WAVES

1. INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF

WAVES In stationary waves particles of the medium vibrate
with different amplitude but energy does not
Introduction of waves: When a particle moves through
propagate.
space, it carries KE with itself. Wherever the particle
goes, the energy goes with it. (One way of transporting (iii) Based on direction of propagation: Waves can be
energy from one place to another place). one, two or three dimensional according to the
There is another way (wave motion) to transport energy number of dimensions in which they propagate
from one part of space to other without any bulk motion energy. Waves moving along strings are one-
of material together with it. Sound is transmitted in air dimensional. Surface waves or ripples on water are
in this manner. two dimensional, while sound or light waves from
a point source are three dimensional.
NOTE: (iv) Based on the motion of particles of medium:
A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space,
transport energy and momentum from one point to
another without the transport of matter.
Few Examples of waves: The ripples on a pond (water
waves), the sound we hear, visible light, radio and TV
Waves are of two types on the basis of motion of
signals etc.
particles of the medium.
1.1. Classification of waves
(i) Longitudinal waves
(ii) Transverse waves
In the transverse wave the direction associated with
the disturbance (i.e. motion of particles of the
medium) is at right angle to the direction of
propagation of wave while in the longitudinal wave
(i) Based on medium necessity: A wave may or may the direction of disturbance is along the direction of
not require a medium for its propagation. The propagation.
waves which do not require medium for their 1.2. Transverse Wave Motion
propagation are called non-mechanical, e.g. light,
heat (infrared), radio waves etc. On the other hand Mechanical transverse waves are produced in such type
the waves which require medium for their of medium which have shearing property, so they are
propagation are called mechanical waves. In the known as shear wave or S-wave
propagation of mechanical waves elasticity and
density of the medium play an important role
therefore mechanical waves are also known as
elastic waves.
Example:
Waves in water, sound waves, seismic waves in
earth’s crust. Fig. 13.1
(ii) Based on energy propagation: Waves can be
divided into two parts on the basis of energy NOTE:
propagation (i) Progressive wave (ii) Stationary Shearing is the property of a body by which it changes
waves. The progressive wave propagates with its shape on application of force.
constant velocity in a medium.
WAVES

 Mechanical transverse waves are generated only in  In solids, mechanical waves (may be sound) can be
solids and surface of liquid. either transverse or longitudinal depending on the
Individual particles of the medium execute SHM about mode of excitation.
their mean position in direction perpendicular to the The speed of the two waves in the same solid are
direction of propagation of wave. different. (Longitudinal waves travels faster than
transverse waves). e.g., if we struck a rod at an
A crest is a portion of the medium, which is raised
angle as shown in fig. (A) the waves in the rod will
temporarily above the normal position of rest of
be transverse while if the rod is struck at the side as
particles of the medium, when a transverse wave passes.
shown in fig. (B) or is rubbed with a cloth the
A trough is a portion of the medium, which is waves in the rod will be longitudinal. In case of
depressed temporarily below the normal position of rest vibrating tuning fork waves in the prongs are
of particles of the medium, when a transverse wave transverse while in the stem are longitudinal.
passes.
1.3. Longitudinal Wave Motion
In this type of waves, oscillatory motion of the medium
particles produces regions of compression
(high pressure) and rarefaction (low pressure) which
propagated in space with time (see figure).

Fig. 13.3
Furthermore in case of seismic waves produced by
Earthquakes both S (shear) and P (pressure) waves are
produced simultaneously which travel through the rock
in the crust at different speeds
Fig. 13.2
NOTE: vs  5km / s while v p  9km / s  S-waves are transverse while P

