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10 views

General

Uploaded by

Ricky Sitinjak
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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GENERAL

Resistivity (Rt)
In most cases, either a deep-reading resistivity log or a computed estimate (corrected for invasion
characteristics) of true formation resistivity, Rt, should be used, so that saturations are good
estimates of those in the undisturbed reservoir. However, shallow-reading resistivity devices (such
as microresistivity tools) can also be used, but their saturations will reflect those of the flushed zone,
close to the borehole wall. This information can be useful, particularly when compared with deep-
resistivity saturation data, as a quantitative indicator of moveable hydrocarbons.

In PfEFFER, the Rt selection button is the site of the user-selected resistivity log. Values in these
cells are combined with porosity values in the adjacent PHI column to automatically generate water
saturation and other variables, through application of the Archie equations and parameter values in
the PARAMETER tab. The choice of resistivity log dictates the meaning of the computed fluid
saturations. For a resistivity tool whose depth of investigation reaches beyond the invasion front, the
reading will be an estimate of Rt, the undisturbed formation resistivity. If a shallow-focused tool such
as a microresistivity device is selected, then the saturations in the flushed zone are estimated.
However, in this case, remember to substitute a mud filtrate resistivity value (at formation
temperature) in the RW parameter cell. PfEFFER also provides a movable hydrocarbon option for
users who wish to evaluate residual, movable, and total hydrocarbon saturation simultaneously.

Porosity
The porosity of any zone can be estimated either from a single "porosity log" (sonic, density,
neutron, or magnetic resonance log) or a combination of porosity logs, in order to correct for variable
lithology effects in complex reservoirs. When using a single porosity log, the true porosity is
calculated from interpolation between the values for the matrix mineral and the pore fluid (usually
equated with mud filtrate, because of the shallow investigation of the porosity tools). So, if a bulk
density log is used, then porosity is calculated from the relationship:

where b is the bulk density, is the porosity, ma is the matrix density, and f is the pore fluid
density. If a sonic log is used for porosity estimation, the equivalent relationship is:

where t is the zone transit time, is the porosity, tma is the matrix transit time, and tf is the pore
fluid transit time. Modern neutron logs are recorded in apparent porosity units with respect to a
given mineralogy. Calcite is commonly chosen as a default mineral, in which case the porosity
values will be true porosities in limestone zones. Where zones are not limestone, the limestone-
equivalent neutron log should be rescaled to the zone matrix mineral or combined with a density
limestone-equivalent porosity in an estimate of the true porosity.

The combination of density and neutron logs is now used commonly as a means to determine
porosity that is free of lithology effects. Each individual log records an apparent porosity that is only
true when the zone lithology matches that used by the logging engineer to scale the log. The true
porosity may be estimated either by taking an average of the two log readings or by applying the
equation:

where n and d are neutron and density porosities.

The alternative options of calculating porosity from sonic, density, neutron, or the density/neutron log
combination are provided by PfEFFER and the results are stored in the PHI column of the
Computation section. In some situations, users may want to differentiate between "primary" porosity
(intergranular and intercrystalline) and "secondary" porosity (vugs and fractures). It is widely
perceived that the sonic log is sensitive only to the primary porosity, while the neutron and density
logs reflect total porosity. PfEFFER provides a secondary porosity option to apply this concept for
interested users.

The calculations presented for porosity estimation from a single log assume that shale effects are
not significant or that they can be disregarded. The correction for shale involves an expansion of the
porosity estimation equations to:

for density

for sonic

for neutron log

where Vsh is the fraction of shale estimated from log(s) and sh, tsh, and nsh are readings of
representative shales on the density, sonic, or neutron log.

Shale volume
There are a number of methods to estimate the proportion of shale, Vsh, from wireline logs. When
using a single log (typically a gamma-ray or SP), Vsh of a zone is estimated by interpolating the zone
log reading, L, between the extremes of a log reading of a "clean" (shale-free) formation, C, and a
reading of a typical shale, S. The equation is then:

This estimate is often known as the "gamma-ray index" and represents the proportion by weight of
radioactive material calibrated to the reference shale. Some log analysts apply one of a variety of
functions to estimate the volume of clay, Vcl. This relationship varies with the stratigraphic age and
sedimentary facies of the shale and so is not included in PfEFFER. However, it has been reported in
the literature (e.g. Yaalon, 1962) that the "average" shale contains approximately 60% clay
minerals. Therefore, as a first approximation: as suggested by Bhuyan and
Passey (1994).
The spontaneous potential log can be used in the place of the gamma-ray log in this estimation
procedure. However, there is not a linear relationship between shale content and the SP response
(Griffiths, 1952), and calculated values are almost always overestimates.

If two logs are used (most commonly the neutron and density logs) and are calibrated to the clean
reservoir lithology, then the estimate is given by the equation:

The analyst provides the boundary values from an inspection of the section itself because of the
extreme variability of shale properties both laterally and with depth.

The estimate of Vsh is a pragmatic measure and it is common for several alternative measures to be
computed together. Field experience has suggested that log measures of shale tend to be
overestimates, so it is common practice to select the lowest figure as the best estimate. The values
are stored in the VSH column of the Computation section.

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