Module 1: Mathematical

Functions and their Graphs

Module Overview
This module reviews the basic concept that you need to start with calculus. The
topics include the definition of relation and function. This also includes topics on the
range and domain of a function, operations of functions, and the types of function
and its graphs.

Module Pretest

Solve for what is asked.

1. Given the set of ordered pairs 11,14 , 14, 19 , 16, 16 , (19, 11) :
a. What type of relation does it have?
b. Is it a function or just a mere relation?
2. Solve for the domain and the range of the function � = 4 − �2 .
1
3. Given � � = 2 (�2 + �) and � � = �� , what is (���)(�)?
4. Solve for the zeroes of the function � � = �3 − 2�2 − � + 2
5. Give the maximum or the minimum value of � � = 150� − 10�2

Motivation Question
Learning calculus can be one of your most stimulating and exciting educational
experiences. For this to happen, you must enter into your calculus course with a
knowledge of certain mathematical subject matter form courses in algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry.
Are you familiar with those mathematical subject matters?
Lesson 1.1: Relation and Function

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, the definition of relation and function will be discussed. It also deals
with the concepts of range and domain of a given function, and operations of
functions.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
a. Identify what type of relation is the given set of ordered pairs;
b. Differentiate a function from a mere relation;
c. Determine the range and domain of a given function;
d. Evaluate functions at a number; and
e. Perform the operations of functions.

Motivation Question
Often in practical applications, the value of one quantity depends on the value of
another. A person's salary may depend on the number of hours worked; the total
production at a factory may depend on the number of machines used; and so forth. A
relationship between such quantities is often given by means of a "function".
Can you give an example that illustrates relationship between quantities?

Discussion
Learning calculus can be one of your most stimulating and exciting
educational experiences. For this to happen, you must enter into your calculus course
with a knowledge of certain mathematical subject matter form courses in algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry. To start with, we will begin with the different types of
relations and the definition of a function.

Relation

Def’n: A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The first number "�" of an ordered pair
shows correspondence to its second number "�. "
Below are the types of relation.
Types of Relation
1. One – to – many relation
2. One – to – one relation
3. Many – to – one relation
4. Many – to – many relation
 Recall: The Cartesian coordinate plane

Figure 1. The Cartesian Plane

Example 1
Suppose we have the two sets � = {1, 2, 3} and � = 4, 5, 6 . Consider the
sets of relations obtained from the given sets.
1. � = { 1, 4 , 1, 5 , 1, 6 } →Set � is a one-to-many relation. Set � is one-to-
many relation since one member in set � corresponds to many members in
set �.
2. � = { 1, 4 , 2, 6 , 3, 5 } → Set � is a one-to-one relation. Set � is one-to-
one relation since each member in set � corresponds to exactly one member
in set �.
3. � = { 1, 4 , 2, 4 , 3, 4 } → Set � is a many-to-one relation. Set � is a many-
to-one relation since many members in set � correspond to only one member
in set �.
4. � = 1, 4 , 1, 5 , 1, 6 , 2, 4 , 2, 5 , 2, 6 , 3, 4 , 3, 5 , 3, 6 = � × �
→ Set � is a many-to-many relation or a cross product of sets � and ��. Set �
is a many-to-many relation since each member in set � corresponds to all
members in set �.

Function

Def’n: A function is a set of ordered pairs of numbers ( x, y) in which no two distinct

ordered pairs have the same first number. The set of all admissible values of
x is called the domain of the function, and the set of all resulting values of y
is called the range of the function.
Illustration:

Figure 2. Domain and Range

From the figure above, the domain of the function is the set of all values of �
that falls in the interval highlighted in pink, while the range is the set of all values of �
that fall on the interval highlighted in blue.
Remarks:
a. A function f is a mapping, i.e., f : X  Y .
b. the domain of a function f : dom f  {x  X :  y Y s.t. ( x, y)  f };
This is read as “the domain of a function � is the set of � such that for every �
in set �, there exists a value of � in � such that �, � is in �”.
c. range of a function f : rng f  {y Y :  x  X s.t. ( x, y)  f } ;
This is read as “the range of a function � is the set of � such that for every � in
�, there exists a value � in � such that (�, �) is in �”.
The restriction that no two distinct ordered pairs can have the same first
number ensures that y is unique for a specific value of x . The symbols x and y
denotes the independent and dependent variables; respectively.

