DURABILITY OF BLOCK PAVING IN A MARINE ENVIRONMENT

AT Visser,

SA Roads Board Chair of Transportation Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, University of

Pretoria, Pretoria, 012-420 3168, avisser@postino.up.ac.za

ABSTRACT

Concrete paving blocks have been used successfully in South Africa in a marine environment for
several decades. More recently, however, it was found that rapid deterioration occurred on new pavers
and the blocks became unserviceable within three years. This was a matter of grave concern and there
was a need to identify the problem. A research study was conducted and is reported in this paper.

The aim of this paper is:

ƒ To determine the properties of those blocks that deteriorated rapidly in contrast with those that had
provided long-term satisfactory service.
ƒ To identify test methods and specifications that will ensure that blocks are durable.

Blocks from various sources that had been placed in different marine environments were tested in the
laboratory for water absorption, porosity, steel brush abrasion resistance, durability in sodium chloride
and sodium sulphate and for cement content. These test results were compared with reported
performance. To evaluate the appropriateness of the laboratory test protocol a further nine panels were
constructed with paving blocks from different sources. Anticipated performance was predicted before
the test was started, and the performance results after six and twelve months service are compared with
the predicted results.

The following main conclusions were found:

The critical parameters to ensure durability were cement content, sodium chloride resistance
and low water absorption.
The test protocol was able to correctly predict the performance of the test panels, which shows
that the correct parameters have been identified.

Application of the findings from this study should lead to more durable concrete paving block along
coastal regions.

1. INTRODUCTION

Concrete paving blocks have been used successfully in a marine environment for several decades in
many places around the world, including South Africa. Blocks used on a pedestrian walkway along the
esplanade in Cape Town had performed magnificently for more than 20 years. Because of settlement
of the substrate the blocks were replaced. It was, however, found that rapid deterioration occurred on
the new pavers and the blocks became unserviceable within three years. This was a matter of grave
concern and there was a need to identify the source of the problem and how to avoid the future
occurrence. A research study was conducted and is reported in this paper.

Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
The aim of this paper is:
ƒ To determine the properties of those blocks that deteriorated rapidly in contrast with those that had
provided long-term satisfactory service.
ƒ To identify test methods and specifications to ensure that blocks are durable.

Blocks from various sources and placed in different marine environments were tested in the laboratory
for water absorption, porosity, steel brush abrasion resistance, durability in sodium chloride and sodium
sulphate and for cement content. These test results were compared with reported performance. To
evaluate the appropriateness of the laboratory test protocol a further nine panels were constructed in a
marine environment with paving blocks from different sources. Anticipated performance was
predicted before the test was started, and the performance results after being in service for one year are
compared with the predicted results.

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The concrete paving blocks used in South Africa are made in two grades. Class 25 blocks have an
average compressive strength of 25 MPa and a minimum individual strength of 20 MPa whereas class
35 blocks have an average compressive strength of 35 MPa and a minimum individual strength of 30
MPa. The concrete mix for paving blocks has a water-cement ratio of less than 0.4 and contains 14%
cement. The cement used in the mix complies with the requirements of SABS 471, 626 or 831.

Concrete blocks exposed to aggressive conditions must be durable. The types of the aggressive
conditions in marine environments and the protective measures to resist this aggression are discussed
next.

2.1 Chemical attack

Sulphates in sea water have a similar effect to certain types of soil which contain sulphates, which
attack concrete materials. These chemicals destroy the external appearance of the concrete paving
blocks. Sulphates also cause a chemical reaction between aggregates and cement or the atmosphere.

To improve the resistance of the paving blocks to sulphate attack, a concrete mix with low water-
cement ratio is used. The paving blocks must be fully compacted to reduce permeability. However, this
has proven not to be sufficient, and it is becoming common to use sulphate-resisting cement (Dowson
1980). To reduce chemical reaction between the aggregates and cement, the use of deleterious
aggregates should be avoided.

