent the beginnings of technology
This shading technqnie helped create the
impression of a three-dimensional form.
ARCHAEOLOGY SITE. Evidence of the movements of early
people are found in these footprints.
Skills of the Prehistoric Artists
Survival and Discovery of Cave  Prehistoric artists were able
to demonstrate a knowl-edge
Paintings and an affection for the animals
thehunted.Whattheyknew and
felt was com-bined with a
Utensils, bones,and charcoal from numerous
sensitive artistic instinct.
campfires found at the mouths of caves suggests
that the Stone Age occupants lived there to take
advantage of the daylight and ventilation. A
special place farther back in the cave was set
Prehistoric Builders
aside for magic rituals, and this was where the
paintings were done. There they were protected  Eventually prehistoric peoples
f r o m t h e w i n d a n d r a i n , a n d f o r t h i s r e a so n m a n y
paintings have survived to the present day. The venturedout of their caves to begin
discoveries of prehistoric paintings at both the building more comfortable
caves of Lascaux in 1941 and Altamira in 1879 shelters.Smallcommunitiesdeveloped,
were quite accidental. and hunters replaced their weapons
Marcelino de Sautuola, an amateur archaeologist with crude farming tools and shep-
excavated inside the cavern, uncovering a herds’ staffs. In time, communities grew
number of flint and stone tools made in prehistoric into organized villages surrounded by
times. cornfields and grazing animals.

MATERIALS AND PROCESSES Rock Carvings and Standing Stones

A close examination of this cave painting at Altamira  Abstract symbols were carved into stoneby
reveals some of the details about how the artist worked prehistoric people during the Paleolithic
with available period. Spirals and concentric arcs appear
materials to create this work. etched in standing stones, as well as on flat
rock surfaces.
• Pigment.  Detailed relief sculptures carved in stone or
-The fresh, vivid color makes it seem as if the horn survive as evidence of pre-historic
animals had just been painted. The pigments, or artists’ carving skills Rock carvings have
coloring mix-ture, were made from lumps of clay been discovered through-out England,
a n d so f t st o n e t h a t w e r e g r o u n d i n t o f i n e p o w - d e r .
They were then mixed with animal fat, blood, or Spain, France, and Germany, as well as
some other medium. Malta and the Canary Islands.
• Brushes.  Today ancient megaliths, or large monu-
ments created from huge stone slabs, lie
scattered across Europe, India, Asia, and
evemtheAmericas
  Ziggurats:Symbolic
Mountains
Stonehenge
The Fertile Crescent, located
Stonehenge consists of alarge ring
between the Tigris and Euphrates
of stones with three progressively
Rivers, was attractive for settlement
smaller rings within. The out-
ermost ring is nearly 100 feet in due to factors like fertile land and
diameter. Of the 30 original upright access to water. In this region,
stones, more than half are still Sumerian city-states emerged, each
standing. The tallest of these centered around a shrine dedicated
isabout 17 feet and weighs over 50 to a local god. These shrines took
tons. Stone-henge is an early the form of ziggurats, which were
example of post-and-lintel stepped structures resembling
construction, in which massive mountains made of brick-covered
posts supportcrossbeams, or lintels earth. Ziggurats served as symbolic
connections between earth and the
heavens, demonstrating the desire to
Origins of bridge the gap between worshipers
and their gods. Though the most
Civilization in famous ziggurat, the Tower of Babel,
no longer exists, remnants of others
Mesopotamia still stand as impressive ruins on the
flat plain.