Finding for range and domain of a function

Example 2
Find the range and domain of the following functions.
a. y  x2
Sol’n:
Since the value of � can be any real number then, the domain is the set of real
numbers. It also follows that the resulting value of the function can never be negative.
Thus, the range of the given function is from 0 to positive infinity. See the figure
below.
 Figure 3. Graph of Example 1.a

In interval notation, the domain is (-∞, + ∞) or the set of real numbers, simply
denoted by ℝ, and the range is [0, + ∞).
b. y  x2
Sol’n:
Note that if � < 2, then � is an imaginary number. Hence, the value of � can be
equal or greater 2. So, it follows that the domain is 2, + ∞ . Since the value of �
when � = 2 is 0, and as � increases, the value of � also increases. Thus, the range of
the given function is from 0 to infinity. See the figure below for its graph.

Figure 4. Graph illustration for example 2.b

In interval notation, the domain is [2, + ∞), and the range is [0, + ∞).

c. h( x)  4  x2
Sol’n:

The domain of ℎ is the closed interval [-2, 2] because 4  x 2 is not a real

number for � > 2 or � <− 2. By inspection, if we try to substitute the values of � from
−2 to 2 to the given function, we get values from 0 to 2. Hence, it follows that the
range of the given function is the closed interval [0, 2].

x2  9
d. f ( x) 
x 3
Sol’n:
Clearly, the domain of the given function is the set of real numbers except 3,
because when � = 3, � is undefined. This follows that the range is also real number
except for � 3 = 6.
In interval notation, the domain is ( − ∞, 3) ∪ (3, + ∞) . And the range is ( −
∞, 6) ∪ (6, + ∞). Notice that the range and domain is an open interval, which follows
that it excludes the values 3 and 6.
  x  1 if x  3

e. f ( x )  5 if x  3
2 x  1 if 3  x

Sol’n:
The given function in this example is defined by different expressions with
corresponding domains. This function is called piece-wise-defined functions.
Clearly, the domain of this function is the set of real numbers. By substituting
the domain to the function, the range of the first piece of the function is given by ( −
∞, 2). The second one is a constant function, so we have {5}. Lastly, the third range is
given by [7, +∞). Thus, the range of the function � is given by:
−∞, 2 ∪ {5} ∪ [7, + ∞).

Vertical line test

One way to check if the given relation is a function is by vertical line test. Let
us consider the following definition.
Def’n: A graph in the XY – plane represents a function y  f (x ) provided that any
vertical line intersects the graph in at most one point.
A graph represents a function if, for every part of the graph, a vertical line
intersects at most one point in the graph.
Consider the graphs below:
a.
 b.

A graph in letter �, represents a function because, at any point in the graph,

the vertical line intersects only once in the graph. On the other hand, the graph in
letter � does not represent a function because a vertical line may intersect twice in
the graph.

Evaluating functions

We will now evaluate functions at certain values of �. To evaluate a function,

we will consider the following definition.
Def’n: Let �(�) be a function. Evaluating function in the value � = � is just
substituting the value � to �, that is, � � .
Example 3.

Given f ( x )  2 x  1, find
a. f (3)
Sol’n:
To evaluate the function at 3, we will just simply substitute 3 to the variable �
in the function given. Hence we have,
� 3 = 2 3 − 1 = 5.

Operations of functions

Def’n: Given the two functions f and g ,

i.) their sum, denoted by f  g , is the function defined by

( f  g )( x )  f ( x )  g ( x )
ii.) their difference, denoted by f  g , is the function defined by

( f  g )( x )  f ( x )  g ( x )
iii.) their product, denoted by f .g , is the function defined by

( f . g )( x )  f ( x ).g ( x )
 iv.) their quotient, denoted by f / g, is the function defined by

( f / g )( x )  f ( x ) / g ( x ), g ( x )  0.
Example 4.

Suppose that f and g are the functions defined by f ( x)  x  1 and

g ( x )  x  4 , find:
a. f  g
Sol’n:
To solve f  g , we will follow the operation (i). Hence we have

� + � = � � + � � = � + 1 + � − 4.
b. (� + �)(5)
Sol’n:
To solve (� + �)(5), we will follow the operation (i) and evaluate the resulting
function by 5. Hence we have
�+� 5 = � 5 +� 5 = 5+1+ 5−4 =1+ 6

Composite function

Def’n: Given the two functions f and g , the composite function, denoted by f  g ,
is defined by ( f  g )( x )  f ( g ( x )) and the domain of f  g is the set of all
numbers x in the domain of g such that g (x ) is in the domain of f .
Remark:
A composite function denoted by ( f  g )( x )  f ( g ( x )) is read as � of � of �.
Example 5
5
Given f ( x )  and g ( x)  2 x  1, find the following:
x2
a. ( f  g )(3)

b. ( g  f )(1)
Sol’n:
a. First, we solve for a function of �, that is, we have
5 5
��� � = � � � = = .
2� + 1 − 2 2� − 1
Then, we will evaluate our obtained function of � at 3. Hence we have
5
��� 3 = � � 3 = =1
2 3 −1
b. Same with the previous example, we will solve first for a function of �, that is
we have,
 5 �+8
��� � = � � � =2 +1 =
�−2 �−2
Then we will evaluate ��� � at −1.; hence we have
−1 + 8 7
��� −1 = � � −1 = =− .
−1 − 2 3