2.2 Sea water attack

The following two actions occur between blocks and sea water:
• chemical reactions, resulting in softening and disruptive expansion of the blocks.
• crystallization of salts on the block surface.
Chemical reactions cannot cause serious problems, unless they take place within the paving block. To
reduce chemical reactions is to produce impermeable concrete blocks (Neville 1973).

Problems with blocks in a marine environment occur where repeated cycles of wetting and drying take
place. The water is drawn up through the capillaries in the blocks. As the moisture evaporates and the
blocks dry out, the dissolved salts in the form of crystals are left within the joints of concrete blocks as
well as in the pores of the blocks. To prevent the capillary flow the blocks should be well compacted
and have a low porosity. Furthermore, concrete containing high-alumina cement is recommended,
since high-alumina cements have greater resistance to seawater than Portland cement (Dowson 1980).
Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
2.3 Abrasion

Abrasion is the wearing-off of the concrete paving block caused by amongst others high water-cement
ratio and excess of air-entraining admixture in the concrete mix. The high compressive strength of a
concrete paving block indicates high abrasion resistance, but evaluation only on the basis of strength
will not identify the thin abrasion susceptible block surface (Dreijer 1980). Available abrasion tests are
sandblast tests, rattler-type tests and mechanical tests with wheels or steel balls. However, these tests
only allow an evaluation of relative quality without any defined acceptable criteria for wear-off of
concrete surfaces (Lane 1978).

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

From the literature review, it was concluded that the following tests could give an indication of
durability in a marine environment:
• Cement content
• Salt resistance
• Water absorption
• Porosity
• Abrasion resistance

3.1 Cement content

The X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis test was used to determine the calcium oxide (CaO) content in the
paving blocks, in order to establish the cement content. The material from the block is ground to be
finer than 75 microns. This material is fused at 1000 0C in a muffle furnace. Major element analysis is
carried out on fused beads, following the standard method used in the XRD and XRF laboratory at the
University of Pretoria.

3.2 Salt resistance

Specimens (50 mm cubes) cut from paving blocks were subjected to 15 cycles of soaking in 60g per
1000 ml solution of either sodium sulphate or sodium chloride, oven drying and cooling. When particle
losses occur, the total mass of the particles lost from each specimen is determined by weighing. A
sample is considered to be salt attack resistant when no test specimen has a total mass loss of particles
of more than 1% as specified by the Australian/New Zealand standard AS/NZS.10: 1997.

3.3 Porosity
Porosity is an indication of the interconnected pores present in the paving block. From each block, a
specimen is cut into a cylinder of approximately 65 mm diameter and 20 mm thick. The specimens are
placed in an oven for four days to dry completely at a temperature of 105 oC. After four days the
specimens are removed from the oven and placed in a vacuum desiccator, where approximately 87 kPa
pressure was maintained over the specimens by means of a vacuum pump. The vacuum is left for about
8 to 12 hours before distilled water can be added in the vacuum desiccator. The vacuum is then
maintained for another 6 hours to ensure that air is completely removed from the specimens. The
vacuum within the specimens draws the water in the desiccator into the pores. From this the porosity is
calculated.

Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
3.4 Water absorption
The absorption of water by immersion of the paving blocks in water is measured as the difference
between the mass of a test specimen (100 mm square block and 50 mm thick) after immersion in water
for at least 48 hours, and the mass of the same specimen when dry (Rilem test method 1979).

3.5 Abrasion resistance

The wire-brush method measures the average wear to which a standard wire brush, abrades the paving
blocks. A drill press was adapted for this test. The sample was abraded with the wire brush at 400 rpm
for 4 minutes with a force of 145 N. The average depth of wear was taken over 20 measurement
points.

