Name:

Branch:

Reg. No:

GE1204 –ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT – 3 NATURAL RESOURCES

LECTURE PLAN

3.1) Forest Resources – Uses, Over exploitation – Deforestation, Timber

extraction – dams – mining.
3.2) Water Resources – Uses, over utilization – floods, drought, conflicts
over water, dams.
3.3) Mineral resources – Use and exploitation – Environmental effects of
mineral extraction.
3.4) Food resources – world food problems – overgrazing - modern
agriculture –– fertilizer – pesticide problem – water logging - salinity
3.5) Land resources – land degradation – man induced land slide – soil
erosion – desertification.
3.6) Energy resources – renewable – non renewable – alternative energy
sources
3.7) Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles.
3.8) Role of individual in conservation of natural resources.

1
 UNIT – 3 NATURAL RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION :
Sources that are useful directly or indirectly to the mankind are called ‘resources’. Sources
available in nature are called ‘Natural resources’.
If they can be used and regenerated after their complete usage, they are called “Renewable
resources”. (e.g.) Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy.
If they can not be used and regenerated after their complete usage, they are called “Non -
renewable resources”. (e.g.) Coal, oil, minerals

3.1) FOREST RESOURCES

Forests are one of the most important renewable natural resources, only if properly utilized.
Types of Forests:
1. Ever green forest
They are found in the equatorial regions, where the temperature and rainfall is very
high. Due to heavy rainfall throughout the year these forests are evergreen. (e.g.)
Teak, rosewood
2. Deciduous forest
They shed their leaves seasonally. Summer shed trees are known as “Tropical deciduous”,
while pre-winter shed trees are “temperature deciduous”. (e.g.) Sandal wood
3. Coniferous forest
They have needle typed leaves to preserve moisture. (e.g.) Pine , Spruce
Functions And Uses Of Forests:
1. Forests are providing raw materials for Industries.
2. Forests have Aesthetic & Touristic value.
3. They are Natural habitat for a variety of plants, animals and wildlife.
4. They are Regulating Hydrological cycle.
5. They are involved in Production of oxygen.
6. They are Reducing global warming.
7. They are acting as Pollution moderators.
8. They are effectively participating in Soil conservation.
Major concerns of Forest resources:
a) Over exploitation b) Deforestation c) Timber extraction d) Mining e) Dams 2
3.1 – A) OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS:
If the consumptive rate is very much higher than the regenerative rate, it is referred
as ‘Over utilization’. Thus, over usage of forest in unplanned, unscientific, unethical and
ruthless manner is called over exploitation of forests.
Reasons for over exploitation:
1. Increasing agricultural production
2. Increasing industrial activity
3. Demand of wood resources
4. Deforestation
5. Timber extraction
6. Mining activities
7. Building dams
8. Over grazing

3.1 – B) DEFORESTATION
Destruction of forest cover by man and animal activity is called ‘Deforestation’.
Reasons for deforestation:
1. Over Population:
As the population grows, eventually the need for food and fuel are increasing. To meet the
demand, forest trees are cut down. In India both rural and tribal population is dependent on
the forest for meeting their daily need of fuel wood, which leads to the pressure on forest,
ultimately to deforestation.
2. Urbanisation:
The migration of people from rural to urban areas demands high quantity of shelters. Need
for constructing shelters also causes deforestation.
3. Development projects:
Development projects such as dams, road constructions and hydropower projects cause
deforestation either through submergence of forest area underwater or Destruction of forest
area.
4. Mining operations:
Mining operations for mineral extractions such as mica, coal, manganese have a serious
impact on forest areas. It reduces the forest area. 3
5. Industrial needs for raw material:
Wood is the important raw material for so many purposes. Examples for making boxes
furnitures, plywood, match-boxes, pulp, etc., Every year in India, the demand for wood is
increased.
6. Shifting cultivation:
The replacement of natural forest ecosystem for monospecific tree plantation can lead to
disappearance of number of plant and animal species. This operation causes poor nutrient
cycle in the soil and the soil is losing its fertility.
7. Cattle ranching and livestock over-grazing :
It slowly leads to reduction in number of trees and ultimately causes deforestation.
8. Forest fire, flood and natural disasters:
Forest fire is one of the major causes for deforestation. Due to human interruption and rise in
ambient temperature, forest fire happens often nowadays. Thus, due to forest fire thousands
of forest area gets destructed. Similarly poor water management, dam engineering may cause
flood and hence results in submergence of forest area. Natural disasters such as heavy rain
fall, cyclone, land slides and earthquakes may also result in deforestation.

Effects of deforestation:
1. Reduction in rainfall :
Due to the deforestation, the rainfall is getting reduced.
2. Global warming :
The cutting and burning of forest trees increases the CO2 content in the atmosphere, which
inturn changes the global climatic pattern, rising sea levels and depletion of the protective
ozone layer.
3. Ground water depletion - Cutting down trees always affect the hydrological cycle and as
a side effect there will be a depletion in the ground water level.
4. Soil erosion - Deforestation also causes soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought. Natural
vegetation acts as a natural barrier to reduce the wind velocity, this in turn reduces soil
erosion, 6000 million tons of soil get eroded every year in India.
5. Floods and landslides
The strong roots of the trees are capable of holding water and soil effectively. When the
trees are cut down, such holding process is getting disturbed and hence chances of floods
and landslides are increased. 4
6. Loss of food grains:
As a result of soil erosion, land slides and floods, the country loses the food grains..
7. Loss of biodiversity - Most of the species are very sensitive to any disturbance and
changes. When the plants no longer exist, animals that depend on them for food and habitat
become extinct.
8. Unemployment problems: The people living around forest areas losses their livelihood.
Prevention of deforestation:
1. Tree plantation programme should be encouraged.
2. Education / Awareness programmes should be conducted.
3. Government should discourage the migration of people from mainland to islands.
4. Implementation of law of forest conservation should be strictly carried out.
5. Over exploitation of forest for industrial purposes should be banned.
6. To adopt 3R principle i.e. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
7. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
8. Forest fire should be controlled by modern techniques.
Case studies::
1. Himalayan region – Due to monoculture of eucalyptus, deforestation occurs.
2. Chotta Nagpur – No rainfall – depletion of tea gardens