Learning Tasks/Activities
A. Find the domain and range.
1) f ( x )  3 x 2  5 x  2 , 1  x  10
5x  2
2) g ( x) 
x4
3) g ( x )  x2  9
 x 2 if x  2
4) f ( x)  
7 if x  2
x 2  25
5) f ( x) 
x5
( x 2  4)( x  3)
6) f ( x) 
x2  x  6
7) f ( x)  x

8) f ( x)  9  x 2

x  3 if x  5

9) f ( x )   25  x 2 if  5  x  5
3  x if 5  x

B. Given f ( x )  2 x  1, solve for the following:

1) f (2)
2) f ( a  1)
3) f (2 x )
4) f ( x )  f (h)
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
5) , h  0.
h
C. Solve the following composite function.

1) Given f ( x )  x and g ( x )  x 2  1, find the following

a) f f
 b) g  g

c) f g
d) g  f

2) Given f ( x)  2 x  3 and f ( g ( x ))  2 x  3, find g(x).

3) Given f ( g ( x ))  3 x 2  12 x  16 and g ( x )  x  2, find f (x ).

4) Given f ( x )  2 x 2  5 x  9, g ( x )  3 x  17, and h ( x )  x  4 , find

( f  g  h)( x).

Assessment
Instructions:
 Let all things be done decently and in order (I Corinthians 14:40).
 For this assessment, copy the following items in a long-sized bond paper then
answer.
A. Determine the following relation if it is a function or not (3pts each)
1. � = {� = �2 + 42 } ________________
2 2
2. � = {� =− � + 1} ________________
�
3. � = � = 100 ________________
4. � = {4�2 + 4�2 = 4} ________________
5. � = {� = 7} ________________
B. Determine the range and domain of the given function (3pts each).
1. � = |�| Domain: _________ Range: _________
2
2. � =− � Domain: _________ Range: _________
3. � = � Domain: _________ Range: _________
1
4. � = � Domain: _________ Range: _________
2
5. � = −� + 4� Domain: _________ Range: _________
6. � = | − �2 | Domain: _________ Range: _________
7. � = 4 − �2 Domain: _________ Range: _________

C. Given the following set, determine (a) its type of relation, and identify if (b) it
is a function or not. (2pts each)
1. { 11, 14 , 14, 19 , 16, 16 , 19, 11 }
(a): ____________________ , (b): _____________________

2. { 2, � , 1, � , 1, � , (2, �)}
(a): ____________________ , (b): _____________________
3. { �, 5 , �, 4 , �, 7 , �, 7 , �, 4 , �, 5 }
(a): ____________________ , (b): _____________________
Lesson 1.2: Types of Function

Lesson Summary
This lesson deals with the different types of functions, such as linear, quadratic,
polynomial, exponential, and logarithmic functions. This also discussed some real-
life applications of the said functions.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
a. Solve for the slope of a line;
b. Determine the minimum or the maximum value of a quadratic function;
c. Solve problem applications involving linear functions, quadratic functions,
exponential functions, and logarithmic functions; and
d. Solve for the zeroes of a polynomial function;

Motivation Question
Suppose that a financial manager of a college newsletter sells a copy of a newsletter.
Is it possible for him to predict his largest gross income, given only its gross income
equation?

Discussion
A mathematical model is a mathematical description (often by means of a
function or an equation) of a real-world phenomenon such as the size of a population,
the demand for a product, the speed of a falling object, the concentration of a
product in a chemical reaction, the life expectancy of a person at birth, or the cost of
emission reductions. The purpose of the model is to understand the phenomenon
and perhaps to make predictions about future behavior.
Now, we will discuss one by one the concepts of different types of function
and their applications.