The regions of high particle density are called Some waves in nature are neither transverse nor
compressions and regions of low particle density are longitudinal but a combination of the two. These waves
called rarefactions. are called ‘ripple’ and waves on the surface of a liquid
are of this type. In these waves particles of the medium
The propagation of sound waves in air is visualized as
vibrate up and down and back and forth simultaneously
the propagation of pressure or density fluctuations. The
describing ellipses in a vertical plane.
pressure fluctuations are of the order of 1Pa, whereas
atmospheric pressure is 105 Pa.
1.4. Mechanical Waves in Different Media
 A mechanical wave will be transverse or
longitudinal depending on the nature of medium
and mode of excitation.
 In strings, mechanical waves are always transverse
Fig. 13.4
when string is under a tension. In the bulk of gases
and liquids mechanical waves are always
longitudinal e.g. sound waves in air or water. This 1.5. Characteristics of Wave Motion
is because fluids cannot sustain shear.
WAVES

 In wave motion, the disturbance travels through the  Wave number  v  : it is defined as
medium due to repeated periodic oscillations of the 1 k
particles of the medium about their mean positions. v   number of waves in unit length of
 2
 The energy is transferred from one place to another the wave pattern.
without any actual transfer of the particles of the  Particle velocity, wave velocity and particle's
medium. acceleration: In plane progressive harmonic wave
 Each particle receives disturbance a little later than particles of the medium, usually oscillate simple
its preceding particle i.e., there is a regular phase harmonically about their mean position. Therefore,
difference between one particle and the next. all the formulae that we studied in SHM apply to
 The velocity with which a wave travels is different the particles here also.
from the velocity of the particles with which they For example, maximum particle velocity is A at
vibrate about their mean positions. mean position and it is zero at extreme positions.
 The wave velocity remains constant in a given Similarly maximum particle acceleration is
medium while the particle velocity changes  2 A at extreme positions and zero at mean
continuously during its vibration about the mean position. However the wave velocity is different
position. It is maximum at mean position and zero from the particle velocity. This depends on certain
at extreme position. characteristics of the medium. Unlike the particle
 For the propagation of a mechanical wave, the velocity which oscillates simple harmonically
medium must possess the properties of inertia, (between  A and  A ) the wave velocity is
elasticity and minimum friction among its particles. constant for given characteristics of the medium.
2. EQUATION OF PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVE   
Particle velocity v p and acceleration a p in a  
2.1. Important terms connected with wave motion sinusoidal wave: The acceleration of the particle is
the second partial derivative of y  x, t  with respect
 Wavelength    [length of one wave]: Distance
to t,
travelled by the wave during the time interval in
which any one particle of the medium completes  2 y  x, t 
 ap     2 A sin t  kx     2 y x ,t 
one cycle about its mean position. We may also t 2
define wavelength as the distance between any two i.e., the acceleration of the particle equals
nearest particles of the medium, vibrating in the  2 times its displacement, which is the same
same phase. result we obtained for SHM. Thus,
 Frequency (n): Number of cycles (number of aP   2 (displacement)
complete wavelengths) completed by a particle in
2.2. Equation of a Plane Progressive Wave
unit time.
 Time period (T): Time taken by wave to travel a  Particle velocity in wave motion: The individual
distance equal to one wavelength. particles which make up the medium do not travel
 Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement of through the medium with the waves. They simply
vibrating particle from its equilibrium position. oscillate about their equilibrium positions. The
 Angular frequency    : It is defined as instantaneous velocity of an oscillating particle of
the medium, through which a wave is travelling, is
2 known as "particle velocity".
  2 n
T
 Phase: Phase is a quantity which contains all
information related to any vibrating particle in a
wave. For equation
y  A sin  t  kx  ;  t  kx   phase.
 Angular wave number or propagation constant
2
(k): It is defined as k 

