Chemistry: A field of science that studies the structures, properties, compositions and interactions between

matters.

Matter: Something that has mass and occupies space.

Melting point Freezing point
- Constant temperature when a substance changes - Constant temperature when a substance changes
from solid state to become liquid at a specific from liquid state to become solid at a specific
pressure. pressure.

Temperature from P to Q did not increase because heat Temperature from P to Q did not decrease because heat
energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the energy that is lost to the surroundings is balanced by the
attraction force between the particles until solid changes to heat energy released when the particles attract each other to
liquid form solid

Subatomic Particles：Proton, Electron, Neutron

Proton number:

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Nucleon number:

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an

atom
The outermost shell filled with electrons is the valence shell.

Electrons in the valence shell are known as valence electrons.

Electron arrangement can be written as: 2.8.3

Elements with the same number of valence electrons have

similar chemical properties.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different nucleon numbers.

Relative Atomic Mass of Isotopes

Natural abundance: Σ(% 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒)

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
Percentage of isotopes present in a natural sample of element 100

Uses of Isotopes

Field Isotope Uses

- In radiotherapy to kill cancer cells without surgery

Cobalt-60
- Sterilising surgical tools
Medicine
Iodine-131 - Treatment of thyroid disorders such as hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer

Agriculture Phosphorus-32 - Study of plant metabolism

Nuclear Uranium-235 - Generating electricity through nuclear power generator

Carbon-14 - Estimation of artifacts or fossils’ age

Archaeology
Lead-210 - In determining the age of sand and earth layers up to 80 years

Industry Hydrogen-3 - As a detector to study sewage and liquid wastes

Engineering Sodium-24 - In detecting leakage in underground pipes

1. Chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using alphabets to represent the atoms and subscript
numbers to show the number of each type of atom found in the elementary entities of the substance.

Molecule Chemical formula Acid and Alkali Chemical formula

Sulphur dioxide SO2 Hydrochloric acid HCl

Sulphur trioxide SO3 Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Carbon monoxide CO Nitric acid HNO3

Carbon dioxide CO2 Phosphoric acid H3PO4

Carbon trioxide CO3 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Ammonia NH3

O2 , H2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , Ne2

2. Empirical formula is the chemical formula that shows the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of each element in a
compound.
Example:
 Element Al O

Mass (g) 1.35 1.2

Number of moles of atoms (mol) 1.35 1.2 Molecular formula

27
= 0. 05 16
= 0. 075
= (Empirical formula) 𝑛
Mole ratio 0.05 0.075
0.05
= 1 0.05
= 1. 5

Simplest mole ratio of atom 2 3

Al2O3
3. Molecular formula is the chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element found in a
molecule of a compound.

Ionic compounds are made up of cations (positively-charged ions) and anions (negatively-charged ions).
Charge Cation Symbol Charge Anion Symbol

Hydrogen ion H+ Chloride ion Cl-

Sodium ion Na+ Bromide ion Br -

Lithium ion Li+ Iodine ion I-

+1 Potassium ion K+ -1 Hydroxide ion OH-

Silver ion Ag+ Nitrate ion NO3-

Copper (I) ion Cu+ Nitrite ion NO2-

Ammonium ion NH4+ Manganate (VII) ion MnO4-

Magnesium ion Mg2+ Oxide ion O2-

Calcium ion Ca2+ Sulphide ion S2-

Zinc ion Zn2+ -2 Sulphite ion SO32-

+2
Iron (II) ion Fe2+ Sulphate ion SO42-

Copper (II) ion Cu2+ Carbonate ion CO32-

Lead (II) ion Pb2+ Thiosulphate ion S2O32-

Iron (III) ion Fe3+ Phosphate ion PO43-

3+ -3
Aluminium ion Al3+ Dichromate ion Cr2O73-
 Modern Periodic Table of Elements:

A form of systematic classification of elements in ascending order of proton numbers from left to right and from top to bottom.