Linear Function

Def’n: A linear function is a function of the form f ( x)  mx  b where m and b are

real numbers, and m  0. Its graph is a straight line with slope � , and � −
intercept b. The � intercept is the value of � when � is 0. For instance, given a
function � = 2� + 1, the � intercept is 1. (See computation below)
� = 2 0 + 1 = 1.
 Figure 5. Sample graph of a linear function

The slope of a Line

Def’n: The slope, � of the line through two points P1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) is defined
as the ratio of the change in � and the change in �, that is
y y 2  y1
m  , where x1  x 2 ,
x x 2  x1
Let y  y 2  y1 be called the rise and x  x2  x1 be called the run; then the
slope of a line is defined as the rise per unit of run, that is,
rise
m
run

Figure 6. The slope of a Line

Example:
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (1, 2) and (3, 4).
Sol’n:
To solve this, we simply use the formula for the slope above. The line passes
through points (1, 2) and (3, 4). Hence the slope is given as follows
�2 − �1 4 − 2 2 1
�= = = =1=
�2 − � 1 3 − 1 2 1
This means that in every 1 unit increase in �, there is also1 unit increase in �.
Some application:
Example 1
At a skating rink, an ice skater pays an initial amount of 50 PhP plus 10 PhP
for every hour of use. (a) Write the function that relates the amount incurred to the
number of hours of use of the rink. (b) If an ice skater spends 6 hours in the rink, how
much amount does the ice skater spend?
Sol’n.
To solve this, we need to construct first a function being described in the
problem. Let us suppose that �(�) is the total amount a skater pays at a skating rink,
and � be the hours used in the rink. Thus, we have,
� � = 10� + 50 in(PhP).
(a.) Thus, a function that relates the amount incurred to the number of hours of
use of the rink is � � = 10� + 50.
(b.) And if the skater spends 6 hours in the rink, � = 6, then the skater will spend
� 6 = 10 6 + 50 = 110 PhP.

Quadratic Function

Def’n: A quadratic function is defined by the equation f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c where

a, b, and c are real numbers, and a  0 . This function has a set of ordered
pairs ( x, y ) that are arranged in a graph called a parabola.

We will transform the quadratic function f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c into its standard

form. We then have,

f ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
 b 
 a x 2  x   c
 a 
 b b2  b2
 a  x 2  x  2   c 
 a 4a  4a
2
 b  4ac  b 2
 a x   
 2a  4a

b 4ac  b2
Let h   and k  .
2a 4a
Thus, f ( x )  a ( x  h ) 2  k , where vertex : V ( h , k ).
b b
The expression x  , when equated to zero, yields x   . This is the
2a 2a
vertical axis of the parabola and the x – coordinate of the vertex. The vertex is the
highest or the lowest point of a parabola. When a parabola opens upward, the vertex
is the lowest point, while when the parabola opens downward, the vertex is the
highest point from the equations above, when a  0, the parabola opens upward and
when a  0, the parabola opens downward. See Figure 7 below for a sample graph of
a parabola opening upward and downward.

Theorem on the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic functions

 b 4ac  b 2 
As discussed, the vertex   ,  is the lowest or highest point in
 2a 4a 
the graph of a quadratic function. Take note that the coordinates
 b 4ac  b  2
 b  b  b 4ac  b 2
  ,  can also be written as   , f  
 , with   .
 2a 4a   2a  2a   2a 4a
4ac  b 2 b
The expression is the value of the function when x   .
4a 2a
2  b 
Theorem 1: If f ( x )  ax  bx  c, where a  0, then f    is
 2a 
i.) the maximum value of f if a  0 ; and
ii.) the minimum value of f if a  0 .

Figure 7. Parabola opening upward and downwrad

Example 2.
Find the maximum or minimum value of the function.

1. f ( x)  x2  4 x  3

Sol’n:
From the given, � = 1, � = 4, and � = 3. Since � = 1 > 0, then the function has
a minimum value at;
4�� − �2 4 1 3 − 42
= =− 1.
4� 4(1)
Example 3.
Solve the following applications of quadratic functions.
 1. The financial manager of the college newsletter sells a copy of a newsletter.
What price will yield the largest gross income from sales and what is the largest
gross income if x cents is the price per copy and f ( x ) cents is the gross
income in the equation:
f ( x )  10 x 2  150 x ($).
Sol’n:
From the given, � =− 10, � = 150, and � = 0. Since � < 0 , it follows that the
vertex is the highest point in the graph of �. Solving for the x-coordinate of the vertex,
we have,
� 150
� =− =− = 7.5 �����
2� 2 −10
Thus price that will yield the largest gross income from sales is 7.5 �����. And
the largest gross income is the y-coordinate of the vertex; hence we have,
4�� − �2 4 −10 0 − 1502
= = 562.5
4� 4( − 10)
This follows that the largest gross income is 562.5 �����.
2. A clock manufacturer can produce a particular clock at the cost of P15 per clock.
It is estimated that if the selling price of the clock is x dollars, then the number of
clocks sold per week is 125 – x. Determine what the selling price should be in
order for the manufacturer's weekly profit to be a maximum.
Note: Profit = Revenue – Cost.
Sol’n:
A revenue function in terms of sold quantities is defined as
� � = ��. �� �������� ���� ������� ����� ��� �������� ,
and the cost function is defined as
� � = (��. �� �������� ����)(���� ��� ��������)
Hence from the given,
� � = ��. �� ����� ���� ������� ����� ��� �����
� � = ��. �� ����� ���� ���� ��� ����� .
Let � be the selling price. Thus the revenue and the cost functions are as follows,
� � = 125 − � � ��� � � = 125 − � 15
Hence, we have a profit function: � � = 125 − � � − 125 − � 15 . Simplifying the
equation, we obtained,
� � = −�2 + 14� − 1875
Since � =− 1 < 0, this implies that �(�) has a maximum value. Also, since � = 14
and � =− 1875, thus, we have the selling price that makes a weekly profit to be a
maximum:
−� −140
�= = = $70.
2� 2( − 1)
Polynomial Function

