2.

Sustained Load - load that is constant

CHAPTER ONE over a long period of time.
3. Impact Load - impulsive and rapid
STRESS application of loads.
4. Repeated Load - successive application
Mechanics – science describing the and removal of loads.
behavior of bodies under the action of
forces. B. According to Distribution
Mechanics of Materials is a
branch of mechanics that studies the 1. Concentrated Load - point load.
internal effects of stress and strain in a
2. Distributed Load - a load distributed
solid body that is subjected to an external
along a line or a surface.
loading. Stress is associated with the
strength of material from which the body
is made, while strain is a measure of the
deformation of the body.

THREE FUNDAMENTAL AREAS OF

ENGINEERING MECHANICS C. According to Location and Method of
Application
1. Statics
2. Dynamics } Devoted primarily to the
study of the external 1. Centric Load - load that pass through
effects of forces on rigid the centroid of the resisting section.
bodies. 2. Torsional Load - load that twists a
member.

}
3. Mechanics ofDeals with the 3. Flexural / Bending Load - load that is
Deformable relations between applied transversely to the longitudinal
Bodies externally applied axis of the member.
loads and their 4. Combined Loading - any combination
internal effects on of the first 3 above.
bodies
CONCEPT of STRESS
EXTERNAL EFFECTS OF A FORCE
1. Stress - intensity of load/force per unit
1. Development of area (P/A)
forces at surfaces of Units: MPa, kPa, Pa, psi, ksi
contact between 2. Normal Stress, σ = P/A - stresses
bodies. acting perpendicular to the surface of a
2. Change in state of cross section.
motion of the body. 3. Shear Stress, τ = V/A - stresses acting
parallel or tangent to the surface of a
INTERNAL EFFECTS OF A FORCE cross section
1. Deformation
2. Development
of internal
stresses.

Rigid Body – a body that does not deform

under the action of forces.
Consider two bars of equal length,
supporting maximum axial loads, which
Non – Rigid Body – a body that deforms
bar is stronger?
under application of loads.

LOAD CLASSIFICATION

A. According to Time

1. Static Load - gradual application of

loads for which equilibrium is achieved at
a very short time.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 1

 TWO TYPES OF EXTERNAL LOADS STRESS
Simple Stresses
1. SURFACE FORCES 1. Normal Stress
are caused by the 2. Shear Stress
direct contact of one 3. Bearing Stress
body with the surface 4. Thin-walled Pressure Vessel
of another. In all cases
these forces are Stress is defined as the strength of a
distributed over the material per unit area or unit strength. It
area of contact is the force on a member divided by area,
between the bodies. which carries the force, formerly express
a. Concentrated force – a single in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.
force which applied to a point of the body 𝑃
since the area is so small in comparison σ =
𝐴
with the total surface area of the body.
b. Linear distributed load – is where P is the applied normal load in
applied along a narrow strip of area and is Newton and A is the area in mm2. The
measured as having an intensity of force maximum stress in tension or
per length along the strip and is compression occurs over a section normal
represented graphically by a series of to the load.
arrows.
c. Support Reactions – is the  Normal Stress
surface forces that develop at the supports Normal stress is either tensile stress or
or points of contact between bodies. compressive stress. Member’s subject to
d. The resultant force of a pure tension (or tensile force) is under
distributed load is equivalent to the area tensile stress, while compression members
under the distributed loading curve and (members subject to compressive force)
this resultant acts through the centroid or are under compressive stress.
geometric center of this area. Compressive force will tend to shorten the
member. Tension force on the other hand
2. A BODY FORCE is developed when one will tend to lengthen the member.
body exerts a force on another body
without direct physical contact between Example No. 1
bodies. These forces are normally A hollow steel tube with
represented by single concentrated force an inside diameter of
acting on a body. 100 mm must carry a
tensile load of 400 kN.
FOUR TYPES OF RESULTANT LOADINGS Determine the outside
diameter of the tube if
1. Normal force (N) – this force acts the stress is limited to
perpendicular to the area. It is developed 120 MN/m2.
whenever the external loads tend to push
or pull on the two segment of the body. Example No. 2
A composite bar consists of an aluminum
2. Shear force (V) – the shear force lies on section rigidly fastened between a bronze
the plane of the area and it is developed section and a steel section as shown. Axial
when the external loads tend to cause the loads are applied at the positions
two segments of the body to slide over one indicated. Determine the stress in each
another. section.