Electropositivity Electronegativity

Tendency of an atom to lose/donate electron Tendency of an atom to receive/accept electron

To achieve stable duplet / octet electron arrangement and To achieve stable duplet / octet electron arrangement and
form a positive ion. form a negative ion.

Electropositivity increases → Reactivity increases Electronegativity decreases → Reactivity decreases

 Group 1, Alkali metal ( soft metal )

- Extremely reactive towards water Lithium The atomic size increases as the number of shells occupied by electrons increases.
- Kept in paraffin oil ( inert oil )
Sodium Density increases down the group as the increase in atomic mass is higher than increases in atomic volume.
- Can cut with knife
- Grey solid with shiny surface Potassium The melting point and boiling point decreases. As the size of an atom increases, the distance between
- Good electric and heat conductors valence electron and nucleus increases. This causes the attraction force between the valence electron and
- High melting point and boiling point Rubidium nucleus in the atoms to become weaker. Thus, less heat is needed to overcome these weak forces.
( atoms held together by strong metallic bond
but still lower than other metals. ) Caesium As the atomic size increases down the group, the distance between valence electron and nucleus increases.
- Density lower than water The forces of attraction between valence electron and nucleus become weaker. Hence, the easier the element
Francium to lose / donate the single valence electron. Therefore, the reactivity increases down the Group 1.

Group 17, Halogen

- Diatomic molecules, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2 The atomic size increases as the number of shells occupied by electrons increases.
- Very reactive elements Fluorine
- Non-metal Density increases down the group as the increase in atomic mass is higher than increases in atomic volume.
Chlorine
- Low melting point and boiling point Melting point and boiling point increases. As the size of atom increases, the number of electrons increases. This
- Weak van der Waals force between atoms Bromine causes the intermolecular forces between the molecules to increase. Thus, more heat is needed to overcome the
- Do not conduct electricity and heat attraction force between molecules.
Iodine
- Have intense smell and poisonous
- Low density Astatine As the atomic size increases down the group, the distance between valence electron and nucleus increases. The
forces of attraction between valence electron and nucleus become weaker. Hence, the difficulty in attracting
1. Handle it in fume chamber Tennessine electrons will increase. Thus, the tendency to accept / receive electrons decreases. Therefore, the reactivity
2. Wear safety goggles and mask decreases down the Group 17.

Group 18, Noble gas / Inert gas / Monoatomic gas

- Inert because the outermost shell of the atoms has Helium The atomic size increases as the number of shells occupied by electrons increases.
achieved a stable duplet / octet electron arrangement
- Do not need to share, donate or receive electron with the Neon The melting point and boiling point increases because the atomic size increases.This causes the
others attraction force between atoms increases. More heat is needed to overcome the attraction forces
Argon between the atoms.
- Colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-flammable under
standard conditions Krypton Density increases down the group as the increase in atomic mass is higher than increases in atomic
- Low melting point and boiling point Xenon volume.
- Do not conduct electricity and heat
- Low density Radon
 - Used to fill weather balloons - Used in flashlight in camera
Helium Krypton
- Used in oxygen tank of divers - Used in eye retina treatment

Xenon - Used in lighthouse lamps

Neon - Used in advertising board lights
- Used in anaesthesia

- Used in electric bulbs

Argon Radon - Used to treat cancer
- Used to provide an inert atmosphere for welding in high temperature

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
Period 3
Metal Semi metal：have both properties of them Non-metal

Atomic size decreases All elements in Period 3 have 3 shells occupied by electrons but the number of protons increases by one unit across the period. When the number of protons
across period increases, the electrostatic force between the nucleus and valence electrons increases. Therefore, valence electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus.

Electronegativity The decrease in the atomic size causes an increase in the force of attraction between nucleus and electrons. As a result, smaller atoms have a high tendency
increases across period to attract electrons.