From the previous section, we’ve discussed linear and quadratic functions.
These functions are examples of a polynomial function. Consider the definition of a
polynomial function below.
Def’n: A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form
f ( x )  an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a0 ,
where n is a nonnegative integer and a n  0, a  R.

Note:
 �� is the leading coefficient, and �0 is the constant term of � � .
 If the leading coefficient is 1, that is, �� = 1, then the function is called monic.

Synthetic Division

Def’n: The process of division for polynomials in x (or any other single variable) can
be easily simplified if the divisor is in the form of "x – a", x being any letter
(variable) and � being any integer.
Guidelines in synthetic divisions.
1. Determine if both the dividend and divisor contain the same singular literal
coefficient.
2. Determine if the divisor is in the form of "x - a".
3. Find the value of "a" by equating the divisor to x - a.
4. Arrange on a line (in order of descending power) the numerical coefficients,
inserting zero for the coefficient of any missing power of x(or any other letter).
Write the value of "a" (the new divisor) to the right of the numerical
coefficients.
5. Bring down the first numerical coefficient to the first position on the third line.
Multiply this first numerical coefficient by "a" then write the product in the
second line under the second numerical coefficient of the dividend. The sum
of this product and the second numerical coefficient is placed underneath in
the third line. Multiply this sum by "a" and add the product to the next
numerical coefficient of the dividend, again writing the new sum of the third
line, and so on, until a product has been added to the last numerical
coefficient of the dividend. The last sum in the third line represents the
remainder.
6. The numbers in the third line are the numerical coefficients of x(or any other
letter) in the quotient, arranged in descending order. The quotient is a
polynomial one degree less than the dividend.
Let us have an illustrative example of how synthetic applied in dividing
polynomial functions.
Example 4.
Perform the following.
1. (5 x 3  14 x  3)  ( x  2 )
Sol’n:
From the given � = 2. The coefficient of the dividend are as follows:
5 0 -14 3
We have 0 as coefficient because there is no �2 in the dividend. Applying the
above guidelines, we have
5 0 -14 3 |2
10 20 12
5 10 6 15
15
Hence, we obtained the quotient as follows: 5�2 + 10� + 6 + �−2 .

Def’n: If P(x ) is a polynomial and r is a real number, then when P(x ) is divided by
x  a, we obtain as the quotient, a unique polynomial Q(x) and as the
remainder a real number R , such that for all values of x,
P( x )  ( x  a )Q ( x )  R .
Illustration:
Consider the previous example.
5�3 − 14� + 13 = � − 2 5�2 + 10� + 6 + 15

The remainder theorem

Theorem 2: If P(x) is a polynomial and a is a real number, then if P(x) is divided by

� – �, the remainder is P(a).
Example 5.
Find the remainder.
1. (5 x 3  14 x  3)  ( x  2 )
Sol’n:
From the given, � � = 5�3 − 14� + 13 and � = 2 . Hence we the remainder,
� 2 = 5(2)3 − 14 2 + 3 = 15. (Compare with the previous example.)

The factor theorem and its converse

Theorem 3: Let P(x ) be a polynomial. If P(a )  0, where a is a real number, then

x  a is a factor of P(x ). Conversely, if x  a is a factor of P(x ) , then
P(a )  0.
Example 6.
3 2
Show that x  1 is a factor of 2 x  5x  3.
Sol’n:
Let � � = 2�3 + 5�2 − 3 and � =− 1. Then, we have
� −1 = 2( − 1)3 + 5( − 1)2 − 3 = 0
 3 2
Since � −1 = 0, thus, x  1 is a factor of 2 x  5x  3.