3.1- C) TIMBER EXTRACTION:

People use wood as fuel. So, wood demand is increasing day by day. For furniture and
building constructions and development activities, we depend on timber. Increasing
population, intrusion of men and logging machineries disturb forest ecosystem.
Consequences of timber extraction:
a) Deforestation
b) Soil erosion
c) Fertility loss
d) Land slides
e) Loss of tribal culture
f) Reduction of forest cover
g) Loss of rare flora and fauna biodiversity

5
3.1- D) MINING:
Extraction of minerals and fuels from the earth is called mining. For mining purpose,
overlying forests are destroyed.
Steps involved in mining Different techniques of mining
1. Removal of top soil 1. Surface mining – for shallow mineral extraction.
(e.g) Neyveli lignite mining
2. Crushing 2. Undgerground mining – for deeper deposits .
(Reducing size & powdering) (e.g) Kolar gold field
3. Concentration 3. Tunneling mining - for valley side ores
( Removal of impurity)
4. Reduction ( Ores to metal) 4. Pumping methods – for river, sand ores
5. Purification of metal 5. Drilling methods – for oils

Environmental impacts of mining:

a. Deforestation
b. Land slides and soil erosion
c. Disturbance of surface and ground water
d. Underground fire in coal mines
e. Air pollution by fly ash
f. Noise pollution by explosives and drillers
g. Damage to marine life
h. Lowering of water lever and sea water intrusion
i. Replacement of habitants.
j. Vibrations are developed – leads to earthquake.
k. The overburden materials are removed and dumped nearby. Such areas are
susceptible to soil erosion. If it is washed away by rain water into streams, it reduces
the channels and affects water quality.
3.1 - E) DAMS
Definition: Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the river.
Types of dams: Gravity dam, Arch dam, Buttress dam, Embankment dam
Benefits of Dams:
1. To control flood
2. To store flood water
3. Generate electricity
4. Regular water supply for irrigation 6
 5. Increased navigation
6. Recreation area and tourist spots
7. Fisheries and related activities are improved.
That’s why dams are known as “ temples of modern India”.
Problems of dams: - Environmental issues.
If problems are due to water reserving side of dam , they are “Upstream problems”.
If problems are due to water flowing side of dam they are “Downstream problems”.
1. Forests have been cleared.
2. Killing of wild animals and destroying aquatic life.
3. Water logging and salinity
4. Some structural failures in the dam cause heavy flood,.
5. It leads to land slides due to unbalanced soil condition.
6. The stored water pressure causes RIS (Reservoir Induced Seismicity) leading to
earthquakes.
7. If larger the surface area of dam, evaporation loss occur.
8. Loss of mineral resources.
9. Water borne diseases.
10. Relocation of habitant and tribal people.
Dams effects on tribal people:
1. Forest submergence would greatly affect the tribal people by the way of submerging
their dwellings and agricultural lands.
2. The life style of the tribals is intricately webbed with the forests. So, when the forests
are destroyed their livelihood is greatly affected.
3. The displacement and cultural change affect the tribal people mentally and physically.
They do not acclimatize with the modern food habits and life styles.
4. Many of the displaced people were not resettled and compensated.
5. Prone to diseases.
6. They face unemployability, lack of shelter and become “environmental refugees”.
To avoid and reduce damages of larger dams, it is better to construct series of smaller
dams in the same region. The construction cost and environmental problems are reduced.
Case-study:
1. Narmadha sagar project – Submerged 3.5lakh hectare forest
2. Tehri dam project – submerged 1000 hectares forest. 7
3.2) WATER RESOURCES
Water is the elixir of life. Though two thirds of earth surface is covered with water, 97.5%
is sea water., 2.5% is fresh water and still only 0.5% is utilized and available for human
beings.
Hydrological cycle
Water in the biosphere is regenerated and circulated by ‘Hydrological cycle’. There are
three steps.
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation and precipitation
3. Transpiration and respiration
1. Due to solar energy, oceans, water in rivers, streams lose water by evaporation.
2. Precipitation (rain fall) occurs due to condensation of water from gaseous state and falls
to earth, then pulled into ground by gravity.

3. Most of the water absorbed by the roots of the plants is lost to the atmosphere through
leaves of plants. This is transpiration. In animals, breakdown of sugars to produce energy
with Carbon-di-oxide, water liberation happens. This is respiration.