3. Torsional moment or Torque (T) – this

effects are developed when the external
loads tend to twist one segment of the
body with respect to the other about an
axis perpendicular to the area.
Example No. 3
4. Bending moment (M) – it is caused by For the truss shown in figure, determine
external loads that tend to bend the body the stress in member’s AC and BD. The
about an axis lying within the plane of the cross-sectional area of each member is
area. 900 mm2.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 2

Example No. 4 Example No. 6
The block weight (W) in figure hangs from If the wood joint in figure has a width of
the pin at A. The bars AB and AC are 150 mm, determine the average shear
pinned to the support at B and C. The stress developed along shear planes a-a
areas are 800 mm2 for AB and 400mm2 for and b-b.
AC. Neglecting the weights of the bars,
determine the maximum safe value of W if
the stress in AB is limited to 110 MPa and
that in AC to 120 MPa

Example No. 7
What force is required to punch a 20 mm
diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm
ASSIGNMENT NO. 1 thick? The shear strength is 350 MPa.
Solve problems #s 105,107,108,109,111,
112. 114 Pages 12-14, SINGER & Pytel Example No. 8
book. A 200-mm-diameter pulley is prevented
*Long coupon bond, format will be posted from rotating relative to 60-mm-diameter
at a later date. shaft by a 70-mm-long key, as shown in
Fig. P-118. If a torque T = 2.2 kN-m is
 Shearing Stress applied to the shaft, determine the width b
Forces parallel to the area resisting the if the allowable shearing stress in the key
force cause shearing stress. It differs to is 60 MPa.
tensile and compressive stresses, which
are caused by forces perpendicular to the
area on which they act. Shearing stress is
also known as tangential stress.
𝑉
τ =
𝐴
where is the resultant shearing force
which passes through the centroid of the SUPPLEMENTARY EXAMPLES
area being sheared.
SE No. 1
Examples of shear stress The beam is supported by a pin of A and a
short link BC. Determine the maximum
magnitude P of the loads the beam will
support if the average shear stress in each
pin is not to exceed 80 MPa. All pins are in
double shear as shown, and each has a
diameter of 18 mm.

Example No.5
Determine the shear stress in the 20 mm
diameter pin at A and the 30 mm diameter
pin at B that support the beam shown.
Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 3
SE No. 2
The block is subjected to a compressive
force of 2 KN. Determine the average
normal and average shear stress
developed in the wood fibers that are
oriented along section a-a at 30 with the
axis of the block.

Example No. 11
Figure shows a
roof truss and the
detail of the
riveted connection
at joint B. Using
allowable stresses
of τ = 70 MPa and
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2 σb= 140 MPa, how
Solve problems #s 115,116,119,120,123 many 19-mm-
Pages 16-18, SINGER & Pytel book. diameter rivets are
*Long coupon bond, format will be posted required to fasten member BC to the
at a later date. gusset plate? Member BE? What is the
largest average tensile or compressive
Bearing Stress stress in BC and BE?

Bearing stress is the contact pressure

between the separate bodies. It differs
from compressive stress, as it is an
internal stress caused by compressive
forces.
𝑃𝑏
σ
b =
𝐴𝑏
Example No. 9  Thin Walled Pressure Vessels
In figure, assume that a 20-mm-diameter A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas
rivet joins the plates that are each 110 under a pressure is subjected to tensile
mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 forces, which resist bursting, developed
MPa for bearing in the plate material and across longitudinal and transverse
60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) sections.
the minimum thickness of each plate; and
(b) the largest average tensile stress in the  TANGENTIAL STRESS, σt
plates. (Circumferential Stress)
Consider the tank shown being subjected
to an internal pressure . The length of
the tank is and the wall thickness is .
Isolating the right half of the tank:

Example No. 10
The lap joint shown in figure is fastened
by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate
the maximum safe load P that can be
applied if the shearing stress in the rivets
is limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress The forces acting are the total pressures
in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume caused by the internal pressure and the
the applied load is uniformly distributed total tension in the walls .
among the four rivets.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 4

 Example No. 12
A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm
in diameter with a wall thickness of 20
mm, is subjected to an internal pressure
of 4.5 MN/m2. (a) Calculate the tangential
If there exist an external pressure and and longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b)
an internal pressure , the formula may To what value may the internal pressure
be expressed as: be increased if the stress in the steel is
limited to 120 MN/m2? (c) If the internal
pressure were increased until the vessel
burst, sketch the type of fracture that
 LONGITUDINAL STRESS, would occur.
Consider the free body diagram in the
transverse section of the tank: Example No. 13
The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter
spherical tank is 5/6 inch. Calculate the
allowable internal pressure if the stress is
limited to 8000 psi.