The zeroes of a polynomial function

Def’n: A zero of the polynomial function f (x ) is a value of the variable x, which

makes the polynomial function equal to zero or f ( x )  0.
Example 7.
Find the zeroes of the following function:
1. f ( x )  x 3  3 x 2  x  3
Sol’n:
The possible zeroes of �(�) are the factors of the constant term because the
function is monic, i.e., ±1, ± 3. Then, use the factor theorem and its converse to find
the exact zeroes by evaluating the function by the possible zeroes. So we have
� 1 = 0; � −1 = 0; , �(3) ≠ 0; and � −3 = 0.
Thus, the zeroes are -1, 1, and 3. Another method is by letting � � = 0 and factor the
expression, that is,
�3 + 3�2 − � − 3 = � + 3 � + 1 � − 1 = 0.
Then, equate the 3 factors to zero and solve for �, this gives us
� =− 3, − 1 �� 1.

The rational zero theorem

Theorem 4: If f ( x )  an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a0 , where a0 , a1 ,..., an are integers

( a n  0 and a 0  0) and p / q (in lowest terms) is a rational zero of
f (x ), then p is an integer factor of the constant term a 0 and q is an
integer factor of the leading coefficient a n .

Example 8.
Solve for the zeroes of � � .
1. f ( x )  2 x 3  5 x 2  4 x  3
Sol’n:
The possible zeroes of �(�) are the ratio of the factors of the constant term
±1 ±3 ±1
( ±1, ± 3) and the leading coefficient ( ± 1, ± 2) , i.e., ±1 =± 1, ±1 =± 3, ±2 =±
1 ±3 3
,
2 ±2
=± 2 . Then, use the factor theorem and its converse to find the exact zeroes by
evaluating the function by the possible zeroes. So we have
� 1 = 0, � −1 ≠ 0, �(3) ≠ 0, � −3 = 0,
1 1 3 3
� 2
≠ 0, � − 2 = 0, � 2
≠0 and � − 2 ≠ 0.
1
Thus, the zeroes are 1, − 2 and −3.
 Another method is by letting � � = 0 and factor the expression, that is,
1
2�3 + 5�2 − 4� − 3 = � − 1 �+ � + 3 = 0.
2
Then equate the three factors to zero and solve for �, this gives us
1
� = 1, − or − 3.
2

Exponential Function

In the previous sections, we have learned a lot about polynomial functions.

This time, we will discuss the exponential function and its properties. It is important
to remember exponential function is not a polynomial function. It is an example of a
transcendental function. To start, we have the following definition of an exponential
function.
Def’n: The exponential function f with base b is defined by

f ( x )  b x or y  b x ,
where b is a positive constant other than 1 ( b  0 and b  1) and x is any
real number.
We will identify some properties of an exponential function by studying the
graphs below. To graph, we will just simply substitute values of � to �(�).
1. f ( x )  2 x

Figure 8. Graph of an exponential function with b>0

x
1
2. f ( x )   
2

Figure 9. Graph of an exponential function with 0<b<1

Remarks:
1. The domain of an exponential function is the set of all real numbers.
2. The range is all positive real numbers.
0 x
3. Since b  1 for any b  R, the graph of b for all b  R, has y-intercept (0, 1)
and no x-intercept.
4. The graph of b x , b  1 rises to the right and is asymptotic to the negative x-axis.

5. The graph of b , 0  b  1 rises to the left and its asymptotic to the positive x-
x

axis.

Natural exponential function

Def’n: The natural exponential function is the function f defined by

f ( x)  e x or f ( x )  exp[ x ].
Note:
 Since 2 < � < 3, the graph of e x lies between the curves y  2 x and y  3 x .
Theorem 5. If �� = �� , then � = �.
Example 9.
Solve for �.
a. 3�+1 = 243
Sol’n:
The equation 3�+1 = 243 can be written as 3�+1 = 35 . By Theorem 5, it simply
follows that � + 1 = 5. Thus, � = 4.
b. 91−� = 27�−1
Sol’n:
The equation 91−� = 27�−1 can be written as 32(1−�) = 33(�−1) . By Theorem 5,
it simply follows that 2(1 − �) = 3(� − 1). Solving for the value of �, we obtained � =
1.

Logarithmic function

Def’n: Let b be positive real numbers such that b  1. The logarithm of x with base b
is denoted by log b x and is defined as

f ( x)  y  logb x iff x  by .
Note:
1. Both "���" and ⇔ means "if and only if".
2. The logarithmic function is the inverse function of the exponential function.
Illustration:
25 = 52 ⇔ 2 = ���5 25

Common logarithmic function

Def’n: A common logarithmic function is a logarithm of x with base 10 denoted by

log 10 x and is defined as

f ( x)  y  log10 x  logx iff x  10y.