Melting point and High Very high Low

boiling point Metal with strong metallic bonds between Strong covalent bonds between it atoms Non-metal with weak van der Waals forces
the metal bonds forming a s-dimensional gigantic network

Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7

Basic oxide ( alkali ) Amphoteric oxide Acidic oxide ( acidic )

React with acid to produce salt and water Can react with both alkali and acid React with alkali to produce salt and water

Transition element

Physical - Solids with shiny surfaces - Have high intensities

properties - Very hard compared to metals in Group 1 and Group 2 - Have high melting points and boiling points

Special 1. Act as a catalyst 2. Can form complex ions

Characteristics
Iron, Fe : Haber Process to produce Platinum, Pt : Ostwald Process to produce nitric Tetraaminecopper(II) ion [Cu(NH3)4]2+
ammonia, NH3 acid, HNO3
Hexacyanoferrate(III) ion [Fe(CN)6]3–

Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 : Contact Nickel, Ni / Platinum, Pt : hydrogenation Hexacyanoferrate(II) ion [Fe(CN)6]4–
Process to produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4 process on vegetable oils to produce margarine.
Hexaaquaferrate(II) ion [Fe(H2O)6]2+
 3. Have more than one oxidation number 4. Formed coloured compounds

Chromium, Cr +3 Chromium(III) chloride, CrCl3 Chromium(III) ion, Cr3+(aq) Green

+6 Potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7 Dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72–(aq) Orange

Manganese, Mn +2 Manganese(II) chloride, MnCl2 Manganese(II) ion, Mn2+(aq) Pink

+4 Manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2 Manganate(VII) ion, MnO4– (aq) Purple
+7 Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4

Iron, Fe +2 Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 Iron(II) ion, Fe2+(aq) Green

+3 Iron(III) chloride, FeCl3 Iron(III) ion, Fe3+(aq) Brown

Copper, Cu +1 Copper(I) oxide, Cu2O Copper(II) ion, Cu2+(aq) Blue

+2 Copper(II) oxide, CuO

Copper (II) carbonate, CuCO3 Green Potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7 Orange

Copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4 Blue Potassium permanganate, KMnO4 Purple

Copper (II) oxide, CuO Black Iron (II) sulphate, FeSO4 Pale Green / Green

Copper (II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 Blue Iron (III) chloride, FeCl3 Yellow Brown / Brown

Manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2 Black Iron (III) nitrate, Fe(NO3) Brown

Chemical bonds are formed when electron transfer or electron sharing takes place.

Ionic bond: Transfer of electrons between a metal atom and a non-metal atom. Covalent bond: Non-metal atoms share their electrons.
 Carbon atom with an electron arrangement 2.4 needs 4 electrons to achieve a stable octet
Electron arrangement of the sodium atom is 2.8.1. Sodium atom has 1 valence electron.
electron arrangement.
Therefore the sodium atom is not stable. Sodium atom releases 1 electron to achieve a
Oxygen atom with an electron arrangement 2.6 needs 2 electrons to achieve stable octet
stable octet electron arrangement to form sodium ion, Na+ with electron arrangement 2.8 .
electron arrangement.
1 carbon atom shares 4 pairs of electrons with 2 oxygen atoms to form a carbon dioxide
Electron arrangement of the chlorine atom is 2.8.7. Chlorine atom has 7 valence
molecule with the formula CO2 .
electrons. Chlorine atom receives 1 electron to achieve a stable octet electron
1 carbon atom contributes 4 electrons and each of the two oxygen atoms contributes two
arrangement to form chlorine ion, Cl- with electron arrangement 2.8.8 .
electrons for sharing to form a double covalent bond.
Sodium ion, Na+ and chlorine ion, Cl- are attracted with strong electrostatic force. The
1 carbon atom forms 1 double covalent bond with 2 oxygen atoms.
bond formed is called an ionic bond.
Carbon atom and oxygen atoms achieve stable octet electron arrangement.