3.6 Samples evaluated

Specimens used in the initial laboratory tests were selected to cover a range in the durability, and
consisted of the following blocks:
• 20-year old blocks without a capping layer, which were removed from the marine environment
footpath and which had not deteriorated. These blocks are referred to as “old blocks”.
• New blocks which had deteriorated or were still intact (without a capping layer) were removed
from the footpath after having been in service for only three years. These blocks are referred to
as “new deteriorated blocks” and “new intact blocks”.
• Typical Gauteng blocks with a 10-mm capping layer of a different mix from the rest of the
block were also included to determine whether there are major differences between blocks
designed for the interior and marine environment. It is known that these blocks manufactured
in the interior near Johannesburg do not perform well in a marine environment.

4. LABORATORY EVALUATION OF THE BLOCKS THAT HAD BEEN IN SERVICE

A summary of the laboratory test results is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of the laboratory test results on in-service blocks

Sodium Sodium
Block Water Porosity Cement Abrasion (mm) Chloride Sulphate
absorption (%) content solution solution
(%) (%) Top Bottom Mass loss Mass loss
surface surface (%) (%)

Old block 3.9 12 .6 26.7 1.51 1.72 1.6 0.4

New block 5.1 17.7 10.4 1.88 1.62 16.8 10.0

(deteriorated)

New block 3.2 14.3 16.1 1.36 1.56 0.9 0.4

(intact)

Gauteng 6.8 17.8 11.6 2.57 1.98 5.0 2.4

block

Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
The reasons for the early deterioration of the concrete paving blocks were the following:
• The sodium chloride salt resistance test was more discriminatory than the sodium sulphate test,
and correctly identified those blocks that had a durability problem.
• The cement content of the deteriorated blocks was below the guideline limit of 14%.
• The blocks were not well compacted and the mix design was inadequate, because the porosity
and water absorption were high on the deteriorated blocks.
• The abrasion test and air voids determination did not provide adequate discrimination for
durability.
•
Indications are that to ensure good and durable blocks in a marine environment:
• Use at least 14% of cement in the concrete mix.
• Provide good compaction.
• Ensure a dense aggregate grading with low voids.
• Consider using cement extenders to reduce the voids.

The findings from the initial laboratory evaluations were used to predict the potential performance of
the test panels that were placed to evaluate the applicability of the findings. This is discussed next.

5. PREDICTION OF PERFORMANCE OF NEW PANELS

Nine panels of blocks with different strengths and compositions were constructed in a marine
environment where splash and spray occur regularly. The selected area was the same as where the
problem that initiated this study occurred. Details of the blocks as well as a summary of the laboratory
results are given in Table 2. The untinted blocks had different strengths and aggregate compositions,
whereas the charcoal blocks were all from the same batch but used in different parts of the experiment.
The cement content results are the average of three tests, and the water absorption and salt resistance is
the average of four tests.

Table 2. Laboratory results of the validation study

Design Sodium Chloride
Block Strength Water Cement solution
MPa absorption content Mass loss Mass loss
(%) (%) First 15 Further 15
cycles (%) cycles (%)
Charcoal (pink) 45 6.1 11.2 0.9 1.1
Untinted (pink) 35 6.9 18.7? 1.3 3.0
Charcoal (rust) 45 4.7 12.2 1.3 1.5
Untinted (rust) 45 4.0 15.3 1.3 0.6
Charcoal (white) 45 4.2 11.4 1.2 1.2
Untinted (white) 35 4.0 12.3 1.0 0.6
Charcoal (yellow) 45 4.3 16.7 1.4 1.7
Untinted (yellow) 45 3.3 15.4 1.2 0.3
Untinted 35 5.3 18.3 1.2 0.3

The untinted (pink) block visually did not appear to be the same as the others as during cutting it felt
soft. The untinted (rust) blocks were made of the same mix as the charcoal blocks.