Natural logarithmic function

Def’n: The natural logarithmic function is the inverse of the natural exponential
function. The natural logarithmic function can be denoted by log e but a more
customary notation ��.

f ( x)  y  loge x  ln x iff x  e y .
Remarks.
1. The domain of a logarithmic function is the set of all positive real numbers.
2. The range is the set of all real numbers.
3. If b  1, log b x increases as x increases. If 0  b  1, log b x decreases as x
increases.
4. Let b  1 . log b x is positive, if x  1, and log b x is negative if 0  x  1. If
0  b  1, log b x is negative if x  1, and log b x is positive if
0  x  1. Furthermore, log b x is not defined if x is non-positive.
5. The only zero of the function log b is 1, that is, log b x  0 iff x  1 .

6. log b x  1 iff x  b .

7. If b  1, then log b x   as x  0  and if 0  b  1, then log b x   as

x  0 .

Figure 10. Graph of Logarithmic Functions.

Properties of logarithms
a. Product Rule: log b xy  log b x  log b y

x
b. Quotient Rule: logb  logb x  logb y
y

c. Power Rule: logb un  n logb u

logx
d. Change-of-Base: logb x 
logb
Theorem 6. If ���� � = ���� �, then � = �.
Example 10.
Solve for the unknown in the following equations:
a. ln x  ln x

Sol’n:
First, do some algebra, and used some of the properties of logarithms,
ln � = ln �
ln �1/2 = ln � 1/2

1 1/2
2
ln � = ln �
1
(ln �)2 = ln �
4
1
(ln �)2 − ln � = 0
4

(ln �)2 − 4 ln � = 0
ln � ( ln � − 4) = 0
In the last line, we will equate each factor to zero and used the definition of
the logarithmic function, and hence we obtained ln � = 0 , ln � = 4 . Clearly, � =
1, � = �4 .
b. log 3 x  log 3 ( x  1)  log 3 2  log 3 ( x  3 )

Sol’n:
First, we will use some of the properties of logarithms to simplify the given
equation. We have,
���3 � + ���3 � + 1 = ���3 2 + ���3 (� + 3)
���3 � � + 1 = ���3 2(� + 3)
Then, we’ll use Theorem 6, and thus we have, � � + 1 = 2 � + 3 . Solving for �,
�2 + � = 2� + 6
�2 − � − 6 = 0
�−3 �+2 = 0
Since the value of � can never be negative based on the property of logarithmic
function, therefore the final answer is � = 3.
Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions

Example.
The decay of radium. The half-life of radium is 1600 years. If the initial amount
is q o milligrams, then the quantity q (t ) remaining after t years is given by
q(t )  qo 2kt. Find k .
Sol’n:
�0
From the problem, we have the following given: (0, �0 ) and (1600, 2
). Hence,
it follows that,
� 1600 = �0 2�(1600)
�0
= �0 21600�
2
1
= 21600�
2
1
log = 1600�( log 2)
2
Thus, solving for the value of �, we have
log 1/2
�= =− 6.25 × 10−4 .
1600 log 2

Learning Tasks/Activities
Solve for what is asked.
A. Let �(�) be the polynomial divided by � − �, � ∈ ℕ, and let �(�) be the
quotient and R be the remainder. Then, find �(�) and R on the following. Show
all your necessary solutions.
1. (�3 − 1) ÷ (� + 1) ; �(�): __________________ R: _______
2. 2�3 + 5�2 − 3 ÷ � + 1 ; �(�): __________________ R: _______
3. 5�3 − 14� + 3 ÷ � − 2 ; �(�): __________________ R: _______
4. �2 − 1 ÷ � + 1 ; �(�): __________________ R: _______
5. �2 − 1 ÷ � − 1 �(�): __________________ R: _______

B. Find the zeros (separated with comma) of the following functions:

1. � � = �2 − 1 ; zeros:_____________
2. � � = �4 − �3 − 8�2 + 12� ; zeros:_____________
3. � � = �3 − 2�2 − � + 2 ; zeros:_____________
4. � � = 2�3 + 5�2 − 4� − 3 ; zeros:_____________

C. Perform the indicated operations.

1
1. Given � � = 2 (�2 + �) and � � = �� . Find the following.
 a. (� � �)(0)
b. (�/�)(0)

2. Find the maximum or minimum of the following function.

a. � � = 5 − � − �2
b. �(�)=150� − 10�2

Assessment
A. Solve for what is asked.
1. Rita works as a crew in a fast food center where she earns $200 in a day and
$37.50 per hour for overtime. (a) Write the function that models the cost of
working as a crew. (b) How much she earns if she works 4 hours as overtime
in a day.
2. Solve for the maximum or minimum value of the following function:
f (x)   x2  6x  5

