Magnetism and Matter 1

Introduction: Magnetism is the phenomenon due to which certain substances attract pieces of steel, iron,
nickel etc. Magnets are used in many devices like electric bell, telephone, radio, loud speaker, motors, fans,
screw drivers, lifting heavy iron loads, super-fast trains especially in foreign courtiers, refrigerators etc.
Magnetite is the world’s first magnet. This is also called natural magnet. Though magnets occur naturally,
we can also impart magnetic property on a substance. It would be an artificial magnet in that case.
History of magnets: As early as 600 BC in Greece, shepherds observed that their wooden shoes which
had iron nails struck at some places on the ground. An island in Greece called magnesia has magnetic ore
deposits. The word magnet is derived from here. The technological use of magnet at around 400 BC by
Chinese was remarkable. A thin piece of magnet when suspended freely always points towards North-South
direction. This fact was utilized by a Chinese emperor Huang-ti to win a war.

Magnets– Some Known facts:

❖ A magnet has two poles i.e, north pole and south pole.
❖ Similar poles repel each other and opposite poles attract each other.
❖ Magnetic monopoles do not exist. If a bar magnet is broken into two halves, we get two similar bar
magnets with weaker properties.
❖ It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.

The Bar Magnet: A bar magnet is a rectangular piece of an object, made up any ferromagnetic substance or
ferromagnetic composite, that shows permanent magnetic properties. It has two poles, a north and a south
pole.
**When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction. The tip which points to the
geographic north is called the north pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called the south
pole of the magnet.
Magnetic Field Lines: Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines of magnetic field inside and around the
magnet which represent the magnetic field.
Some of the properties of the magnetic field lines are:
i) Magnetic field line is an imaginary curve, the tangent to which at any point gives direction of
magnetic field at that point.
ii) The lines are continuous and outside the magnet, the field lines originate from the North pole
and terminate at the South pole.
iii) They form closed loops traversing inside the magnet. But here the lines seem to originate from
the South pole and terminate at North pole to form closed loops.
iv) More number of close lines indicate stronger magnetic field.
v) The lines do not intersect each other.
vi) The tangent drawn at the field line gives the direction of the field at that point.

Pole strength: Magnetic charge (also called pole strength) +𝑞𝑚 to the north pole and −𝑞𝑚 to the south
pole. Unit of pole strength or magnetic charge (𝑞𝑚 ) is ampere-metre.
Magnetic Moment: For a bar magnet it is the product of pole strength and the distance between the two
poles.
𝒎 = 𝑞𝑚 . 2𝒍
Magnetic moment is a vector quantity and its direction is from south pole to north pole. Its SI unit is 𝐴 𝑚 2

Magnetic field strength due to a magnetic pole (hypothetical) at a distance r is given by

µ𝟎 𝒒𝒎
𝑩=
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
 Magnetism and Matter 2

Magnetic field due to a short bar magnet:

At an axial point: Let us consider a short bar-magnet as shown in the figure below. Let P be a point on the
axis where we will calculate the magnetic field due to the bar magnet.

Magnetic field at P due to north pole

µ𝟎 𝒒𝒎
𝑩𝑵 = ; 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑵𝑷
𝟒𝝅(𝒓 − 𝒍)𝟐
Magnetic field at P due to south pole
µ𝟎 𝒒𝒎
𝑩𝒔 = ; 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝑵
𝟒𝝅(𝒓 + 𝒍)𝟐
Now net magnetic field at P
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵𝑠
µ0 𝑞𝑚 µ0 𝑞𝑚
= −
4𝜋(𝑟−𝑙)2 4𝜋(𝑟+𝑙)2

For short bar magnet 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 ≈ 𝑟 2

Thus, we can write
µ0 𝑞𝑚 4𝑙
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑟3
µ0 2𝑚
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
⟹𝑩
4𝜋 𝑟3
Net magnetic field is along the direction of dipole.
Magnetic Field at an equatorial point: Let us consider a short bar-magnet as shown in the figure below.
Let P be a point on an equatorial line where we will calculate the magnetic field due to the bar magnet.
Magnetic field at P due to north pole
µ𝟎 𝒒𝒎
𝑩𝑵 = , 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑋
𝟒𝝅(𝒓𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐 )

Magnetic field at P due to south pole

µ𝟎 𝒒𝒎
𝑩𝒔 = , 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑆
𝟒𝝅(𝒓𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐 )
Now, sine component of magnetic field cancels each other and
net magnetic field is
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
⟹ 𝐵 = 2𝐵𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑆

For short bar magnet 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 ≈ 𝑟 2

 Magnetism and Matter 3

Thus, we can write

µ0 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
𝐵= , 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
4𝜋𝑟3
µ0 𝑚
⟹𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟3
Vectorially we can write,
µ0 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = −
⟹𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟3

Here, net magnetic field is opposite to the direction of dipole

Thus, 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Example 5.3 (a) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into two pieces: (i) transverse to its length, (ii) along
its length? (b) A magnetised needle in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque but no net force. An
iron nail near a bar magnet, however, experiences a force of attraction in addition to a torque. Why? (c)
Must every magnetic configuration have a north pole and a south pole? What about the field due to a toroid?
(d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are given, one of which is known to be magnetised. (W e do not
know which one.) How would one ascertain whether both are magnetised? If only one is magnetised, how
does one ascertain which one? [Use nothing else but the bars A and B.]
Solution:
(a) In either case, one gets two magnets, each with a north and south pole.
(b) No force if the field is uniform. The iron nail experiences a nonuniform field due to the bar magnet. There
is induced magnetic moment in the nail, therefore, it experiences both force and torque. The net force is
attractive because the induced south pole (say) in the nail is closer to the north pole of magnet than induced
north pole.
(c) Not necessarily. True only if the source of the field has a net nonzero magnetic moment. This is not so
for a toroid or even for a straight infinite conductor.
(d) Try to bring different ends of the bars closer. A repulsive force in some situation establishes that both
are magnetised. If it is always attractive, then one of them is not magnetised. In a bar magnet the intensity
of the magnetic field is the strongest at the two ends (poles) and weakest at the central region. This fact
may be used to determine whether A or B is the magnet. In this case, to see which one of the two bars is a
magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and lower one of its ends; first on one of the ends of the other (say, B), and
then on the middle of B. If you notice that in the middle of B, A experiences no force, then B is magnetised.
If you do not notice any change from the end to the middle of B, then A is magnetised.

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid: A solenoid can be treated as a bar magnet for the
following reasons

1) Bar magnet and solenoid both have attractive and directive properties, ie to align themselves along
the external magnetic field.
2) The magnetic field at the axial point is the same for both.
3) The magnetic moment is the same for both.

Magnetic field due to a solenoid at an axial point:

 Magnetism and Matter 4

Let us consider a solenoid of length 2l and radius a as shown in the figure. Let, P be an axial point of the
solenoid where we will calculate the magnetic field due to the solenoid. Let, n be the number of turns per
unit length of the solenoid. Consider a ring of thickness dx at a distance x from the origin as shown in
figure. Now, number of turns in on the element dx is ndx.

This is same as the magnetic field produced by bar magnet at axial point.

The dipole in a uniform magnetic field: When a dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field it will
experience a torque. Let us consider a bar magnet of magnetic moment m is placed in a magnetic field B
& 𝜽 is the angle between m and magnetic field as shown in the figure.

Torque acting on the dipole (𝜏) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

⟹ 𝜏 = 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 × 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⟹ 𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Thus, |𝜏| = |𝑚 ⃗|
⃗⃗ × 𝐵

Therefore, 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵

In equilibrium, the magnet will oscillate, and we can write

𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 = −𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2

Where, ‘I’ is the moment of inertia, for small angle 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

 Magnetism and Matter 5

𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 = −𝑚𝐵𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2

ⅆ2 𝜃 𝑚𝐵𝜃
⟹ =−
ⅆ𝑡 2 𝐼

This represents a simple harmonic motion.

𝑚𝐵
Now, the angular frequency, 𝜔2 = ,
𝐼

Again, we know

2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇

Where, 𝑇 is the time-period

Now, we can write

2𝜋 𝑚𝐵
( 𝑇 )2 = 𝐼

4𝜋 2 𝐼
⟹ 𝑇2 =
𝑚𝐵

𝐼
⟹ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝐵

Expression for magnetic field can be written as

4𝜋 2 𝐼
𝐵=
𝑚𝑇 2
The magnetic potential energy 𝑈𝑚 is given by

𝑈𝑚 = ∫ 𝜏𝑑𝜃 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

⟹𝑈𝑚 = −𝑚𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝑚 ⃗

⃗⃗ . 𝐵

Thus, expression for potential energy 𝑈𝑚 = −𝑚 ⃗

⃗⃗ . 𝐵

Example 5.1 A magnetic needle has magnetic moment 6.7 × 10−2 𝐴 𝑚 2 and moment of inertia I =𝐼 =
7.5 × 10−6 𝑘𝑔𝑚 2. It performs 10 complete oscillations in 6.70 s. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
Example 5.2 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30º with an external field of 800 G experiences a
torque of 0.016 Nm. (a) What is the magnetic moment of the magnet? (b) What is the work done in moving
it from its most stable to most unstable position? (c) The bar magnet is replaced by a solenoid of cross-
sectional area 6.7 × 10−2 𝑚 2 and 1000 turns, but of the same magnetic moment. Determine the current
flowing through the solenoid.
Q. Find the magnitude of the magnetic moment for the current loop shown below [R=0.5 m & i=1A]
 Magnetism and Matter 6