Solid state cannot conduct electricity. Ions cannot move freely because they are tied by Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity in all states. Molecules in covalent
strong electrostatic attraction forces. compounds are neutral and do not carry any charge.
Molten or aqueous state can conduct electricity. Ions can move freely because
electrostatic attraction forces have been overcome.

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water but are not soluble inorganic solvents. Most covalent compounds are not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents.
Water molecules help to overcome electrostatic attraction force between ions and break
down the lattice structure of the solid compound. Molecules in a covalent compound are neutral and do not carry any charges.
Organic solvents cannot overcome electrostatic forces between ions in a solid ionic compound.

Ionic compounds have high melting point and boiling point. Covalent compounds with simple molecules have low melting point and boiling point
Strong electrostatic attraction forces. More heat is needed to break the bonds. Weak van der Waals attraction force. Less heat is needed to overcome the force.
Hydrogen Bond: Attraction forces between hydrogen atom, H that has bonded with an atom of high electronegativity (nitrogen, N, oxygen, O or fluorine, F ) in another molecule.

When hydrogen is covalently bonded with the electronegative oxygen atom, the pair electrons are more closely with the oxygen atom than with the hydrogen atom. This leads to the
formation of partially positive charge on hydrogen atom , H and partially negative charge on oxygen atom, O. The partially positive charged hydrogen atom is then attracted by the
other partially negative charged oxygen atom is known as hydrogen bond.

Polar molecule: A molecule containing polar bonds. Polar bonds form when there is a difference between the electronegativity of the atoms participating in a bond.

Hydrogen chloride is a polar molecule. This is because the chloride atom in the hydrogen chloride molecule is more electromagnetic than hydrogen. The pair of electrons are more
closely with chlorine atom than with the hydrogen atom.

The cellulose/keratin molecule that forms the paper/hair is a polar molecule. Hydrogen bond is formed when the partially positive charged of hydrogen atom in water is attracted to
the partially negative charged of oxygen atom in cellulose/keratin. When fingertips/hair are wet, there are hydrogen bonds between water molecules and cellulose/keratin in
paper/hair, thus it is easier to flip paper/sticky. When fingertips/hair are dry, no hydrogen bond forms between water and cellulose/keratin in paper/hair, thus it is difficult to flip the
paper/not sticky.

HP & BP The molecule held by the hydrogen bond has a higher boiling point than the molecule held by the van der Waals force. More energy is needed to break the bonds.

Soluble Ethanol, C2H5OH is also soluble in water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between the ethanol molecule, C2H5OH and water molecule, H2O.

In water (liquid), water molecules are closely held together by hydrogen bonds and move randomly. When water freezes, hydrogen bonds are stable, arrangement of water molecules
far apart from each other. Hence, the volume of ice becomes greater than that of the water. The effect of the increase in the volume of ice is that its density becomes lower than the
density of water, thus ice becomes lighter than water.

Dative bond / Coordinate bond:

A covalent bond between two atoms which two electrons are from one atom only

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

The reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride will produce ammonium
chloride. Ammonium ion, NH4+ is formed by transferring a hydrogen ion, H+
from the hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonium
molecule.

Ammonium ions are positively charged because only the hydrogen ion, H+ is
transferred from the chlorine atom to the nitrogen atom. The electron from the
hydrogen atom is left behind on the chlorine atom to form a negative chlorine ion.
 Metallic bond: Strong electrostatic force between the sea of electrons and the positive metal ions

Delocalised electrons: Valence electrons that lose from metallic atoms and move freely throughout the metal structure.
Sea of electrons: Delocalised electrons that are free to move in the space between metal atoms.

- When an atom loses electrons, it becomes positive ions.

- In metallic bonding, only the outer electrons are mobile. The positive metallic ions are fixed / immobile

High MP & BP A large amount of heat is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic force between the sea of electrons with the positive ions in metallic bonds.

Good electricity The delocalised electrons are able to move freely to conduct electricity. The delocalised electrons can flow and carry the charge from the negative terminal to the
conductor positive terminal when the electric current is applied.