An intriguing aspect of the test results is that the salt resistance is almost the same for all the blocks,
even after subjecting them to a further 15 cycles in sodium chloride, and water absorption was
Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
relatively low. As would be expected, the cement content is related to compressive strength – the
design cement content was 13% for the 35 MPa blocks (except for the unmarked type), and 16% for the
45 MPa blocks. The laboratory study corroborated the design cement contents, but in some instances
the actual values were lower than the design value. In fact, the large variability (11.2% to 16.2% vs
design value of 16%) of the charcoal blocks is of concern, and suggests poor quality control. From the
previous study it would be expected that the blocks with the higher cement contents would perform
better than the 35 MPa strength blocks, although the salt resistance tests did not show a difference.
Previous observations of the performance of blocks had indicated that blocks that had an added
pigment performed better that untinted blocks. It is hypothesized that the pigment acts in a similar
manner as fly ash, which has proven beneficial effects on the durability of concrete in a marine
environment. The fine material reduces pore sizes and their interconnectivity. The actual performance
of these blocks will be discussed in the next section.

6. FIELD PERFORMANCE OF BLOCKS USED IN THE VALIDATION STUDY

The experimental panels were inspected after six months and again after 12 months exposure to the
marine environment. The observations are given in Table 3. The trend noticeable after six months
remained the same after 12 months. The hypothesized beneficial influence of the pigment is validated
by the field performance. Although the general performance was good, variability in the performance
was evident, which substantiates the cement content determinations. It was also noticeable that Panel
No. 5, although made to be a 35 MPa block, but with the high cement content of 18.3% was providing
the best performance. This corroborates general practice that a high cement content is required in a
marine environment.

Table 3. Performance results after six months

Design Observations on performance
Block Panel No Strength
MPa

Charcoal (pink) 4 45 Good

Untinted (pink) 4 35 Some degradation visible
Charcoal (rust) 2 45 Good
Untinted (rust) 2 45 Some degradation visible
Charcoal (white) 1 45 Good
Untinted (white) 1 35 Good
Charcoal (yellow) 3 45 Some degradation visible
Untinted (yellow) 3 45 Some degradation visible
Untinted 5 35 Very good, no degradation visible

The location of the block in the production mould, and the ability of the production equipment to fill
each mould cavity with the same amount of material, could influence absorption and ultimately
durability. This could explain the variable performance, even of adjacent blocks, but was not
controlled in the experiment.

Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003
7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary requirement for resistance to degradation in a marine environment is a cement content
greater than 14%, and preferably greater than 18%. Laboratory tests that provide an indication of
potential durability are the cement content test and 15 cycles of soaking, in a sodium chloride solution,
and drying. In the validation study it was found that variability in the materials used in the
manufacture of the blocks played a major role. This was noticed in the cement content determination,
and also in the field where some blocks were found to degrade while others in the immediate vicinity
remained in good condition. Location of the block in the production process could play an important
role, and should be controlled in future experiments.

It was observed that pigmented blocks had a better performance than untinted blocks made with the
same mix to the same strength. It is well-known that fly ash improves the durability of concrete in a
marine environment. It is hypothesized that the pigment functions in the same manner as fly ash and
that the resultant pores are smaller in size, and probably not interconnected, leading to improved
durability. It is recommended that fly ash be used as a cement extender to improve durability,
particularly for untinted blocks.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere appreciation is extended for the financial support offered by the Concrete Manufacturers
Association to perform the test programme, the Cape Town City Council Engineering Division for
constructing the test panels as well as the local coordination provided by Mr Dave King in the
subsequent monitoring. The laboratory testing was carried out by Ms Tsakane Mathebula, a final year
civil engineering student at the University of Pretoria.

9. REFERENCES

Dowson, A. J. 1980. "Mix Design for Concrete Block Paving," First International Conference on
Concrete Block Paving, University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, England.

Dreijer, P. A. 1980. "Laboratory and Fieldwork on Block Paving," First International Conference on
Concrete Block Paving, University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, England.

Lane, R. O. 1978. "Abrasion Resistance," Chapter 22, Significance of Tests and Properties of
Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, ASTM Special Technical Publication 69B, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.

Neville, A. M. 1973. Properties of Concrete, 2d ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Rilem Test Method. 1979. “Determination of the Water Absorption Capacity after Immersion.”
International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials Method cc6-1(E).

Paper presented at the International Concrete Block Conference, San Francisco, 2003