Example No. 14
Calculate the minimum wall thickness for
a cylindrical vessel that is to carry a gas at
a pressure of 1400 psi. The diameter of
the vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited
The total force acting at the rear of the to 12 ksi
tank must equal to the total longitudinal
stress on the wall . Since is Example No. 15
so small compared to , the area of the A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated
wall is close to from steel plating that has a thickness of
20 mm. The diameter of the pressure
vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 m.
Determine the maximum internal pressure
that can be applied if the longitudinal
stress is limited to 140 MPa, and the
circumferential stress is limited to 60
MPa.
If there exist an external pressure and
ASSIGNMENT NO. 3
an internal pressure , the formula may
Solve problems #s 125,127,133,134,137,
be expressed as:
138, 140, 142 Pages 20-21 and 28-29,
SINGER & Pytel book.
*Long coupon bond, format will be posted
at a later date.
It can be observed that the tangential
stress is twice that of the longitudinal
stress.

 SPHERICAL SHELL

If a spherical tank of
diameter and thickness
contains gas under a
pressure of , the stress
at the wall can be
expressed as:

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 5

 This stress-strain relationship is called
CHAPTER TWO Hooke's Law.

STRAIN

NORMAL STRAIN
Strain, represented by the Greek letter ε,
is a term used to measure the deformation
or extension of a body that is subjected to
a force or set of forces. The strain of a
body is generally defined as the change in
length divided by the initial length.

ε = ΔL/L Spring Analogy for Stress/Strain Relationship

Often, the change in length of the bar, ΔL,
is simply referred to as the total B. STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
displacement, or δ. In that case, strain is
then

ε = δ/L
The elongation of the bar is assumed
normal, or perpendicular, to the cross
section. Therefore, like stress, the strain is
called a normal strain. Similar to stress, a
tensile strain is generally considered
positive and a compressive strain is
considered negative

Prismatic Bar Undergoing Elongation

It is common to plot the stress as a

function of the strain. This curve is called
the 'Stress-Strain Curve'. Each material
A. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP has a unique curve, but for most
materials, the initial curve is a straight
For linearly elastic materials, Hooke's Law line reflecting the linear relationship
relates the stress of a body to the strain in between the stress and strain. This is
the elastic range. Through experiments, it called the 'Elastic' range. Hooke's Law only
can be shown that most materials act like applies in this range.
springs in that the force is proportional to
the displacement (F = kδ). However, unlike If the material is stressed past its elastic
a spring, a bar has a cross-sectional area limit, the material will be permanently
that effects the displacement. Therefore, it deformed and plastic deformation will
is simpler to relate the stress (F/A) to the occur. This means the material has
strain (δ/L). This gives the relationship, yielded and will stretch easily with little
additional load. Next, the material cross-
σ = Eε section will become smaller which is called
"necking".
where E is the material property that
represents the stiffness of the material Since the cross-sectional area is reducing,
(called Young's Modulus). Simply stated, the effective or true stress goes up.
the stress is directly proportional to the However, many times the stress
strain. Young's modulus is determined calculations will use the original cross
through experiments and is commonly sectional area (called the nominal area)
listed in engineering handbooks. and this makes the stress-strain curve
appear to go down.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 6

C. UNIAXIAL DEFLECTION - CONSTANT D. UNIAXIAL DEFLECTION - VARIABLE
LOAD, AREA AND STIFFNESS LOAD, AREA AND STIFFNESS

For a simple homogenous bar with a

constant cross section and a constant
applied load, the total deflection of the bar
can be determined in terms of P, L, A, and
E. Starting with the one dimensional
Hooke's Law,
σ = Eε

And substituting P/A for stress and δ/L Integration Required when
for strain gives, Load, Area, or/and Stiffness Vary

P/A = E (δ/L) There are cases when the loading, cross

section area, and/or the stiffness varies
This can be rearranged to give, along the bar. In this case, the bar can be
split into small infinitesimal lengths, dx,
𝑷𝑳 and integrated along its length as
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬

To solve, each of the non-constant

parameters (A, E, and P) need to be a
function in terms of its length (x in this
case). Generally, only one or two of the
parameters will be non-constant. An
example would be the tapered stake driven
into the ground where the area varies and
the loading varies due to friction on its
surface.