Acid : Chemical substances ionise in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ Base: Substance that reacts with acids to produce salt and water (insoluble in water)
Example: MgO, Ca(OH)2

Alkali: Chemical substances ionise in water to produce hydroxide ions, OH- (soluble in water)
Example: KOH, NaOH
Litmus paper Methyl orange Phenolphthalein Litmus paper Methyl orange Phenolphthalein
Red Red Colourless Blue Yellow Pink

pH value 0-6 8-14

pH+pOH=14 pH value = -log [n. of mol H+] pOH value = -log [n. of mol OH-]

Strong Acid that ionises completely in water to produce a high concentration of H+ Alkali that ionises completely in water to produce a high concentration of OH-
HCl , HNO3 , H2SO4 NaOH

Weak Acid that ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of H+ Alkali that ionises partially in water to produce a low concentration of OH–
CH3COOH NH3

Reacts Acid + Base → salt + H2O Alkali + Acid → salt + H2O

Acids + Reactive metals → salt + H2 Alkali + Ammonium salt → Salt + H2O + NH3

Acids + Metal carbonates → salt + H2O + CO2 Alkali + Metal ions → Insoluble metal hydroxide + Cation from alkali

Standard Solution: Solution with known concentration

Dilution method : M1V1=M2V2

Water that is added to the aqueous solution will alter the concentration of the solution but it would not alter the number of moles of solute contained in the solution.
 𝑀𝑎𝑉𝑎 𝑎
Neutralisation: Reaction between an acid and an alkali (base) to produce salt and water only
𝑀𝑏𝑉𝑏
= 𝑏

Milk of magnesia, Mg(OH)2 Relieves gastric pain Neutralising the excessive hydrochloric acid in the stomach
Shampoo Clean the hair Neutralises acid on hair
Application
Toothpaste Clean the teeth Neutralises lactic acid produced by bacteria in our mouth.
Slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 Used to treat acidic soil Neutralises acidic soil

Titration Method: A quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of acid needed to completely neutralise a given volume of alkali and vice versa.
End point: The point in the titration at which the acid-base indicator changes colour.

Salt (ionic compound) formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from the acid is replaced with the metal ion or the ammonium ion, NH4+

Salt crystals - Has flat surface, straight sides and sharp vertices - Has specific geometrical shapes ( different crystals have different )
- Has a fixed angle between two adjacent surfaces - Same crystals of different sizes still have the same geometrical shapes
Particles of salt crystals are arranged in a compact and orderly manner according to a specific design arrangement.

Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 : Fertiliser Iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4 : Pesticides to kill pests and grass

Calcium sulphate, CaSO4 : plaster of Paris to support broken bones Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 : Antiseptic to treat wounds
Uses
Sodium chloride, NaCl : Flavour Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 : Raising dough

Sodium benzoate, C6H5COONa : Preserve chilli sauce and tomato sauce Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 : Preserve processed meat
 Type of salts Preparation Soluble salts : Dissolve in water at room temperature Non-soluble salts : Dissolve at room temperature. Preparation

Nitrate salt (NO3–) All nitrate salts None

Reaction between:
All sulphate salts except Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4
Sulphate salt (SO42–) Barium sulphate, BaSO4 Double
• Acid + Reactive
Calcium sulphate, CaSO4 decomposition
metal
reaction
All chloride salts except Mercury(I) chloride, Hg2Cl2
– • Acid + Metal oxide
Chloride salt (Cl ) Lead(II) chloride, PbCl2 - S.salt + S.salt →
Silver chloride, AgCl S.salt + Insoluble salt
• Acid + Metal
carbonate Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 Other carbonate salts
Carbonate salt (precipitation
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3 reaction)
(CO32–)
Ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3

Ammonium, sodium Neutralisation reaction All ammonium, sodium and potassium salts None
and potassium salts between acid and alkali

Evaporate until become a saturated solution→ Cool down at room temperature → Filter and dry the salt crystals by pressing it between filter papers
Na+, K+, NH4+ , NO3- is always soluble