8
Types of water:

Surface water: Rain water not percolating to ground and mostly not evaporating is surface
water. (e.g.) Lakes , Reservoirs , Estuaries
Underground water: The surface water percolates into the deeper earth results in
underground water. It is the major source of water. (e.g.) aquifers
A layer of rock containing water is aquifer.
If the layer is permeable it is unconfined aquifer. (e.g.) springs.
If it is impermeable, it is confined aquifer. (e.g.) Wells
Uses of water:
Types of uses of water:
1. Consumptive use – cannot be reused (e.g) Irrigation, industries
2. Non consumptive use – Can be recycled (e.g) Hydropower plant
Common uses of water:
1. Water is mainly used for Domestic purposes such as bathing, cooking, washing.
2. In Industries water is used as Feed water, cooling tower inlet.
3. Water is used for Commercial purpose in the places such as Hotels, theatres.
4. Water is used in the Agriculture for irrigation.
5. Water is used for Maintaining climatic conditions and Hydrological cycle.
6. Water is used in Fisheries and navigation.
Major concerns of Water resources:
a) Over Utilization b) Flood c) Drought d) Conflicts over water e) Dams 9
3.2 – A) Over utilization of water:
Process of using and depleting the water resources at much faster rate than they can be
regenerated is called over utilization of water.
Consequences of over utilization of water:
1. Declining of water levels
Due to increased usage of ground water, the ground water level decreases. Further The
erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage of water in reservoirs.
Moreover the building construction activities are sealing the permeable soil zone and
reducing the percolation of rainwater and increase in surface runoff.
2. Imbalance of salt content & Sea water intrusion
In Coastal area, over-exploitation of ground water lead to rapid intrusion of salt water from
the sea. Hence, Water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture.
3. Agricultural process got reduced
Over utilization of water will disturb the irrigation and agricultural process .
4. Drought, famine, food shortage
Improper water management and over utilization of water is considered as one of the most
important reasons for drought, famine and food shortage.
5. Ground subsidence
When the groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the
aquifer get compacted which results in sinking of overlaying land surface. This process is
known as ground subsidence. This will create serious problems such as structural damages in
buildings, fractures in pipes and reversing the flow of canals and tidal flooding.
6. Earthquake and land slides
Decrease in water level and drying up of the ground level will increase the chances of
earthquake and landslides.
7. Water pollution
When the ground water levels near the agricultural land decreases, the water, containing the
nitrogen as nitrate fertilizer, percolates rapidly into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Water becomes unsuitable for bpotable use by infants, when nitrate concentration exceeds
45 mgs/lit.
8. Drying up of wells
The level of ground water is getting depleted at much faster rates than they can be
regenerated. This leads to drying up of dug as well as bore wells. 10
3.2 – B) FLOOD:
If the amount of water flow exceeds the storage capacity of the banks , then the
water come out of the banks, it is called ‘flood’.
Reasons of flood:
i) Increased runoff in the catchments area.
ii) Removal of dense and uniform forest cover hill zones
iii) Heavy rainfall
iv) Melting of ice
v) Sudden or excess release of damwater
vi) Encroachment on the river banks
Effects of flood:
i) Submergence of the surrounding area
ii) Water borne diseases
iii) Plain surfaces have been eroded with mud and sand
iv) Cultivable lands get affected.
v) Extinction of coastal area civilization.
Control measures of flood:
i) By building check-in dams, reservoirs
ii) Proper management of channels – Diverting excess water through channels to
areas like lake, rivers where water is not sufficient.
iii) Removing encroachment from river banks
iv) Proper afforestation which reduces run-off
v) Weather forecasting and warning can save and minimize the damage.
vi) Restoring wetlands, replacing ground cover on water-course.
vii) River-networking in the country also reduce flood.
viii) Satellite pictures of pre-flood, flood and post flood with other information
contribute to the flood management process.
3.2 – C) DROUGHT:
Drought is scarcity of water. It indicates the deficient rainfall and scarcity of
moisture in the soil.
Types of drought:
a) Meteorological drought: - Refers rainfall less than 75% of normal
b) Hydrological drought - Refers reduction of water level in reservoirs
c) Agricultural drought - Due to scarce of cropped plants, improper rain
d) Socio-economic drought – Thefts, fighting for food and famine 11
Causes of drought:
1. Rainfall reduction:
When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population
Population growth leads to poor land use and lack of water hence causing drought.
3. Over exploitation of water
Intensive cropping pattern and over exploitation of scarce water resources through
dug well or bore well to get high productivity has converted drought-prone areas into
desert. In Maharashtra, over-exploitation of water by sugarcane crop cultivation
caused drought.
4. Deforestation
Deforestation leads to desertification and drought. When the trees are cut, the soil is
subject to erosion by heavy rains, winds and sun. The removal of thin top layer of soil
takes away the nutrients and the soil becomes useless. The eroded soils exhibit
droughty tendency.
Effects of drought:
1. Crop failures – shortage of food
2. Hunger – mal nutrition – scarcity of drinking water.
3. Deforestation.
4. Migration of human and livestocks in search of food, fodder, drinking water,
employment and health services.
5. Non availability of raw materials – non working of industries
6. Affects agriculture, social, economic, industrial, commercial, food, health and
ecological face of the region.
Preventive measures:
1. Practicing dry farming (e.g.) cotton, barley
2. Rain water harvesting
3. Constructing artificial reservoirs
4. Afforestation
5. modern agricultural method and irrigation(e.g.) mixed cropping, drip irrigation
6. Public – private –society participation in drought management programme.

12
 3.2- D) CONFLICTS OVER WATER:
Due to increase in population and decrease in water resources, conflicts over
water have started.
Causes of water conflicts:
1. Conflicts through use
Unequal distribution of water has led to inter-state or international disputes.
National conflicts
(a) Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
(b)Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
(c) Sharing of Siruvani water between Tamil Nadu and Kerala
International conflicts
(a) India – Pakistan over Indus river
(b) India – Bangladesh over Brahmaputra
(c) Mexico – USA over Colorado
(d) Ethiopia – Sudan – Jordan – Syria over Nile.
2. Conflicts through Dams and power stations
For hydroelectric power generation, dams are built across the rivers, which initiates
conflicts between the states. (e.g) Mullai periyar between Kerala and Tamilnadu
3. Conflicts through pollution
Noyyal, suriyapalayam rivers are polluted by Erode tanneries and dyeing industries.
Anyhow, with the increasing declilne in the quality of water crossing borders, the problem of
cleaning the water takes on an conflict.
Managing conflicts:
1. Demand for nationalization of water needs serious consideration.
2. National water authority and river basin authority could be setup for equal
distribution of water among states.
3. River linking process from Ganges, Brahmaputra to Godavari, Krishna, Cauveri via
Mahanadhi is under consideration.
4. Using local authorative posts like V.A.O, Neerkatti, Havaldars, Churpans , the small
conflicts can be over come.
5. Central water commission, Central ground water board are also helpful in this
direction.
3.2 - E) DAMS - Ref. section 3.1-E 13
3.3) MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are the substances containing metal in combined state.
Ores are the minerals from which metal is extracted economically.
Formation of mineral deposits:
i) By biological decomposition of dead animal and organic matters
ii) By cooling of molten rock and lava
iii) Evaporation of sea water
iv) Weathering and sedimentation
Minerals Source Uses
Coal, oils Andhra, Bihar, Maharastra Fuels, electricity
Uranium, thorium Kerala, Coastal Tamilnadu Electricity
Diamond, platinum. Gold Rajasthan, Karnataka Ornaments
Gypsum, phosphorous Tamilnadu,Rajasthan Agriculture
Pyrites Kerala Ayurvedic medicines
Classifications of minerals:
Based on composition:
(1) Metallic - e.g. Fe, Zn,
(2) Non-metallic –e.g. Quartz, feldspar
Based on usage:
(1) Critical – For economic purpose – e.g Gold, silver, platinum
(2) Strategic – For defence – e.g. Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel

3.3- A) MINING:
Extraction of minerals and fuels from the earth is called mining. For mining purpose,
overlying forests are destroyed.
Steps involved in mining Different techniques of mining
1. Removal of top soil 1. Surface mining – for shallow mineral extraction.
(e.g) Neyveli lignite mining
2. Crushing 2. Undgerground mining – for deeper deposits .
(Reducing size & powdering) (e.g) Kolar gold field
3. Concentration 3. Tunneling mining - for valley side ores
( Removal of impurity)
4. Reduction ( Ores to metal) 4. Pumping methods – for river, sand ores
5. Purification of metal 5. Drilling methods – for oils
14
Environmental impacts of mining:
1. Deforestation
2. Landslides and soil erosion
3. Disturbance of surface and ground water
4. Underground fire in coal mines
5. Air pollution by fly ash
6. Noise pollution by explosives and drillers
7. Damage to marine life
8. Lowering of water lever and sea water intrusion
9. Replacement of habitants.
10. Vibrations are developed – leads to earthquake.
11. The overburden materials are removed and dumped near by. Such areas are
susceptible to soil erosion. If it is washed away by rain water into streams, it reduces
the channels and affects water quality.
Hazards of improper mining:
1. Radiation waste was poisonous to environment.
2. People are facing respiratory disease, lack of appetite.
3. Tuberculosis (TB) is the main disease due to these mines.
4. Cancer, skin diseases, infant death, illness, headache, eye irritation, silicosis,
asbestosis, black lung diseases, are caused by mining operation without precautions.
Environmental management and precaution methods for mining:
1. Over consumption and over exploitation of present generation will cause the
suffering of future generation. It should be banned.
2. Conservational steps should be taken up.
3. Reuse and Recycling.
4. Modernisation of mining industries towards eco-friendly mining technology
5. Low grade ores are utilized better by microbial leaching technique.(e.g.) Thiobacillus
ferroxidans bacterium used for gold embedded in iron ore.
6. Proper drainage of waste and debris.
7. Stabilising the ground level.
8. Proper recovery. (e.g) Red mud waste from aluminium industry can be used as
source for Titanium, Iron, Sodium etc.,
15
 Case studies:
1. Neyveli – Lignite mining – Tamil nadu
2. Jhamarkotra – Phosphate mining – Rajasthan
3. Kolar gold field – Karnataka
4. Kundermukh Iron mines – Karnataka
In the above cited areas, due to mining and quarrying various environmental effects
occurred. But they were mostly overcome by proper assessment plans.
But the problematic areas include:
Mining and quarrying in Udaipur
Soap stones, building stone, and dolomite mines spread over 15,000 hectares in Udaipur
have caused many adverse impacts on environment. About 150 tones of explosives are
used per month in blasting. The Maton mines have badly polluted the Ahar river. The
hills around the mines are suffering from acute soil erosion. The waste water flows
towards a big tank of “Bag Dara". Due to scarcity of water people are compelled to use
this effluent for irrigation purpose. The animals like tiger, lion, deer, and birds have
disappeared from the mining area.
Mining in Sariska Tiger Reserve in Aravallis
The Aravalli range is spread over about 692 Km in the North-west India covering
Gujrat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. The hill is rich in mineral resources. Mining
operations within and around the Sariska Tiger reserve has left many areas permanently
infertile and barren. The precious wild life is under serious threat.

3.4) FOOD RESOURCES

Man needs energy for his activities, which is obtained from food. Carbohydrate, fats,
proteins, minerals and vitamins are the important component of food.
Types of food supply:
76% of food supply is done through crop lands (grains) while 17% by rangelands
(grazing livestock) and 7% by ocean fisheries.

Major concerns of Food resources:

a) World food problems
b) Modern agricultural effects of – Fertilizers, Pesticides, Water logging, salinity
c) Over grazing 16
3.4 - A) WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS:

1. Only 21% of earth surface is land out of which most areas are ice-frozen, deserts and
Hill Mountains. So, the food supplied from the rest of the land is not enough to feed all
the hungry mouths.
2. The main world food problem is starvation, under nutrition and mal nutrition.
Complete unavailability of food is starvation.
Availability of food, but not in required amount which cannot fulfill the basic
energy needs (Carbohydrate) is under-nutrition. It causes measles and diarrhea.
Though the food is available for survival, if it lacks from proper composition of
protein, mineral and vitamins, it is called as ‘mal nutrition’. It affects growth, vision and
blood production.
3. Population growth
4. Degradation and loss of cropland.
5. In the under developed countries (e.g. Sub-Saharan, Africa) almost half of the
population does not have access to safe drinking water and prone to water borne and
infectious diseases.

3.4-B) MODERN AGRICULTURE & EFFECTS

There is an imbalance between supply and demand in global scenario. To overcome
this, we have switched from traditional to modern agriculture by ‘Green revolution’.
The steps of green revolution are:
i) Developing genetically improved high yield varieties of main crops. (e.g) Hybrid rice,
hybrid wheat
ii) Producing high yield of crops using fertilizers, pesticides
iii) Increasing the number of crops grown per year through the ‘multiple cropping’
method.
Effects of modern agriculture:
1. Due to fertilizers
2. Due to pesticides
3. Water logging
4. Salinity
17
1. Problems of fertilizer:
(a) Micronutrient imbalance:
NPK macronutrient fertilizers cause deficient of micronutrients (Zinc, copper) in the crop
lands.
(b) Blue baby syndrome:
When nitrate concentration exceeds 25mg/L cause ‘Blue baby syndrome’ – failure of
oxygen transportation by blood. This affects infants and sometimes leads to death.
(c) Eurtophication:
Washing off of N and P fertilizers to water bodies causes over nourishment of lakes.
This increases the algae growth. As they decay, they consume large amount of dissolved
oxygen. This causes water pollution and oxygen demand resulting in disturbance to
aquatic life. This is called ‘Eutrophication’.