Example No. 16
Compute the total elongation caused by
an axial load of 100 KN applied to a flat
General Stress-Strain Curves for Various Materials bar 20mm thick, tapering from width of
120 mm to 40mm in length of 10 m as
If there are a series of bars, then the
deflection of each section can be shown. Assume E = 200 GPa.
determined and then all deflections
summed. This can be written in equation
form as

Example No. 17
Two steel bars AB and BC support a load
P = 6000 lb, as shown in figure. Area of
AB is ½ in2. If E = 29 x 106 psi, compute
the horizontal and vertical components of
the movement of B.
Total Deformation
δ = PL1/A1E1 + PL2/A2E2 + PL3/A3E3

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 7

Example No. 18 Poisson's ratio is the amount of transverse
A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, contraction, or negative strain, when
supports a load of 500 lb. Neglecting the strained in a given direction. For a basic
object pulled or strained in the x-direction,
weight of the wire, determine the required
the Poisson's Ratio is defined as
diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20
ksi and the total elongation is not to -ν = εy /εx
exceed 0.20 in. Assume that E = 29 x 106
psi. (No figure provided) Contraction in y-
and z-direction
Example No. 19 when stressed in
x-direction Thus,
An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional
when a member is
area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads pulled in the x-
applied at the positions shown in figure. direction, there is
Compute the total change in length of the a contraction strain in the y-direction (and
bar if E = 10 x 106 psi. Assume the bar is z-direction). If it is pulled in the y-
suitably braced to prevent lateral direction, then the contraction strain will
buckling. be in the x-direction (and z-direction).

For a three dimensional object, Poisson's

ratio will occur in equally in both
perpendicular directions. If the load is in
the x-direction, then strain in the y- and z-
direction will be
Example No. 20
The rigid bar AB attached to two vertical εy = εz = -νεx
rods as shown in figure, is horizontal
 TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAIN
before the load P is applied. Determine the
vertical movement of P if its magnitude is
50KN.

Stress in Two Dimensions

If a material is isotropic (homogenous in

all directions, such as a solid metal) and is
pulled in two directions, then due to
Poisson's ratio, the overall normal strain
will be the total of the two strains. For
example, if there are normal stresses in
both the x- and y-directions, then the total
normal strain in the x-direction is
Assignment: page 39 – 42, #s 203, 207,
211, 214, 217 due next meeting
Prepare for a quiz on next meeting εx total = εx due to σx + εx due to σy

Advance Reading: Poisson’s Ratio and = σx /E - νσy/E

Statically Indeterminate Members
εx = (σx - νσy) / E
 POISSON'S RATIO
Poisson's Effect Similarly, the normal strain in the y
When analyzing more direction would be
than one dimension,
interaction between all εy = (σy - νσx) / E
directions needs to be
considered. This is However, Hooke's Law also relates shear
done through Poisson's ratio. Basically, strain and shear stress. If the shear stress

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 8

 and strain occurs in a plane, then the εx = (σx - νσy - νσy) / E
stress and strain are related as
Similarly, the other directions can also be
τ=Gγ determined. The final equations are
summarized in the table below.
or
SUMMARY
γ = τ/G = [2(1 + ν)/E] τ
Poisson's ratio (ν), named after Siméon
where G is the shear modulus (a material Poisson, is the ratio, when a sample object
property) and γ is the shear strain. The is stretched, of the contraction or
shear strain is defined as the angle transverse strain (perpendicular to the
(radians) caused by the shear stress as applied load), to the extension or axial
shown in the diagram at the left. strain (in the direction of the applied load).

The shear modulus is related to Young When a sample cube of a material is

modulus and Poisson's ratio, stretched in one direction, it tends to
contract (or occasionally, expand) in the
G = E / 2(1 + ν) other two directions perpendicular to the
direction of stretch. Conversely, when a
sample of material is compressed in one
direction, it tends to expand (or rarely,
contract) in the other two directions. This
phenomenon is called the Poisson effect.
Poisson's ratio ν (nu) is a measure of the
Poisson effect.