Example 5.4 What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of length 5.0 cm
at a distance of 50 cm from its mid-point? The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.40𝐴𝑚 2 , the same
as in Example 5.2.
Example 5.5 Figure 5.5 shows a small magnetised needle P placed at a point O. The arrow shows the
direction of its magnetic moment. The other arrows show different positions (and orientations of the
magnetic moment) of another identical magnetised needle Q.
(a) In which configuration the system is not in equilibrium?
(b) In which configuration is the system in (i) stable, and (ii) unstable equilibrium?
(c) Which configuration corresponds to the lowest potential energy among all the configurations shown?

Example 5.6 Many of the diagrams given in Fig. 5.7 show magnetic field lines (thick lines in the figure)
wrongly. Point out what is wrong with them. Some of them may describe electrostatic field lines correctly.
Point out which ones.

Example 5.7
(a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) along which a small magnetised needle aligns (at the point).
Do the magnetic field lines also represent the lines of force on a moving charged particle at every point?
(b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined within the core of a toroid, but not within a straight solenoid. Why?
(c) If magnetic monopoles existed, how would the Gauss’s law of magnetism be modified?
(d) Does a bar magnet exert a torque on itself due to its own field? Does one element of a current-carrying wire exert
a force on another element of the same wire?
(e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in motion. Can a system have magnetic moments even though its net charge
is zero?

Solution:
(a) No. The magnetic force is always normal to B (remember magnetic force = qv × B). It is
misleading to call magnetic field lines as lines of force.
 Magnetism and Matter 7

Gauss law in magnetism: The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.

𝝋 = ∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗ =𝟎

Gauss law of magnetism in comparison with electrostatics

Law Electrostatics Magnetism

The flux through a closed surface The net magnetic flux through
Gauss 𝑄 𝑄 any closed surface is zero.
is given by ∈ . ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ∈
0 0 ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Magnetisation an magnetic Intensity:
Magnetisation (𝐼 )/ Intensity of magnetisation: The magnetization of a given sample material M can be
defined as the net magnetic moment for that material per unit volume.
𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼=
𝑉
Its SI unit is 𝐴 𝑚 −1 & Dimension [𝐿−1 𝐴]
Magnetic Intensity (H): It is defined as the ratio of applied magnetic field 𝐵0 to the permeability of free
space.
𝐵
𝐻 = 𝜇0 , SI unit is 𝐴 𝑚 −1
0
 Magnetism and Matter 8

Magnetic Permeability(𝝁): It is equal to the ratio of magnetic induction and magnetic intensity.

𝑩
𝝁=
𝑯 **It is the ability of a substance to permit
magnetic lines to pass through it.
Its SI unit is 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 & its dimension is [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 𝐴−2 ]

Magnetic Susceptibility(𝝌𝒎 ): Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of magnetization to applied magnetizing

field intensity. This is a dimensionless quantity.
𝝌𝒎 is how easily a specimen can be magnetized
𝑰
𝝌𝒎 = when placed in the magnetizing field
𝑯

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Small and positive

Small and negative Very large and positive
0 < ꭓm< a
-1 < ꭓm< 0 ꭓm> 1000
a – small +ve number

ꭓm proportional to 1 / T -
Independent of temperature ꭓm proportional 1/T
Tc

Positive and greater than 1

Positive and less than 1
Large µr> 1000
1 <µr< 1 + a where a is
0 <µr< 1
small number

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic substances: -

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Diamagnetic substances are

Paramagnetic substances are those Ferromagnetic substances are those
those substance which are
substances which are feebly substances which are strongly attracted
feebly repelled by a magnet.
attracted by a magnet. by a magnet.
Eg:- Antimony, Bismuth,
Eg:- Aluminum, Platinum, Eg:- Nickel, Iron, Cobalt and their
Copper, Gold, Quartz,
Chromium, Manganese, Crown alloys
Mercury, Water, Alcohol, Air
glass and Oxygen
and Hydrogen