2. Problems of pesticides:
(a) Death of non-target organism:
Sometimes, the pesticides also kill non-target species, useful to us.
(b) Producing super pests
Some pest species survive even after pesticide spray, which generates highly resistant
generations known as super pests, the more potent pests.
(c) Bio-magnification
The non-biodegradable pesticides on concentration leads to ‘bio-magnification’ of
pesticides which causes migraine, stomach cramps, cancer, infertility, Neuro disorder,
contamination of breast feed.
(d) Health problems
Lindane pesticide causes cancer,
Malathion causes central nervous system ( CNS )problem,
Dichloro Diphenyl trichloro methane (DDT) causes cancer

3. Water logging:
Due to canal and dam irrigation system, the water table is raised and water stands over
the surface for most of the year. This is called water logging.
As this fills the air - pore – voids, the roots of the plants cannot get adequate air for
respiration. So, crop yield falls. 18
Reasons for water logging Remedial measures for water logging
(i) Poor drainage (i) Sub-surface drainage
(ii) Heavy rain (ii) Bio-drainage by natural sponge trees like eucalyptus
(iii) Excess water supply (iii) proper irrigation.
(iv) deforestation.

4. Salinity:

Some of the irrigation water is not absorbed into the soil and evaporated. They leave a
thin crust of dissolved salts in the top-soil. This accumulation of salt is called ‘salinity’.
It increases the pH of soil. Due to the alkalinity, crop yield decreases.
Remedy: 1. Salt deposit is removed by flushing of fresh water.
2. Cultivation of salt tolerant crops (e.g.) barley, cotton
Overcoming the ill effects of modern agriculture:
1. Green manuring: We are recycling the plants themselves as the manure. They add
organic matter and nitrogen to the soil.
2. Vermi compost: Manure is produced with the help of earthworms. The waste from
earthworm acts as manure.
3. Organic foods: They are grown without applying any synthetic fertilizers. They are
nutritionally superior to chemical feeded plants.
Case studies:
1. Water logging and salinity in Rajasthan and Haryana
Indira Gandhi canal projects (Rajasthan) caused waterlog and salinity. Introduction of
canal irrigation in Haryana resulted in rise in water table followed by water-logging and
salinity in many agricultural lands causing huge economic losses as a result of decrease
in crop productivity.
2. Pesticide in Pepsi and Coco-cola
Food centre for Science and Environment has reported that in Pepsi and coco-cola soft
drinks contains 30-40 times (0.0180mg/L) more pesticides than the allowed content.19
3.4- C) OVER GRAZING:
Eating away the forest vegetation without giving it a chance to regenerate is called
overgrazing. It is one of the reasons for desertification. The grasslands of the forests are
destroyed and lead to desertification also.

Reasons for overgrazing:

1. Increasing number of livestock.
2. Migrating graziers
3. Inadequate grazing fields.

Problems of overgrazing:
1. Deforestation

Overgrazing removes the cover of vegetation over the soil and the exposed soil gets
compacted. So the roots of the plant cannot go much deep into the soil and the adequate
soil moisture is not available. Overgrazing leads to depletion of vegetation and triggers
the deforestation process.

2. Soil erosion:
Due to overgrazing by livestock, the cover of vegetation is removed from the soil. The
roots of the grass are very good binders of the soil. When the grasses are removed, the
soil becomes loose and gets eroded by the action of wind and rainfall. .

3. Loss of bio-diversity:
Overgrazing also affects the composition of plant population and their regeneration
capacity. The grassland Consists of grasses and forbs with high nutritive value. When the
livestock grazes the grasses heavily, the root stocks, which carry the food reserve gets
destroyed. Now other secondary species will appear in their place, which are less
nutritive in nature. Some livestock keep on overgrazing these species also.

4. Desertification & Drought

Overgrazing depletes the vegetation growth and alters the soil fertility. This accelerates
the process of desertification and drought related problems. 20
3.5) LAND RESOURCES
Land is the solid portion of the earth’s surface which is not covered by the oceans.
Uses of lands:
1. Land nurtures the plants and animals that provided our food and shelter.
2. Reservoir for water
3. Mineral resources.
4. Space to construct buildings.
3.5- A ) LAND DEGRADATION:
If the common properties and fertility of the land is affected, it is called as ‘land
degradation’.
Reasons for land degradation:
1. Soil erosion
2. Soil pollution
3. Salinity and water logging
4. Shifting cultivation
5. Urbanisation
6. Global warming
7. Man induced landslides
8. Desertification

1. Soil erosion :
Removal of super facial layer of the soil by water, wind and human activities are called
‘soil erosion’. If the rate is normal it is called ‘normal (or) geological erosion’ which will
be regain its originality on due course. But , if the rate of erosion is very high, it is
‘accelerated’ one which cause long lasting effects on environment. The major reasons for
soil erosion are:
a) Heavy rains e) Heavy wind
b) Overgrazing f) Tidal / Wave action
c) Deforestation g) Construction of roads
d) Landslides h) Improper methods of agriculture are causing soil erosion.