Salts / Cation / Metal Oxide Solid Aqueous Gas Observation / Test Interference

K+, Na+, NH4+ , Ca2+, Mg2+,

White Colourless
Zn2+, Pb2+, Al3+ - NO3is produced by heating
Nitrogen - Brown gas
nitrate salt
dioxide, NO2 - Blue litmus paper turns red
Fe2+ (FeSO4 , FeCl2 , - Nitrate ion, NO3- present
Light Green Light Green
Fe(NO3)2 )

Fe3+ Brown Brown - Colourless gas - O2 is produced by heating nitrate

Oxygen, O2 - Glowing wooden splinter salt or chlorate (V) salt
CuCO3 Green Insoluble relighted - NO3- or ClO3- ion present

Cu2+ (CuSO4 , CuCl2 ,

Blue Blue - Produced by heating carbonate
Cu(NO3)2) Carbon dioxide, - Colourless gas
salt
CO2 - Limewater turns chalky
- Carbonate ion, CO32- present
CuO Black Insoluble

ZnO Yellow (hot) , White (cold) Insoluble - Colourless gas and pungent - Produced by heating ammonium
Ammonia, NH3 smell salt with alkali
PbO Brown (hot), Yellow (cold) Insoluble - Red litmus paper turns blue - Ammonium ion, NH4+ present
 Cation Test
Cation with NaOH → After adding a little sodium hydroxide solution →

NH4+ No precipitate formed Add excess sodium hydroxide solution

Cu+, Fe2+, Fe3+ Coloured precipitate formed
Pb2+, Zn2+, Al3+ Soluble
White precipitate formed
Ca2+, Mg2+ Insoluble

Cation with NH3 → Add a little ammonia solution →

Add excess aqueous ammonia
Ca2+ No precipitate formed
Cu+ Soluble
Coloured precipitate formed
Fe2+, Fe3+ Insoluble

Zn2+ Soluble
White precipitate formed
Pb2+ , Mg2+, Al3+ Insoluble

Cation Pb2+ Al3+

SO42- / Cl- / I- added Yellow precipitate formed No precipitate formed

Anion Test
Anion Procedure Remark

1. Add 2 cm3 sodium carbonate solution, Na2CO3 Observation: Gas bubbles appear and limewater turns chalky
Carbonate ion,
2. Add 4 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl
CO32-
3. Test with limewater Interference: The gas is CO2

1. Add 2 cm3 sodium carbonate solution, NaCl Observation: White precipitate formed
Chloride ion,
2. Add dilute nitric acid, HNO3 until no more changes
Cl-
3. Add 2 cm3 silver nitrate, Ag(NO3)2 solution Interference: The precipitate is AgCl, Cl- present

1. Add 2 cm3 sodium chloride solution, Na2SO4 Observation: White precipitate formed
Sulphate ion,
2. Add dilute nitric acid, HNO3 / hydrochloric acid, HCl
SO42-
3. Add 2 cm3 barium chloride, BaCl2 / nitrate, Ba(NO3)2 solution Interference: Precipitate is BaSO4, SO42- present

1. Add 2 cm3 sodium chloride solution, NaNO3

Observation: A brown ring is formed between two layers
Nitrate ion, 2. Add 2 cm3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and 2 cm3 FeSO4 solution
NO3- 3. Shake the test tube
Interference: Nitrate ion, NO3-
4. Slant the test tube and add few drops concentrated H2SO4 along the wall and held upright
Rate of reaction: Changes in the quantity of the reactant / product per unit time
- g s–1 or g min–1
- cm3 s–1 or cm3 min–1
- mol dm–3 s–1 or mol dm–3 min–1

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 / 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟

Changes that Occur during Reactions

- Formation of precipitate
- Decrease in the mass of the reactants
- Increase in volume of gases