Mesopotamia
 Sumerian Decorative
—the eastern part of the Fertile
Crescent attractedsettlers from many Arts
different areas. Successive tribes
fought to possess the land between Archaeological findings at the
the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Thus, Sumerian city of Ur reveal a thriving
the history ofancient Mesopotamia is a civilization, particularly evident in the
long series of conquests by a variety of
rich artifacts uncovered in the
peoples.
ancient cemetery. Burial sites
contained chariots, jewelry,
SumerianCivilization headdresses, sculptures, and musical
-The Sumerian people were highly instruments, showcasing the
skilled and innovative, with sophistication of Sumerian
contributions to agriculture, decorative arts. Notably, a sound box
infrastructure, and technology. They from a lyre found in a queen's tomb
were early settlers in Mesopotamia, stands out for its exquisite
known for their agricultural practices
craftsmanship, featuring a bull's head
including irrigation and canal building.
Their inventions, such as wheeled adorned with gold leaf and details
transportation and the potter's wheel, crafted from lapis lazuli. The
demonstrate their creativity. Sumerian incorporation of human and animal
temples served as important hubs for elements in art, such as the
both spiritual practices and community representation of bulls, reflects
activities. Their society's reliance on
ancient Near Eastern artistic
irrigation led to the development of
governance and legal systems, conventions. This fascination with
marking the emergence of civilization bulls may stem from early herders
in the region. who recognized the animal's
significance in protecting their cattle
from wild beasts.
 size and his central position at the top of
Evolution of Writing the relief.
1. The king wears a horned helmet sym-
 Sumerians were the first to develop writing, their
bolizing his status as a god. He is
writing is the oldest that has come down to us.
placed before a triangular mountain
 They wrote on clay tablets, press-ing rather than with stars shining down on him as he
scratching lines into the soft, wet clay. To draw tramples the body of a defeated foe.
their pictures they used a stylus, or writing 2. Two enemy soldiers confront the
instrument Akkadian king, one begging for mercy
 they could produce triangular forms or wedges, as and another, mortally wounded,
well as straight lines. Curved lines were made by attempting to pull an arrow from his
combining a series of straight strokes neck.
3. The king’s victorious army marches
Neo-Sumerian Period up the mountain. The only casualties
shown are those of the king’s
enemy.
Sumerian culture known as the Neo-Sumerian period,
lasting over 300 years. One prominent figure from this
era was Gudea, renowned for his dedication to religion,
literature, and philanthropy. Gudea was celebrated for his
Babylonian
construction of temples, support for education, and
advocacy for the vulnerable. His legacy endured
Civilization
 Around 1800 B.C., after centuries of
posthumously, with him being revered as a deity.
war-fare between the various
Numerous surviving sculpture portraits provide insights
into Gudea's appearance and influence. Mesopotamian city-states, the
Babylonians under the rule of their
king, Hammurabi, gained control of
Akkadian Period Mesopotamia

The Akkadian Period saw the rise of a Semitic people living

north and west of the Sumerians, who sought to expand their Babylonian Sculpture
territory. By 2340 B.C., an Akkadian king had achieved control
over Sumer, eventually forming the Akkadian Empire, which King Hammurabi (ha-muh-rah-
encompassed the area between the Mediterranean and the bee) owes his fame to the code he
Persian Gulf. Despite its short duration, the Akkadian Empire published to unify legal practices in
witnessed a flourishing of art and literature. his empire. This code was recorded
on a stele (stee-lee), an inscribed
stone pillar, placed in a public area
for all to see (Figure 6.14). At the top
Seated Gudea of the stele, the king receives the
The seated statue of Gudea portrays him with folded hands
as if in prayer. Despite the solid figure and stiff pose, the face laws from the seated sun god. The
is rendered realistically, conveying a sense of quiet dignity god wears the horned helmet of
suitable for its intended placement divinity and holds a ring and a rod,
symbols of his power.