Two dimensional stress-strain relationships are

summarized in the table below.

 THREE DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAIN

Example No. 21
A rectangular steel block is 3 in. long in
the x direction, 2 in long in the y direction,
and 4 in long in the z direction. The block
is subjected to a tri-axial loading
consisting of three uniformly distributed
forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x
direction, 60 kips compression in the y
direction and 54 kips tension in the z
Stress Directions in 3D direction. If v = 0.30 and E = 29 x 106 psi,
(τxy = τyx, τyz = τzy, τxz = τzx) determine the single uniformly distributed
load in the x direction that would produce
Just like 1D or 2D, Hooke's Law can also the same deformation in the y direction as
be applied to material undergoing three the original loading.
dimensional stress (triaxial loading). The
development of 3D equations is similar to
2D, sum the total normal strain in one
direction due to loads in all three
directions. For the x-direction, this gives,

εx total = εx due to σx + εx due to σy + εx due to σz

εx total= σx /E - νσy/E - νσz/E

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 9

 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS  INDETERMINATE AXIAL STRUCTURES

An indeterminate
structure is when
there are more
reactions or
supports than are
needed to keep the
structure in static
equilibrium. As an Simple Indeterminate Structure Example
example, an objected
supported by three Structures that have too many supports
rods, as shown, is indeterminate to the are classified as indeterminate structures.
first degree, i.e. there is one redundant This section examines only 1D or axial
support. If it is redundant, why are indeterminate structures where all
indeterminate structures used? They help displacements occur in the same
distribute loads to more supports which direction. An example of this is a weight
can reduce individual loads and moments. supported by three rods as shown.

 STRESS AND DEFLECTION SUPERPOSITION

A useful concept in solving

indeterminate structures is the Principle
of Superposition. Simply stated, a problem
can be reduced to smaller problems and Example of Force Equilibrium
the solutions to the smaller problems can
 Equilibrium Equation(s)
be added together to give the solution to
Since there are too many supports,
the original problem.
equilibrium equations, ΣF = 0 and ΣM = 0,
This can be better understood by
will not be sufficient to solve for the force
considering the deflection of a rod with
unknowns. Thus, additional equation(s)
two forces as shown in the diagram. This
are needed.
problem can be reduced to two separate
For the given example, the
problems, each with one force. The
equilibrium equations can relate the rod
deflection of the rod due to each individual
forces to the weight of the weight. This
load is calculated. The the total deflection
gives
of the rod is simply the total of the two
separate deflections. In equation form, 2Fal + Fst = W (example equilibrium)
F = F1 + F2 However, the exact force in either rod
δF = δF1 + δF2 cannot be determined with just the
equilibrium equations.
This is a simple problem, but it
serves as the basis for superposition. The
 Compatibility Equation(s)
solution of individual problems can be
The compatibility equations are
superimposed to give the combined
based on member deflections and will vary
solution. It also works for stress
for each problem. This makes it difficult to
calculations. It can even be used for
solve since there is no single equation that
thermal expansion.
be used for all problems like the
This concept does have limits. It can
equilibrium equations (ΣF = 0 and ΣM =
only be used when the material responds
0).
in a linear fashion (true for all problems in
basic solid mechanics). This idea will be
used many times in the future.

Deflections without Constraint

Continuing with the example with

Simple Application of the
Superposition Principle
three rods, compatibility condition
requires that all deflections are the same.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 10

If there was no constraint (the weight) following moduli of elasticity: for steel, Est
then each rod would deflection differently = 200 GPa; for concrete, Eco = 14 GPa.
as shown.
However, all the deflections are Example No. 23
constrained by the weight, so they have A cooper rod is
the same deflection, inserted into a hollow
aluminium cylinder.
The copper rod
projects 0.005 in as
shown in figure. What
maximum load P may
be applied to the bearing plate? Use data
in the following table.
Deflections with Constraint Area Allowable
Material E (psi)
(in2) stress (ksi)
δT = δal = δst (example compatibility) Copper 2 17 x 106 20
Aluminium 3 10 x 106 10
This condition is indicated in the diagram
on the left. This relationship is only valid Example No. 24
for this example and other problems will A horizontal bar of negligible mass, hinged
have different relationships. at A in figure and assumed rigid is
supported by a bronze rod 2.0 m long and
 Combining Equations a steel rod 1.0 m long. Using the data in
The final solution for the given the accompanying table, compute the
example is obtained by combining both stress on each rod.
the equilibrium and compatibility
equations,