Fig. 13.5
WAVES

 Wave velocity: The velocity with which the A

3. TRANSVERSE WAVES ON A STRING transverse
disturbance, or planes of equal (wave front), travel
through the medium is called wave velocity. wave is a moving wave whose oscillations are
 Relation between particle velocity and wave perpendicular to the direction of the wave. A simple
velocity: Wave equation: demonstration of the wave can be created on a
y  A sin  t  kx  , Particle velocity horizontal length of the string by securing one end of
the string and moving the other end up and down. Light
y
vP   A cos  t  kx  . Wave velocity is another example of a transverse wave, where the
t oscillations are electric and magnetic fields that are at
   y right angles to the ideal light rays that describe the
v   ,  Ak cos  t  kx 
T 2 k x direction of propagation.
1 y y 1 y Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids,
  
v t t v t oscillations, in this case, are the displacement of solid
particles from their relaxed position, in the direction
Particle velocity at a given position and time is equal to negative of the product of wave velocity with slope of the wave at that poin
perpendicular to the propagation of the wave. Since
2.3. Differential equation of Harmonic Progressive these displacements correspond to local shear
Waves deformation of the material, the transverse waves of this
2
 y form are known as a shear wave. In seismology, shear
  A 2
sin   t  kx  waves are also known as secondary waves or S-waves.
t 2
For example: - The ripples on the surface of the water,
2 y
 2   Ak 2 sin   t  kx  Electromagnetic waves, Ocean waves, etc.
x
The speed of a wave on a string is given by
2 y 1 2 y
 2  2 2 T
x v t v
2.4. Relation Between phase Difference and Path 
Difference where T is tension in the string (in Newtons) and  is
mass per unit length of the string (kg/m).
It should be noted that v is speed of the wave w.r.t. the
medium (string).
In case the tension is not uniform in the string or string
has nonuniform linear mass density then v is speed at a
given point and T and  are corresponding values at
Fig. 13.6 that point.
Phase 0   3 2 5 3
Difference 2 2 2
  
Path 0   3  5 3
Difference 4 2 4 4 2
   Fig. 13.7
Time 0 T T 3T T 5T 3T The velocity of a wave is calculated by dividing the
Difference 4 2 4 4 2 distance traveled by the time it took to travel that
 t  distance. For waves, this is calculated by dividing the
  t    
    Path difference   wavelength by the period as follows: v 
 phase T
2  T  2 
We can take the inverse proportionality to period and
difference
frequency and apply it to this situation as follows:
WAVES

 1
v v   v  f
T T
4.1.
4. ENERGY TRANSFER IN A STRING WAVE 5. LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Rate
of Energy, Power and Intensity of wave 5.1. Longitudinal waves and Equation of
t Longitudinal waves
 Energy Transferred   Pav dt
0
Longitudinal waves are the waves where the
Energy transferred in one time period  PavT displacement of the medium is in the same direction as
the direction of the travel of the wave.
This is also equal to the energy stored in one wavelength.
The distance between the centres of two consecutive
 When a travelling wave is established on a string,
regions of compression or the rarefaction is defined by
energy is transmitted along the direction of
wavelength  . When the compression and rarefaction
propagation of the wave, in form of potential
regions of two waves coincide with each other, it is
energy and kinetic energy
known as constructive interference and if the regions of
Average Power  P   2 2 f 2 A 2  v
compression and rarefaction do not coincide, it is
Where,  is linear mass density known as destructive interference.
 Intensity: Energy transferred per second per unit
cross sectional area is called intensity of the wave.
Power P 1
I   I   2A 2v
Cross sectional area s 2
This is average intensity of the wave.
Energy density: Energy per unit volume of the Fig. 13.8
wave A compression in a longitudinal wave is a region where
Pdt I the particles are the closest together while rarefaction in
 
svdt v a longitudinal wave is a region where the paricle are
spread out.
4.2. Relation Between Amplitude and Intensity of
wave 5.2. Sound as a Pressure wave
For light waves, the energy of the light wave is We can describe sound waves either in terms of excess
proportional to the intensity. pressure or in terms of the longitudinal
E  I , where E is the energy of the wave and I is the displacement suffered by the particles of the medium
w.r.t. mean position.
intensity.
s  s0 sin   t  x / v  represents a sound wave where,
E   Amplitude  ... 1
2

s = displacement of medium particle from its mean

Also, the intensity of a wave is power transferred per
position at x,
unit area.
s  s0 sin   t  kx  .....  3.1
We know that power is energy expended per unit time.
Therefore, When sound is not propagating particles are at mean
E position 1 and 2
I , where A is the area of the wave and t is the
At
time.
Therefore, we can say that.
I  E ...  2 
From expression (1) and (2) we can say that.
I   Amplitude  or
2