Symbolism in The Code of Hammurabi

Akkadian ART The code of laws in ancient
-From early times it was the custom of Mesopotamia, inscribed below relief
Mesopotamian kings to commission sculptures, detailed punishments for
various crimes, following the principle of
monuments celebrating their mili-tary
"an eye for an eye." Punishments were
victories such as the one to King Naram-
often reciprocal, mirroring the harm
Sin.The importance of the victorious inflicted, such as loss of an eye or limb.
Akkadian king is emphasized by his large For instance, if a house collapse resulted
in a death, the architect or builder faced
severe consequences, including death. other structures erected during the Neo-
These early legal traditions evolved over Babylonian period were made of clay
thousands of years to shape the bricks, which crumbled quickly. The only
foundation of Western civilization. example of architecture from this period is
within the cityis a single arched gateway
once located within the city.
Assyrian Civilization The Ishtar Gate
Following Hammurabi’s death in 1750 B.C., the
Babylonian period came to an end. Warring The Ishtar Gate, named after a goddess,
peoples swept across Mesopotamia, plunging was one of eight gateways in Babylon
the civilized world into a long period of turmoil. during the Neo-Babylonian period. Royal
processions passed through it. The gate is
This turmoil came to a close when the powerful adorned with blue-glazed bricks and
Assyri-ans from the north rose to power geometric designs in white and gold. Rows
around 900 B.C. They ruled until early in the of long-necked dragons and bulls, in white
seventh century B.C. with yellow details, decorate the gate. The
creatures depicted exhibit features of
Assyrian Relief Sculptures various animals, including a scaly body, a
serpent's head, cat-like front feet, bird-like
The most impressive visual records of the hind feet, and a scorpion's tail. These
Assyrians are the stone reliefs used to figures are created in low relief, projecting
cover the mud-brick walls of their royal out from the wall, and are arranged walking
palaces. On one of these, a winged deity or towards or away from the arched opening.
genie is shown performing what appears to
be a magic ritual before a sacred date palm
tree .The figure holds a ritual container in End of the Neo-Babylonian
his left hand and a conelike object in his Period
right. His firm stance and well Developed
muscles suggest power and strength, Tradition has it that Nebuchadnezzar,
whereas the horned helmet and wings after a long reign marked by military con-
identify him as a god. His actions, however, quest and prosperity and after adorning his
remain a mys-tery. Perhaps, as some city with roads, palaces, and temples, suf-
suggest, the image is intended to fered from insanity. He thought of himself
symbolize the god’s power to pro-vide for as some kind of animal, walked on all fours,
his earthly subjects. and ate grass. Nebuchadnezzar died in 562
B.C., and within 30 years his empire was in
shambles.
Neo-Babylonian Period
Early in the seventh century B.C. King
Nebuchadnezzar (neh-byuh-kud-neh-zer) Persian Empire
rekindled Babylonian supremacy. This era The Persians, initially known as the
has become known as the Neo-Babylonian Irani, emerged on the eastern border of
period. Under Nebuchadnezzar, some of the ancient world, naming their new
the splendor of the past was restored to homeland Irania (now Iran). They were
Babylon. Unfortunately, the temples and misnamed Persians by later Greek
other structures erected during the Neo- geographers after the territory of Parsa
Babylonian period were made of clay or Persis, where their early kings held
bricks, which crumbled quickly. The only their capital. In 539 B.C., the Persians
example of architecture from this Early in entered Mesopotamia and peacefully
the seventh century B.C. King captured Babylon, establishing it as
Nebuchadnezzar (neh-byuh-kud-neh-zer) their capital. They ruled until 331 B.C.,
rekindled Babylonian supremacy. This era when they were conquered by
has become known as the Neo-Babylonian Alexander the Great.
period. Under Nebuchadnezzar, some of
the splendor of the past was restored to
Babylon. Unfortunately, the temples and
 discovered so far, suggesting the possibility
of more surprises awaiting discovery.

Persian Architecture and Relief

Carving
Persian architecture reached its pinnacle
in palaces, notably exemplified by the one
at Persepolis in modern Iran. Constructed
on a stone platform, the palace boasted
magnificent rooms with wooden ceilings
supported by massive columns. The
central feature was the Audience Hall,
where the Persian king ceremoniously
welcomed official visitors from across the
known world. This grand hall housed 100
columns, each towering 65 feet high.
Unfortunately, little remains today beyond
a few columns and the general outline of
the structure's plan.

STONE AGE
ARTIST
The worlds oldest known cave paintings .

The Lascaux cave in southwestern France is

renowned for its prehistoric paintings, but a
nearby discovery in 1994 by French park
ranger Jean-Marie Chauvet revealed an
even more significant find. The Chauvet
cave, also adorned with Stone Age
paintings, appeared to be much older and
showcased greater artistic variety and
originality, all while being in better
condition. Radiocarbon dating confirmed
that the Chauvet paintings are
approximately 30,000 years old, making
them the oldest ever found, compared to
the 17,000-year-old Lascaux paintings. The
nearly 400 drawings in the Chauvet cave
feature beautifully rendered depictions of
animals like rhinoceroses, lions, mammoths,
and horses, utilizing the natural contours of
the cave to create perspective. The unique
technique of the Chauvet artists involved
using charcoal to smudge and blend lines
for shadows, as well as incorporating
overlapping and receding groups of
animals to convey depth. The Ardeche
region where these caves are located
continues to yield treasures, with
approximately 200 painted caves