Average Rate of Reaction Instantaneous Rate of Reaction

Average value for the rate of reaction that occurs in a particular time interval. Rate of reaction at a particular point of time.
𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑡 Drawing tangent then use formula 𝑡

Factors Affecting Rate of Reactions and its Explanation

Size of Reactants: Temperature: Concentration: Presence of Catalyst:

𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 ↓ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ↑ 𝑟𝑜𝑟 ↑ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ↑ 𝐾𝐸 ↑ 𝑟𝑜𝑟 ↑ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ↑ 𝑟𝑜𝑟 ↑ ( ___ ) acts as a catalyst. It provides an alternative
path of reaction which needs lower activation
Exp: Action of medicines, Cooking food Exp: Cleaning, Cooking food Exp: Corrosion due to acid rain energy. More colliding particles achieve activation
energy in the reaction.
The smaller the size of reactant, the total surface The higher the temperature, the higher The higher the concentration of
area exposed to collision is larger. the kinetic energy of reacting particles. reactants, the number of particles
The reacting particles will move faster. in a/per unit volume is higher.
↓ ↓ ↓
Frequency of collision between particles increases
↓
The frequency of effective collision between particles increases.
↓ ←
Thus, the rate of reaction increases. *Particles* need to change according question
 Collision Theory

Reactant particles must collide with one another for reaction to occur Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
The rate of reaction depends on the frequency of effective collisions
- Release heat energy to surrounding - Absorb heat energy from surrounding
Activation energy:
Minimum amount of energy needed for the reacting particles

Effective collision

1. Achieve activation energy, Ea

2. Correct orientation

Ineffective collision

1. Did not achieve Ea

2. Wrong orientation

Alloy : A mixture of two or more elements where the main element is a metal.

Pure metals are Pure metal is made up of one type of atom. Atoms in pure metals are all the same size. The same size atoms are orderly arranged in layers. When force is
ductile applied to the pure metal, layers of atoms slide easily over one another.

Pure metals are There are empty spaces between atoms in pure metal. When force is applied, the atoms of the pure metal will slide and fill the empty spaces into new
malleable positions. Therefore, the pure metal is malleable or can be shaped.

Why alloy is stronger Atoms of other elements added to the pure metal to make an alloy consist of atoms different in size. These atoms disrupt the orderly arrangement of atoms in
than pure metal pure metal. When force is applied to an alloy, the presence of foreign atoms reduces / prevents layers of atoms from sliding.

Properties Surface Resistant to corrosion Hardness and strength

Alloy Shiny surface Resistant to corrosion Hard and strong

Pure metal Dull surface Corrode easily Less hard and strong

Alloy

Main component Percentage Type of alloy Properties Uses

93% Al, 3% Cu,

Aluminium Duralumin - Light and strong Body of aeroplane / bullet train / electric cables / racing bicycles
3% Mg, 1% Mn
 90% Cu, 10% Sn Bronze - Hard and strong, does not corrode, shiny surface Monuments / medals / trophies / artistic materials

Copper 70% Cu, 30% Zn Brass - Hard and strong Musical instrument / kitchenware / keys / door knobs

75% Cu, 25% Ni Cupronickel - Hard, does not corrode, shiny surface Coins

98% Fe, 2% C Steel - Hard and strong Buildings / bridge / railway tracks /body of cars
Iron
73% Fe, 18% Cr,
Stainless Steel - Strong, does not corrode, shiny surface Cutlery / sinks / surgical instruments
8% Ni, 1% C

95% Sn, 3.5% Sb,

Tin Pewter - Luster, shiny and strong Souvenirs / decorative ornaments / trophies
1.5% Cu

Glass

Materials Made by Characteristics Uses

Fused silica Silica, SiO2 - Does not expand or contract much when there is a large change in
glass - High melting point (1800oC) temperature. Telescope lens

Silica, SiO2 - Melting point around 1000oC

Glass containers
Soda, Na2CO3 - Easily moulded
Soda-lime glass Bottles
- Lower melting point - Cannot withstand high temperatures
Jugs
Limestone, CaCO3 - Easily crack when subjected to sudden temperature change.