Fig. 13.9
Amplitude  Intensity When particles are displaced from mean position.
WAVES

Y
v ... 1


Where Y  Young’s modulus of elasticity and

  density.
Velocity of sound waves in a fluid medium (liquid or
gas) is given by
B
Fig. 13.10 v ...  2 

Change in volume  V   x  s  A  xA  sA Where   density of the medium and B  Bulk

V sA s modulus of the medium given by,

  dP
V xA x B  V ...  3
dV
BV
P   Newton’s formula: Newton assumed propagation of
V sound through a gaseous medium to be an isothermal
Bs process.
P  
x PV  constant
dP  P
Bds  
dp   dV V
dx
and hence B = P using equation (3) and thus he
dp   B   ks0  cos   t  kx  obtained for velocity of sound in a gas,
dp  Bks0 cos  t  kx  P RT
v  where M = molar mass
 M
dp   dp  max ocs   t  kx  The density of air at 0 at pressure 76 cm of Hg column
  is   1.293kg / m3 . This temperature and pressure is
p  p0 sin   t  kx   .....  3.2 
 2 called standard temperature and pressure at STP. Speed
of sound in air is 280m/s. This value is some what less
Where p  dp  variation in pressure at position x and
than measured speed of sound in air 332m/s ten Laplace
p0  Bks0  maximum pressure variation suggested the correction.
Equation 3.2 represents that same sound wave where, P Laplace’s Correction: Later Lapalce established that
is excess pressure at position x, over and above the propagation of sound in a gas is not an isothermal but
average atmospheric pressure and pressure amplitude an adiabatic process and hence PV   constant
p0 is given by P0  Bks0 .....  3.3  dP P
  
dV V
(B = Bulk modulus of the medium, K = angular wave
number) dP
Where, B  V   P and hence speed of sound is a
dV
Note from equation (3.1) and (3.2) that the
displacement of a medium particle and excess pressure gas,
 P  RT
at any position are out of phase by . Hence a v  ...  4 
2  M
displacement maxima corresponds to a pressure minima Factors affecting speed of sound in atmosphere.
and vice-versa. (a) Effect of temperature: As temperature (T)
5.3. Speed of Sound and Laplace’s Correction increases velocity (v) increases.

Velocity of sound waves in a linear solid medium is v T

given by For small change in temperature above room
temperature v increases linearly by 0.6m/s for
every 1C rise in temperature.
WAVES