21
Soil erosion may leads to problems like
i) Collapsing buildings and dams
ii) Makes the soil infertile
iii) Rivers are filled with sand and unfit for boating
iv) Reduction in crop yields.
2. Soil pollution :
By applying fertilizers, pesticides and by industrial wastes, plastics cause soil pollution.
3. Salinity and water logging :
At poor drainage area, the salt content is getting increased causing salinity and water
logging is due to over irrigation.
4. Shifting cultivation :
Forest land is used for agriculture. Agricultural lands are used for building construction.
So, the nature of the land is getting disturbed and degraded.
5. Urbanisation
Urbanization plays a role for soil degradation.
6. Global warming :
Due to global warming, ground heats up and organic matters decay fastly and affects
fertility.
7. Man induced land slides :
Movement of earthy materials from higher place to lower due to gravity is called ‘land
slides’. By nature, it is mainly due to earthquakes. But man made activities like
i) Cutting and deep excavations as slopes for buildings, roads, canals and mining
activities,
ii) Dumping of debris – construction of heavy structures
iii) Heavy loaded transportation
iv) Underground mining
v) Deforestation
are also causing these land slides.
8. Desertification:
Loss of fertility of soil due to land degradation is called ‘desertification’. It is
progressive destruction of arid and semi-arid lands to desert. Heavy winds also shift land
dunes from place to place and expand the deserts. If the drop in productivity is 25% , it
is moderate desertification. If 50% , it is severe and above 50% is very severe. 22
 Reasons for desertification:
i. Climatic change –
Failure of monsoon, frequents droughts leads to desert formation
ii. Overgrazing –
Overgrazing can limit livestock production. Over grazing occurs when too many
animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grass land area.
Overgrazing removes the grass cover. The grass roots are very good binders of soil.
When the grasses are removed, the soil becomes loose and susceptible to the
action of wind and water. The dry barren land reflects more of the sun’s heat,
changing wind patterns leading to further desertification.
iii. Mining and quarrying:
Mining operation requires removal of vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and
overlying rock masses. This results in destruction of landscape in the area.
iv.Pollution :
Excessive use fo fertilizers and pesicides, disposal of toxic water into lands results in
desert formation
Consequences of desertification:
a) Reduced vegetation and cattle.
b) Loss of soil fertility
c) Heavy loss of water
d) Economic losses
e) Lowering the living standard of people.
f) Become unfit for habitation

3.5-B) CONTROLLING SOIL EROSION AND DESERTIFCATION

1. Forestation
2. Constructing series of check dams
3. Leveling of grounds
4. Using different types of embankment ( Groynes, Gabions)
5. Rain water harvesting
6. Using special agro methods like wind breakers, no-till-farming, agro-forestry, contour
farming and terracing. 23
a) Wind breakers:
Trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of cultivated lands which block the
wind and reduce the soil erosion.
b) No-till- farming:
Tilling machines make slits in unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water.
This prevents major soil erosion.
c) Agro-forestry:
Planting crops in strips between rows of tress. Here, after the harvesting of crops, the
soil is held tightly by the trees so no erosion occurs.
d) Contour farming:
Planting crops across the contour of slightly sloped land. The crop rows acting as a small
dam to hold the soil and slow down water runoff.
e) Terracing:
Convert steep slopes into series of broad terrace. It retains water for crops but controls
excessive runoff.

24
3.6) ENERGY RESOURCES:
Growing Energy Needs:
Energy is the capacity to do a work. All
Industrial processes like mining, transport,
lighting, heating and cooling require energy.
95% of the commercial energy is available only
from fossil fuels. But, they are not going to last
for many more years. In global scenario, a
person in a developed country (e.g.) USA,
consumes energy in a single day as one person in
poor country (e.g. Ethiopia) consumes in a whole
year.
Energy Resources are of two kinds.
(i) Renewable resources: which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given
span of time. e.g solar, wind, ocean energy, bio-mass energy, geothermal energy
(ii) Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated eg. Fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Even our
renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent their
rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration.
3.6- A) RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:
They can be regenerated continuously and are inexhaustible.
3.6- A - 1) SOLAR ENERGY:
The energy available from sun is known as solar energy. Process of converting direct
sunlight into more useful forms is known as solar energy conversion. Solar energy
conversion occurs by two mechanisms namely photo conversion and thermal conversion.
PHOTO CONVERSION SOLAR CELLS ( PHOTOGALVANIC CELLS)
Principle: This solar cell is working on the principle of photovoltaic effect. Creating charge
carriers in a material by solar radiation is known as photovoltaic effect.
Working:Solar cell is used to convert the solar energy directly into electrical energy. It is
based on photovoltaic effect. Solar cells of made up of N and P type semi conductors with
valence electrons. As the solar ray falls on them, the electrons cross the P-N Junction and
moves to conductance electrons. Due to this, a potential difference arises to produce current.
25
Applications of solar energy:
1. Solar battery produces more electricity which is enough to run water pumps.
2. Solar cells are employed in Calculators, watches.
3. Solar cells are acting as non polluting -eco friendly energy source.
4. Solar cells are used to drive vehicles.
5. Solar cells made of silicon, are used as a source of electricity in space craft and satellites.
6. Solar cells are used for community lights in hilltop hamlets.
7. Solar cell is used in the process of lighting street lights.

.THERMAL CONVERSION Solar water heater

This solar water heater is connected to a black painted insulator drum with glass lid
which is acting as a solar water heater. A copper coil is kept inside this drum. Water is fed
through the coil, which gets heated up and the hot water flows out to tanks.

Limitations of solar energy:

1. Panel angle should be constant.
2. Available only at sunny days.
3. Capital cost is high.
4. It produces only DC voltage
26
3.6 – A - 2) WIND ENERGY:
Wind is a form of moving or swirling air. Due to its motion, it acquires some kinetic energy
which can be used to produce different types of energy. This is called wind energy. The
wind energy is harnessed by making use of ‘wind mills’.
Wind mill:
It is a device used to convert wind energy into mechanical energy.
Sequence of energy conversion:

WIND KINETIC MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL

ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY

Construction and working of a wind mill:

S.No Component Functions

1 Rotor blades Convert kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy
2 Rotor shaft and For ease rotation of blades. – It fecilitates linear motion to
crank circular motion.
3 Nacelle A protective box containing gear box and generator
4 Gear box & Kinetic energy is converted and saved here.
Generator
5 Turn table To rotate the nacelle as per wind direction
6 Steel tower Used to withstand power generation equipment
7 Foundation Withstand strong wind – Supports overall height of blades
Wind mill is a simple machine
working with the energy of wind.
It consists of large propeller blades
whose crank is connected to a
generator which converts the
Kinetic energy into electrical
energy. When the speed of the
wind is not less than 15km / hr, the
striking of the wind over the blades,
make it rotating continuously. The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of
machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators. 27
When a large number of mills are joined together, it is called a wind farm. They produce a
large amount of electricity. It is observed that during winter season and at lower altitude
regions, the yield of wind energy is more than summer and higher altitude regions.
Advantages of wind energy:
1. It is available as a renewable resource.
2. Pollution free
3. It is used for Lifting water from under ground
4. It is used for grinding cereals
5. It is used to move the sail boats in lakes, rivers and seas.
Disadvantages of wind energy:
1.Inconsistency of wind flow i.e. it is intermittent.
2. Large area consumption ( For production of 1Mev energy 2 hectare space is needed.)
3. High establishment and maintenance cost.
4. At times, wind farms are producing noise pollution.
5. Wind farms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.
6. Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals like TV and radio signals.

3.6 – A- 3) OCEAN ENERGY (TIDAL & OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY)

Tidal energy: Ocean tides are produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon. The
tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage reservoir.
During high tide, sea water flows into the reservoir and rotates the turbine and generator
producing electricity. During low tide, water from the reservoir flows into sea and again
rotates the turbine, thus it is a continuous process.

Significance of Tidal energy

1. They donot require large area of land since they are on bays
2. It is pollution free
3. It is independent of ncertainity since sea water is inexhaustible. 28
Ocean Thermal energy (OTE): In tropical oceans, if the temperature difference between
surface level and deeper level is more than 20 degree, the warmer surface water is used to
boil ammonia. The pressure exerted by ammonia is used to turn turbine. This is ocean
thermal energy. The pumped deeper water is used for cooling and condensation.
3.6- A – 4 ) GEO THERMAL ENERGY:
High temperature and high pressure steam fields exist below the earth’s surface in many
places. The internal heat of the earth is used for power generation. This is called ‘geo-
thermal energy’. The volcanic regions are suitable place for getting geothermal energy. The
hot springs and geyser hot water can also be used.

3.6- A – 5) BIOMASS ENERGY:

Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as sources of energy.
(e.g.) Biogas, Biofuels, hydrogen fuel.
1. Biogas:
Biogas is a mixture of 65% methane, carbon-di-oxide, Hydrogen sulphide. It is obtained by
anaerobic fermentation of cow dung or plant wastes in presence of water. Bio gas is
produced in a bio gas plant Construction The plant consists of a well like underground tank
covered with a dome shaped roof with a gas outlet pipe. The dome of digester acts as a gas
holder. On the left hand side of the digester there is a sloping inlet chamber through which
cattle dung + water slurry is introduced. On the right hand side there is a outlet chamber
through which spent dung slurry gas collected. Slurry is fed into inlet chamber. It is left for
two months for fermentation. Bio gas is produced by the Anaerobic fermentation that
occurred because of the anaerobic bacteria. It is collected in the dome and exerts large
pressure on slurry. This forces the spent slurry to over flow tank through outlet chamber. 29
 Uses of Biogas:
a) Biogas is used for cooking and heating.
b) It is used to run engines.
c) It is used as an illuminant in villages, running the well and water pumpset engines.
d) It is used in gas turbine and fuel cells.
Advantages of biogas:
a) Production of biogas is economical
b) It does not contain any poisonous gas and CO.
c) It provides good manure.
d) It is very clean and no smoke production.
e) There is direct supply of gas from the plant and there is no storage problem.
2. Bio fuels:
They are obtained by the fermentation of biomass. Ethanol is produced from sugarcane
and its wastes. Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol and gasoline.
3. Hydrogen fuel:
By pyrolysis or electrolysis of water, hydrogen can be produced. Due to its high calorific
value, it is used as fuels. As the combustion product is water, it is non-polluting. But the
storage, transportation is difficult and risky.
2H2 + O2  2 H2O + 150 KJ
USES AND NEED OF ALTERNATIVE (RENEWABLE) ENERGY RESOURCES:

Problems of conventional energy sources:

1. Fossil fuels and other conventional sources are not free from environmental implications.
2. Hydro electric power generation may upset the ecological balance existing on earth.
3. Hydel power plants pollute aquatic biota.
4. Radioactive pollutants from nuclear power plants are chronically hazardous. The waste
disposal is difficult.
5. the fossil fuel smoke causes respiratory and digestive problems leading to lungs, stomach
and eye diseases.
Advantages of renewable resources:
1. Unlimited supply.
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Decentralised energy production.
5. Free from pollution.
30
3.6 – B) NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
1) Fossil fuel 2) Nuclear energy sources.
3.6- B – 1) FOSSIL FUELS:
(e.g) coal, petroleum, LPG, Natural gas
1) Coal:

It is non-renewable, commercial source of energy. If coal is used at this rate, it may last one
or two decades When organic vegetation buried under the earth is subjected to high
temperature and pressure over a long period, coal is formed. Based on the carbon content,
calorific value and colour, they are classified as

Wood  peat  Lignite  Bituminous  Anthracite

The process of conversion of wood to Anthracite is known as ‘coalification’. During the

process of coalification, moisture, volatile impurities, H2, O2, S contents are decreasing
while carbon, hardness, calorific values are increasing. When coal is burnt, it produces
carbon-di-oxide leading to global warming. The impurities sulphur, nitrogen produce toxic
gases during burning.