Simplifying gives,

Substituting into the equilibrium equation Area Propotional

gives, Material E (GPa)
(mm2) Limit (MPa)
Steel 600 200 240
Bronze 300 83 140

Assignment Page 50 – 51
The force in the steel rod can now be #s: 234-236, 238-240, 251-253.
determined. While other problems will use
different compatibility equations the  THERMAL STRESSES
solution process is the same. Thermal Stress is a stress caused by
If the structure has more than one the internal forces due to temperature’s
redundant support, then more
increase or decrease. And the expansion of
compatibility equations are needed. For
each redundant support, a separate shortening of the material due to
compatibility equation is needed. temperature is called thermal deformation.

Example No. 22 𝜹𝑻 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻)

The short concrete post in In which  is the coefficient of linear
figure is reinforced axially expansion, L is the length and T is the
with six symmetrically
temperature change.
placed steel bars, each 600
mm2 in area. If the applied  THERMAL STRAIN
load P is 1000 kN, compute
When physical materials are heated, they
the stress developed in
each material. Use the generally expand due to atomic-level
changes. This expansion is proportional to

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 11

the change in temperature. In terms of caused by a physical load. When both
strain, this relationship is written as: force and temperature changes are
present, special care is needed when
εT= (ΔT) solving the problem. Both the thermal and
mechanical deflections need to be
where is the coefficient of thermal compatible.
expansion. This constant is different for all For example, if a simple rod is
materials and is generally a positive placed between two fixed walls and
number. There are a few materials that heated, the rod will try to expand.
However, the walls will prohibit the
contract when heated, and then this
normal thermal expansion and induce a
constant would be negative. compression force. This force is real and
The coefficient of thermal expansion causes the rod to decrease in length. The
represents a quantity (i.e. strain) per final result is the thermal expansion is
degree C or per degree F. offset by the mechanical compression
US SI deflection.
Material
(×10-6/oF) (×10-6/oC)
Steel 6.5 12 Example No. 23
A steel rod is 2.5 m long is secured
Aluminum 13 23 between two walls. If the load on the rod is
PVC 30 55 zero at 20°C, compute the stress when the
Concrete 5.5 10 temperature drops to – 20°C. The cross-
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, , sectional area of the rod is 1200 mm2, =
for Common Materials 11.7 m/(m°C), and E = 200 GPa. Solve,
assuming (a) that the walls are rigid and
 THERMAL EXPANSION (b) that walls spring together a total
distance of 0.500 mm as the temperature
drops.

Example No. 24
A rigid block weighing 12 kips is
supported by three rods symmetrically
placed, as shown. Assuming the block to
remain horizontal, determine the stress in
each rod after a temperature rise of 100°F.
The lower ends of the rods are assumed to
Thermal Expansion where, ΔT = T2 - T1
have been at the same level before the
block was attached and the temperature
The total deflection of a member that
changed.
undergoes a temperature change, ΔT = T2 -
T1, can also be written as

δT= L α (ΔT)

The deflection is in the direction of the

length L.

 COMBINED THERMAL AND MECHANICAL

STRAIN OR DEFLECTION

Example No. 25
Using the data in problem #25, determine
the temperature rise necessary to cause
all the applied load to be supported by
steel rods.

Rod Between Two Fixed Walls

Example of Stresses induced by Thermal Expansion Assignment #. Pages 60-61 3s: 261, 264,
267, 268, and 271
Generally, thermal expansion is
accompanied with mechanical deflection

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 12

 Generally, the rate of twist, dθ/dx, is not
CHAPTER THREE used but it is related to the torque, T. The
following section will use this fact to
TORSION develop a more useful form of this
equation.
Torsion, like a linear force, will produce
both stress and the strain. However,  ANGLE OF TWIST
unlike linear stress and strain, torsion The first step is finding a
causes a twisting stress, called shear relationship between the rate of twist,
stress (τ), and a rotation, called shear dθ/dx and the applied torque, T. From the
strain (γ). previous equation, τ = G r dθ/dx, the
shear stress is a linear function of the
The animation at the left illustrates as the radius.
torsion moment increases, the shear The shear stress on all the
strain (angle γ) changes linearly. This differential elements, dA, generate a
concept will help develop equations that moment around the center,
can be used to solve for the shear stress,
strain and even the angle of twist. dM = r (τ dA)

All these differential moments must total

the applied moment or torque, T, giving

Torsion of a Circular Bar

 TORSIONAL STRESS AND STRAIN

If a torque (or moment) is applied to the

end of a circular bar as shown, the bar
will twist an angle θ. This angle will be a Shear Stress Distribution Due
to Torque on a Circular Bar
function of the bar length, L, and stiffness,
G (shear modulus).