3. A carpenter can construct bookcases at the cost of $40 each. If the carpenter
sells the bookcases for x dollars each, then it is estimated that 300 2x
bookcases will be sold per month. Determine the selling price of each
bookcase that will give the carpenter the maximum monthly profit.
4. Clarissa plans to put a fence around her rectangular garden. She has 150
meters of fencing material to make the fence. If there is to be a 10-meter
opening left for the entrance on one side of the garden, what dimensions
should the garden be to have maximum area?
210
5. The radioactive bismuth isotope Bi has a half-life of 5 days. If there are 100
milligrams of Bi present at t  0 , then the amount f (t) remaining after t
210

210
days is given by f ( t )  100 ( 2 )  t / 5 . How much Bi remains after five days?
Ten days? 12.5 days?
6. 2. Bacterial growth. The number of bacteria in a certain culture increased
from 600 to 1800 between 7:00 A.M. and 9:00 A.M. Assuming growth is
exponential, the number f (t ) of bacteria t hours after 7:00 A.M. is given by
f ( t )  600 ( 3 ) t / 2 . Estimate the number of bacteria in the culture at 8:00 A.M.,
10:00 A.M., and 11:00 A.M.
7. 3. In a certain culture, the rate of growth of bacteria is proportional to the
amount present. Initially, 1000 bacteria are present, and the amount doubles
in 12 minutes. If y bacteria are present at t minutes, then y as a function
of t is defined by y(t)  yoe , yo is initial population and k is constant. How
kt

long it will take until 10 000 bacteria are present.

8. The Richter scale. On the Richter scale, the magnitude R of an earthquake of
intensity I is given by
I
R  log ,
Io
where I o is a certain minimum intensity.
 a. If the intensity of an earthquake is 1000 I o , find R.
b. Express I in terms of R and I o .

9. Approximating Light Penetration in an Ocean. The Beer-Lambert law states

that the amount of light I that penetrates to a depth of x meters in an ocean
is given by I  Iocx , where 0  c  1 and Io is the amount of light at the
surface.
a. Solve for x in terms of common logarithms.
1
b. If c  , approximate the depth at which I  0 . 01 I o . (This determines the
4
photic zone, where photosynthesis can take place.)
B. Solve for �.
1. 24�+1 = 512
1 4
2. 5�(�−6) = 25
1
3. 6−� = 216

4. log x 2  log 2 x  2

5. log 6 + � log 4 = log 4 + log (32 + 4� )

6. ln � + 1 − ln � − 1 = 1
7. log 8 = 3 − 3 log �
C. Solve the zeroes of the following function.
1. f ( x )  x 4  2 x 3  7 x 2  8 x  12
2. � � = �4 − �3 − 11�2 + 9� + 18
3. � � = 3�3 − �2 − 4� + 2
4. � � = 2�3 − 3�2 − 7� − 6
Module Posttest

Solve for what is asked.

1. Given the set of ordered pairs �, 5 , �, 4 , �, 7 , �, 7 , (�, 4) (�, 5) :
a. What type of relation does it have?
b. Is it a function or just a mere relation?
1
2. Solve for the domain and the range of the function � = �.
1
3. Given � � = 2 (�2 + �) and � � = �� . What is (� + �)(1)?
4. Solve for the zeroes of the function � � = �4 − 2�3 − �2 + 2�
5. Give the maximum or the minimum value of � � = 5 − � − �2

References and Additional Resource

Anton, H. (1988). Calculus and Analytic Geometry. 3rd ed. John Wiley and Son.
Gillet, P. (1984). Calculus and Analytic Geometry. 2nd ed. D.C. Health and Company.
Leithold, L. (1996). The Calculus 7. 7th ed. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Canada.
Purcell, E. J. (1972). Calculus and Analytic Geometry. Appleton-Century Crafts.
Swohowski, E. W. (1979). Calculus and Analytic Geometry. 2nd ed. Middle Weber and Schmidt.

Answers to the Pretest

1. a. one-to-one b. function
2. The domain is [-4, 4] and range is [0, 2]
3. ��� 0 = 1
4. -1, 1, 2
5. the maximum is 562.5

Answer to the Posttest

1. a. many-to-one b. function
2. The domain is real numbers except zero and range is real numbers except
zero
3. � + � 1 = 1 + �
4. -1, 0, 1, 2
5. the maximum is 5.25

“For the Lamb who is in the midst of the throne will shepherd them and lead them to living
fountains of waters. And God (Jesus Christ) will wipe away every tear from their eyes.”
Revelation 7:17
Prepared by:
Leomarich F. Casinillo