Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications

5th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Çengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2015

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS

Dr S. Mabuwa

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related
to each other
• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and
heat transfer from other forms of energy transfer
• Perform general and surface energy balances
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation,
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice

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THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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4
HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
 thermal,
 mechanical,
 kinetic,
 potential,
 electrical,
 magnetic,
 chemical,
 nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit
mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the
internal energy of a system.

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• Internal energy: The sum of the kinetic and potential energies
of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with
the atomic bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with atomic
bonds.

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 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
and Pv.
• The combination is defined
as enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
• The term Pv represents the
flow energy of the fluid
(also called the flow work).

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 Specific Heats of Gases,
Liquids, and Solids

• Specific heat: The energy required to

raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance by one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
 specific heat at constant volume cv
 specific heat at constant pressure cp
• The specific heats of a substance, in
general, depend on two independent
properties such as temperature and
pressure.
• At low pressures all real gases
approach ideal gas behavior, and
therefore their specific heats depend on
temperature only.

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 Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle) states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.

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10
In heat transfer problems it is convenient
to write a heat balance and to treat the
conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into
thermal energy as heat generation.

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Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary
systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation
during a process.
For transient (time variable) see later
chapters

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 Energy Balance for
Steady-Flow Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as water heaters and car radiators involve
mass flow in and out of a system, and are modeled as control volumes.

Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions.

The term steady means no change with time at a specified location.

Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow device per
unit time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct per unit time.

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Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains:
no volume
no mass
no energy
no heat generation since no volume

Therefore it’s viewed as a fictitious system

whose energy content remains constant.

Valid for both steady and transient

conditions

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 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat
transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
 conduction
 convection
 radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference.

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 CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between the particles.
.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across
the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness ∆x
and area A.

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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of
heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: ability to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient
becomes negative when temperature decreases
with increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
direction of heat The rate of heat conduction
transfer. through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
conductivity. 17
Thermal conductivity:Thermal Conductivity
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of
the material per unit area
per unit temperature
difference.
Ie - the measure of the
ability of the material to
conduct heat.

High conductivity means

good heat conductor
Low conductivity means
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
(note thermal conductivity
varies with temperature)
Experimental setup to determine
thermal conductivity.
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 Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg·°C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
ρcp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
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 CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air
the adjacent fluid is by pure
by convection.
conduction.

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Forced convection: Forced
flow such as a fan or wind.
Natural(or free) convection:
Fluid motion due to buoyancy
forces (density differences)

The cooling of a boiled egg by

forced and natural convection.

Change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be convection

because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the
rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid
droplets during condensation.
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 Newton’s law of cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T∞ the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface

h experimentally determined
and dependent on variables
such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity

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 RADIATION
• Radiation: Energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
• Does not require the presence of an intervening medium. (ie can
occur in vacuum)
• Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies
because of their temperature
• Heat transfer by radiation is at the speed of light
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.

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 Stefan–Boltzmann law
σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity ε : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which ε = 1 of the surface. 0≤ ε ≤ 1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature. 24
Absorptivity α: The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0≤ α ≤ 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it (α = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity α. 25
Net radiation heat transfer: When a surface is completely enclosed by a
The difference between the much larger (or black) surface at temperature
rates of radiation emitted and Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
the radiation absorbed. does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
of radiation heat transfer between these
Net rate of heat transfer two surfaces is given by
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation
• the medium between

Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but negligible
relative to forced convection.

Radiation heat transfer between a

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surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
 When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

includes the effects of both convection and radiation.

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Opaque solids - conduction only
Semitransparent solids - conduction and radiation
No convection inside solid
Solid surface - convection and/or radiation

Still fluid - conduction and possibly radiation

Flowing fluid - convection and possibly radiation

Vacuum - radiation.

Most gases between two solid surfaces

do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation.
Although there are three mechanisms of
heat transfer, a medium may involve
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only two of them simultaneously.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

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 Summary
• Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Conduction
 𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )/L L = Δx
• Convection
 𝑄𝑄̇ = ℎ𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇α ) 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = Temp surface
𝑇𝑇α = Ambient temp surroundings
• Radiation
• 𝑄𝑄̇ = εδ𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
4
) 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = Surrounding surface

• Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

 Combination of above

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