The Change in Angle, γ,

Substituting the shear stress, τ, equations
and the Angle of Rotation,
gives,
θ The twist angle, θ,
starts at 0 and increases
linearly as a function of x.
On the other hand, the
Note that G and dθ/dx are constant,
change of angle, γ, is
giving
constant along the length.
If a small differential
element, dx, is sliced from the bar, the two
angles must be compatible at the outside The integral term is a special form that is
edge (arc length A-A in red). This gives the commonly seen in mechanic topics and
relationship, has a special name, the polar moment of
inertia, J. The equation for J depends only
Arc Length A-A = r dθ = γ dx
on the geometry and is commonly listed in
The change of angle, γ, is also the shear engineering handbooks.
strain. Using Hooke's Law, this angle is
Using the term J and rearranging, gives
γ = τ/G

Combining these two equations gives,

τ = G r dθ/dx

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 13

This can now be integrated along its For a circular cross section, dA is the
length to find the total twist angle. radius times the element thickness, giving
dA = 2πr dr. Substituting into the integral
gives,

If the torque, stiffness, and cross sectional

area are constant, then this simplifies to Solving gives,

Angle of Twist for Shaft Constructed from

Various Segments

In cases when the

circular shaft has
different cross- Polar Moment of Inertia for a Hollow Shaft
sections along its
length, the angle This relationship can also be used for a
of twist equation hollow shaft. Simply use the outside
can be applied on radius, ro, to find the polar moment of
each section, and inertia for a solid shaft, and then subtract
then summed. the polar moment of inertia from the
hollow section using the inside radius, ri.
The relationship becomes,

Each segment can have a different load,

length, stiffness and cross-section area.
The total twist is simply the sum of all the
individual segment twist angles.  STRESSES IN CIRCULAR SHAFT
The torsion formula is:
 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
The equation for the rate of twist, Tr
dθ/dx = T/(GJ), can also be combined into max =
J
the shear stress equation, τ = G r dθ/dx,
to give the torsional shear stress as π𝑟 4 π𝑑 4
function of the radius. This simplifies to JSS = 2
= 32
;
just, JHS =
π
(R4 – r4) =
π
(D4 – d4)
2 32

Where: T = Torque
This relationship assumes the G, J, and T  = shearing stress
are constant along the rod length. r = radius of the shaft
J = polar moment of inertia of the
 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR of the cross sectional area of
CIRCULAR RODS the shaft

Polar Moment of Inertia Calculation

Recall, the polar moment of inertia is

defined as Example No. 26
A torque is applied to a shaft in which the
shearing stress must not exceed 69 MPa.
Calculate the maximum allowable T (a) if

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 14

the shaft is solid and d = 100 mm (b) if the
shaft is hollow with D = 100 mm, d = 50
mm.

Example No. 27
A shaft of 75 mm diameter is subjected to
a torque T of 4, 520 N-m. Calculate the
maximum unit shearing stress in the
shaft. (a) When it is solid. (b) When it is
hollow with inside diameter d = 50mm. (c)
What is the unit stress at the inner
surface of the shaft?

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

SE No. 3
Calculate the Polar moment of inertia of
an 80 mm diameter solid shaft.

SE No. 4
A hollow shaft has an outside diameter D
= 100 mm and an inner diameter d=
60mm. What is its polar moment of inertia?

SE No. 5
A hollow shaft has an outside diameter D =
600 mm and an inside diameter d = 400 mm.
If the shearing stress is limited to 70 MPa,
what maximum torque T can the shaft safely
withstand?

SE No. 6
Calculate the unit shearing stresses at the
outer and inner surfaces of a hollow shaft in
which d = 160 mm and d = 100 mm due to a
torque T = 35 kN.m.

Engr. Nikko Reymon R. Manito Mechanics of Deformable Bodies P a g e | 15