2) Petroleum (Crude oil):

It is relatively cheap to extract and transport. It requires little processing to produce desired
products. It has relatively high net and useful energy yields. But, it produces
environmental pollution. Oil spills cause water pollution. On fractional distillation, it yields
Fuel gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, lubricants and asphalt.
Refining of crude oil/ petroleum:
Removal of impurities, water content, sulphur and separating the crude oil into different
fractions is called refining of crude oil. There are three steps.
a) Water removal- Crude oil is fed between two charged electrodes. Here, colloidal water
droplets are combining to form large drops which can be easily removed. This is known as
‘Cottrell’s process”.
b) Sulphur is removed by adding copper oxide. It is separated as copper sulphide.
c) Fractional distillation: Purified crude oil is heated to 400oC and the vapours are passed
at the bottom of fractionating column. The column has a number of horizontal stainless steel
trays. On passing the vapours through the trays, they get condensed and collected according
to their boiling points. The fractions are : 31
No Name Boiling point oC Uses
1 Gases Below 30 As LPG
2 Petroleum ether 30-70 Solvent
3 Petrol 40-120 Fuel in automobiles
4 Spirit 120-180 Solvent , Paint industry ,dry cleaning
5 Kerosene 180-250 Fuel for stoves, jet engines
6 Diesel 250-320 Diesel engine fuel
7 Heavy oil 320 - 400 Further cracking
8 Lubricating oil + Above 400 Lubricants, Laying roads.
grease + wax + tar

3) Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG):

Composition:
n-Butane 38.5%
Iso butane 37%
Propane 24.5%
Calorific Vale 25000 kcal/m3
Advantages of LPG over other fuels:
1. LPG produces no smoke, no ash.
2. LPG has high calorific value. Its calorific value is 7 times higher than coal gas and 3 times
higher than natural gas.
3. It is easy to store and transport LPG.
4. The combustion of LPG can be easily controlled.
5. LPG is used in domestic applications, industries and automobiles.
6. It is free from CO. So, it is less hazardous.
Disadvantages:
1. LPG is almost odorless. So, leakage detection is difficult. To avoid this, thio-alcohols
must be added to it.
2. It has low octane value.
3. High pressure is maintained during handling and filling of LPG.
4. It is suitable only for the engines working under high compression ratio. 32
3.6- B -2 ) NUCLEAR ENERGY SOURCES:
The nuclear energy is derived from nuclear fission and fusion reaction.
Nuclear fission: Here, a heavier nucleus split into lighter nuclei, on bombardment by fast
moving neutrons with liberation of large amount of energy. (e.g.) Uranium – 235
235 1 236
92U + 0n [ 92U ]  56Ba140 + 36Kr
93
+ 3 0n1 + Energy
Nuclear fusion: Lighter nuclei are combined together at extremely high temperature to
form heavier nucleus with liberation of large amount of energy. (e.g.) Fusion of
Hydrogen
41H1  2He4 +2 1e0 + Energy
Construction and Working of Nuclear reactor:
U235 fuel rods are immersed in coolant water. Boron rods are inserted between Uranium
rods as movable control rods. As the Boron rods are moved up, neutrons will be set free and
reaction is fasten up. If they are moved down, they catch neutrons to slow down the chain
reaction. The heat emitted is absorbed by coolant. The heated coolant enters into the heat
exchanger where it transfers its 3000C to sea water present there. This heat evaporates the
sea water and steam is produced. This steam drives turbine and generates electricity.
Nuclear stations in India: Tarapur, Kalpakkam and Narora
Advantages of nuclear fission energy:
i) A small quantity of nuclear fuel is sufficient to produce large amount of energy. But in the
case of fossil fuel, we need higher quantity to produce large amount of energy.
ii) In a nuclear power plant, the fuel is inserted once to produce energy for a long period of
time. But, in a thermal power plant, continuous supply of fossil fuel is required.
iii) The controlled fission energy can be used as an eco-friendly energy resource for power
generation.
iv) Radioactive isotopes are used in radiotherapy.
v) It is used to control agricultural pests. It also delays ripening of fruits.
Disadvantages of nuclear fission energy:
i) Nuclear fission causes more pollution problem than burning the fossil fuel.
ii) The waste disposal of nuclear waste is more difficult than fossil fuel wastage. The nuclear
wastes are sealed in leak proof concretes and buried under deep sea level.
iii) The nuclear radiation damages the structure of cells in human body.
iv)The nuclear radiation may cause cancer, blindness, genetic disorder and sterility.
33
3.7) EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLE:
Sustainable lifestyle means ‘Way of living that meets the need of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.
In sustainable world every one will get every day life food, clothing, water, shelter
and there will be no damage to other lives and the environment. The concept of sustainable
development maximizes the economic benefits from the surroundings and minimizes the
damage to the environment.

Basic principles in sustainable development:

i. Ecological harmony
ii. Economic efficiency
iii. Conservation of resources
iv. Local self-reliance
v. Equity with social-justice

Basic needs for a sustainable development:

1. Using alternative sources and protecting non-renewable resources.
2. Adopting 3R principle - Reduce, Recycle, Reuse
3. Avoiding wastages of resources.
4. Sharing properly the sources.
5. Mixing environmental aspects and economic development.
34
3.8) ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:
1. Forest conservation:
i) Using non timber products
ii) Controlled fishing and grassing
iii) Minimising the use of fuel wood and papers
iv) Executing developmental projects (dams, roads) in non-forest areas.
iv) Planting more trees.

2. Water conservation:
i) Using minimum water for domestic purposes.
ii) Rain water harvesting
iii) Modern agricultural methods like sprinkling and drip irrigation.
iv) Reuse and recycle of used water
iv) Checking for water leaks in pipes and repair them properly.

3. Food conservation:
i) Not wasting the food, instead giving to needy.
ii) Cooking only required amount.
iii) Avoiding unnecessary storing.
iv) Preventing food grains from rodents and pests.

4. Soil conservation:
i) Mixed crop cultivation methods
ii) Forced flow irrigation of plants will wash off the top saline soil.
iii) Using green and organic manure.
iv) Avoiding harmful pesticides and fertilizers.
v) Using only bio-degradable products.
5. Energy conservation:
i) Minimum use of automobiles – using bicycle or walking
ii) Using solar heater for cooking.
iii) Pressure cooker reduces LPG consumption.
iv) Switching off lights, fans when not in use.
35