Silica, SiO2 - Resistance to heat Laboratory glassware:

Soda, Na2CO3 - Do not crack easily when subjected to thermal stress ( reaction when
Borosilicate heat changes suddenly )
Limestone, CaCO3 Beakers
glass [such as be removed from the refrigerator and heated immediately
Boron oxide, Br2O3 without cracking]
Flasks
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 - Low expansion coefficient

Silica, SiO2
Lead crystal Soda, Na2CO3 - Heavier
Prims
glass Lead (II) Oxide, PbO - High refractive index
- replaces calcium, Ca to produce glass that is softer and denser
 Ceramic:
- A solid made up of inorganic and non-metallic substances.
- Produced through the process of shaping and hardening by using heating
technique at a high temperature.

- Atoms are bonded by strong covalent bonds and ionic bonds.

- High melting point
- Hard
- Resistant to compression.

- Atoms in ceramics cannot slide over each other when force is applied.
- The energy from the force will be used to break the bonds between the
atoms.
- Brittle and weak towards stretching.

- The electrons in ceramics cannot move freely to conduct electricity or

heat.

Traditional Ceramics: made from clay such as kaolin, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O Advanced ceramics: made from inorganic compounds such as oxides,
Clay is mixed with water to produce a soft, mouldable mixture → Heated at a very high temperature carbides and nitrides.
Used to make bricks, pottery and crockery Silicon carbide: cutting discs, brake discs Other: tungsten carbide rings

Zirconia ceramic is used in dental implants.

Medicine Alumina ceramic is used to make knee bones.
Example of Ceramic is used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines because it has superconductivity properties.
applications
Transportation Ceramic is used to make engine components in jet planes.

Energy production Ceramic is used to make electrical insulators in high voltage areas such as power stations.

Composite Material: combining two or more non-homogeneous substances, that is matrix substance and strengthening substance. They have different physical and chemical properties.

Composite Material Matrix substance Strengthen substance Uses

Reinforced concrete Concrete Steel bar / Wire mesh

- High compression strength - High compression strength Widely used in construction of bridges, dams and buildings.
- High stretching strength
- High stretching strength - Low stretching strength
- Corrodes easily
- Resistant to corrosion - Resistant to corrosion
Fibreglass Plastic Glass fibre

- Low stretching strength - High stretching strength

- High stretching strength
- Low heat and electrical - Low heat and electrical
- Heat and electrical insulator
conductivity conductivity Helmets, Car bumpers, Printed circuit boards
- Resistant to corrosion
- Resistant to corrosion - Low compression strength
- Durable
- High compression strength - Hard
- High compression strength
- Flexible
- Flexible
- Durable

Innermost layer: Silica glass fibres (S) Transmit information and data in the form of light.
Optical fibre Cladding layer: Glass / Plastic (M) Replaced copper wires in video cameras and connects computers in Local
Protective jacket: Plastic (M) Area Network (LAN).

Photochromic glass Glass Silver Chloride, AgCl

Glasses darken when exposed to sunlight:
- Transparent to visible light
Ag prevents the passage of light
- Transparent - Absorbs UV rays
Glasses are transparent when dim light:
- Absorbs UV rays - Transparent - Sensitive to light intensity
CuCl catalyses the reverse process so that glass becomes transparent again.
- The absorption of UV rays - Does not absorb UV rays
Protects user from UV rays: Window, Camera lenses
depends on light intensity - Not sensitive to light Copper(I) Chloride, CuCl

Made by: Electromagnets

Superconductor - High electrical resistance at room
Yttrium(III) carbonate - Light and have strong magnetic force
temperature
Copper(II) carbonate Used in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) machines and Magnetic
- yttrium barium copper oxide, - No electrical resistance at very low
Barium carbonate Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines.
YBCO ceramic temperature
Oxygen Used in electrical transportation such as the Maglev train.