R p 0  s0 A B
v  T 1/ 2  v
M 2 

v 1 T B   v 2  p0  Bks0   v 2 ks0

v 2 T
1  p  p 2 A pAv 2 s02
1 v  Paverage   p0 A  02   0 
v    T
2   v k  2 v 2
2T 
Maximum power
v   0.6  T
p02 A
 Pmax    pA v v 2p,max  pA  2s02
(b) Effect of pressure: The speed of sound in a gas is v
P  RT  Av 2 s02
given by v  
 M Total energy transfer  Pav  t  t
2
(c) Effect of humidity: With increase in humidity
Average intensity = Average power / Area the average
density decreases. This is because the molar mass
intensity at position x is given by
of water vapour is less than the molar mass of air.
So at constant temperature, if P changes then 1  2 s02 B P02 v
 I   .... 1
 also changes in such a way that P /  remains 2 v 2B
constant. Hence pressure does not have any effect Substituting B   v 2 , intensity can also be expressed as
on velocity of sound as long as temperature is
constant. P02
I v .....  2 
2
6. SOUND INTENSITY AND LOUDNESS NOTE:
Intensit
y of Sound Waves: Like any other progressive wave, 1
If the source is a point source then I  and
sound waves also carry energy from one point of space r2
to the other. This energy can be used to do work, for 1 a
s0  and s  sin  t  kr   
example, forcing the eardrums to vibrate or in the r r
extreme case of a sonic boom created by a supersonic 1
jet, can even cause glass panes of windows to crack. If a sound source is a line source then l  and
r
The amount of energy carried per unit time by a wave is 1 a
called its power and power per unit area held s0  and s  sin   t  kr   
r r
perpendicular to the direction of energy flow is called
intensity. For a sound wave travelling along positive x- Loudness: Audible intensity range for humans:
axis described by the equation. The ability of human to perceive intensity at different
s  s0 sin   t  kx    frequency is different. The perception of intensity is
maximum at 1000 Hz and perception of intensity
P  p0 cos   t  kx    decreases as the frequency decreases or increases from
1000Hz.
s
  s0 cos t  kx    For a 1000Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that a
t
human ear can detect is 10 12 watt . / m 2 . On the other
s hand, continuous exposure to intensities above
Instantaneous power P  F .v  pA
t 1W / m 2 can result in permanent hearing loss.
P  p0 cos  t  kx    A s0 cos  t  kx    The overall perception of intensity of sound to human
ear is called loudness.
Paverage  P 
Human ear do not perceives loudness on a linear
 p0 A s0  cos 2   t  kx     intensity scale rather it perceives loudness on
organismic intensity scale.
WAVES

For example: If intensity is increased 10 times human The transmitted wave is never inverted, but propagation
ear does not perceive 10 times increase in loudness. constant k is changed.
It roughly perceived that loudness is doubled where
intensity increased by 10 times. Hence it is prudent to
define a logarithmic scale for intensity.
Decibel Scale: The logarithmic scale which is used for
comparing two sound intensity is called decibel scale.
The intensity level  described in terms of decibels is
 I 
defined as   10log    dB 
 I0 
Here I 0 is the threshold intensity of hearing for human
ear
i.e I  10 12 watt / m 2 .
In terms of decibel threshold of human hearing is 1dB
Fig. 13.11
Note that intensity level  is a dimensionless quantity Amplitude of reflected and transmitted waves:
and is not same as intensity expressed in W / m 2 . v1 and v 2 are speeds of the incident wave and reflected
wave in mediums respectively then
7. SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
v v 2v2
Ar  2 1 Ai , At  . Ai
7.1. Superposition of Waves v1  v2 v1  v2
Two or more waves can traverse the same medium Ar is positive if v2  v1 , i.e., wave is reflected from a
without affecting the motion of one another. If several rarer medium.
waves propagate in a medium simultaneously, then the Reflection of Sound Waves: Reflection of sound
resultant displacement of any particle of the medium at waves from a rigid boundary (e.g. closed end of an
any is instant is equal to the vector sum of the organ pipe) is analogous to reflection of a string wave
displacement produced by individual by wave. The from rigid boundary; reflection accompanied by an
phenomenon of intermixing of two or more waves to inversion i.e. an abrupt phase change of  . This is
consistent with the requirement of displacement
produce a new wave is called Superposition of waves.
amplitude to remain zero at the rigid end, since a
Therefore, according to superposition principle. medium particle at the rigid end can not vibrate. As the
The resultant displacement of a particle at any point of excess pressure and displacement corresponding to the
the medium, at any instant of time is the vector sum of same sound wave vary by  / 2 in term of phase, a
the displacement caused to the particle by the individual displacement minimum at the rigid end will be a point
waves. of pressure maxima. This implies that the reflected
  pressure wave from the rigid boundary will have same
If y1 , y2 , y3 ..... are the displacement of particle at a phase
particular time due to individual waves, then the as the incident wave, i.e., a compression pulse is
    reflected as a compression pulse and a rarefaction pulse
resultant displacement is given by y  y1  y2  y3  ....
is reflected as a rarefaction pulse.
Principle of superposition holds for all types of waves, On the other hand, reflection of sound wave from a low
i.e., mechanical as well as electromagnetic waves. But pressure region (like open end of an organ pipe) is
analogous to reflection of string wave from a free end.
this principle is not applicable to the waves of very
This point corresponds to a displacement maxima, so
large amplitude. that the incident & reflected displacement wave at this
7.2. Reflection of Waves point must be in phase. This would imply that this point
would be a minima for pressure wave (i.e. pressure at
Reflection of String Waves: A travelling wave, at a
this point remains at its average value), and hence the
rigid or denser boundary, is reflected with a phase
reflected pressure wave would be out of phase by 
reversal but the reflection at an open boundary (rarer
medium) takes place without any phase change. with respect to the incident wave. i.e. a compression
pulse is reflected as a rarefaction pulse and vice-versa.
WAVES