Individual constituents have net

Individual constituents have net
Individual constituents do not magnetic moment. Many atoms
magnetic moment on their own. But
have net magnetic moment on together form a domain. Each domain
as a whole net magnetic moment is
their own. behaves like a magnet. But as a whole
zero.
net magnetic moment is zero
 Magnetism and Matter 9

Field lines do not prefer to pass Field lines prefer to pass through
Field lines prefer to pass through
through closely

Small magnetic moment is

Individual dipole moment align Magnetic moments of different
produced in each atom /
along with B ext and the substance is domains are aligned with B ext & the
molecule proportional to B ext
weakly magnetized substance gets strongly magnetized
but opposite in direction.

When placed in magnetic field When placed in magnetic field they

When placed in magnetic field they
they tend to move from high to tend to move from weak to strong
tend to move towards high field.
low field. field.

Domain: In a ferromagnetic material in the unmagnetized state, atomic dipoles in small regions called
domains are aligned in the same direction. The domains exhibit a net magnetic moment even in the
absence of an external magnetizing field.

Meissner’s effect: Superconductors are diamagnetic and hence repel and are also repelled by magnets.
When cooled to very low temperature, it exhibits perfect conductivity and diamagnetism. This phenomenon
is called Meissner effect. Hence used in levitated superfast trains

Curie’s law : According to Curie’s Law, the magnetization in a paramagnetic material is directly proportional
to the applied magnetic field. If the object is heated, the magnetization is viewed to be inversely proportional
to the temperature.
M = C B0/T, Where C is a constant and is known as Curie constant

➢ As field is increased or temperature is lowered (B /T), the magnetization increases and reaches
saturation Ms.
➢ Beyond this point Ms, Curie’s law is not obeyed

Curie Weiss’s law : The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnet in the
paramagnetic region above the Curie point. At high temperature, Ferro magnet becomes paramagnet. The
domain structure disintegrates with temperature. This transition temperature is called Curie temperature T c.
𝝌 = C /(T – Tc)for temperature above Curie temperature.
 Magnetism and Matter 10

Hysterisis: The word hysteresis means lagging behind. The phenomenon of lagging of intensity of
magnetisation (M) behind magnetic intensity (H), when a specimen of magnetic material is subjected to a
cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis.

The curve shown would vary for different materials like steel, soft iron etc.
Place an unmagnetized material inside the solenoid and increase the current through the solenoid.
This increases the magnetic intensity (H) which is shown in X-axis. As H increases, the magnetic field B in
the material increases and reaches saturation as depicted in the graph as Oa. When saturation is reached,
there is no point in increasing the current further. Therefore, decrease the current. So H magnetic intensity
also decreases. At a point when H is equal to zero, B in Y-axis is not equal to zero. This is indicated by ab.
The value of H at B=0 is called retentivity or remanence. Next reverse the current and slowly increase the
same. This is represented by bc. The value of H at c(B=0) is called coercivity. As current increases, once
again saturation is reached. Curve cd depicts this. Then the current is reduced (de) and then reversed (curve
ea). Note the curve ea is obtained and it does not trace the old path Oa.

Example 5.11 A domain in ferromagnetic iron is in the form of a cube of side length 1μm. Estimate the
number of iron atoms in the domain and the maximum possible dipole moment and magnetisation of the
domain. The molecular mass of iron is 55 g/mole and its density is 7.9 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3 . Assume that each iron atom
has a dipole moment of9.27 × 10−24 𝐴𝑚 2.

Types of Ferromagnets: -
Hard Ferro magnets – When external magnetic field is removed, magnetization persists. These are called
Hard ferromagnets Example – Alnico, Lodestone.
Soft Ferro magnets – When external magnetic field is removed, magnetization disappears. These are
called Soft ferromagnets Example – Soft iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Gadolinium.
Magnetism and Matter 11
 Magnetism and Matter 12

PYQ

2013

1. What is Curie temperature of ferromagnetic material? Give one example of each.

2. What are hard and soft ferromagnetic materials? Give one example of each.

2014

1. Distinguish among paramagnetic, ferromagnetic and diamagnetic materials qualitatively.

2015 - 2023

1. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30º with a uniform external magnetic field of 0.25 T experiences
a torque of magnitude equal to 4.5 × 10−2 J. What is the magnitude of magnetic moment of the magnet?
2. A magnetic dipole is oscillating in a magnetic field obeying the following expression

𝑑 2𝜃 𝑚𝐵𝜃
= −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
What is the time period of oscillation and mention the nature of oscillation?