7.3. Interference of Waves  p  p0 sin   t  kx   

Interference of String Waves: Suppose two identical
sources send sinusoidal waves of same angular Where, p0  pm2 1  pm2 2  2 pm1 pm 2 cos  ,
frequency  in positive x-direction. Also, the wave
velocity and hence, the wave number k is same for the   k  x1  x2    2  1  ... 1
two waves. One source may be situated at different
points. The two waves arriving at a point then differ in (i) For constructive interference
phase. Let the amplitudes of the two waves be A1 and   2n  p0  p m1  p m 2
A2 and the two waves differ in phase by an angle  .
(ii) For destructive interference
Their equations may be written as
y1  A1 sin  kx   t     2 n  1   p0  pm1  pm 2
And y 2  A2 sin  kx   t    2
If  is only due to path difference, then   x, and
According to the principle of superposition, the 
resultant wave is represented by
condition for constructive interference:
y  y1  y2  A1 sin  kx   t   A2 sin  kx   t   
x  n , n  0, 1, 2
We get y  A sin  kx   t   
Condition for destructive interference:
Where, A  A12  A22  2 A1 A2 cos  (A is amplitude of

the resultant wave) x   2n  1 , n  0, 1, 2
A2 sin  2
Also, tan   (  is phase difference of
A1  A2 cos  From equation (1)
the resultant wave with the first wave) P02  Pm21  Pm22  2 Pm1  Pm 2 cos 
Constructive and Destructive interference
Constructive Interference: Since intensity, I  (Pressure amplitude)2,
When resultant amplitude A is maximum A  A1  A2 We have, for resultant intensity,

When cos   1 or   2 n I  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos  ..... 2

Where n is an integer. I1  I 2  I 0
Destructive Interference: 
I  2I 0 1  cos    I  4I 0 cos 2 ...... 3 
When resultant amplitude A is minimum 2
Or A  A1  A2 Hence in this case,

When cos   1 or    2 n  1  For constructive interference:   0, 2 , 4 and

I max  4I 0
When n is an integer.
Interference of Sound Waves: And for destructive interference:    , 3 .... and

If p1  pm1 sin t  kx1  1  I min  0

Coherence: Two sources are said to be coherent if the
and p2  pm 2 sin   t  kx2   2  phase difference between them does not change with
time. In this case their resultant intensity at any point in
space remains constant with time.
Two independent sources of sound are generally
incoherent in nature, i.e. phase difference between them
changes with time and hence the resultant intensity due
to them at any point in space changes with time.
Fig. 13.12
Resultant excess pressure at point O is
p  p1  p2
WAVES

8. STANDING WAVES Furthermore, nodes and antinodes are alternate


Suppose two sine waves of equal amplitude and with spacing   .
4
frequency propagate on a long string in opposite
directions. The equations of the two waves are given by 5. The nodes divide the medium into segments (or
loops). All the particles in a segment vibrate in
y1  A sin   t  kx  and y2  A sin  t  kx   
same phase, but in opposite phase with the particles
These waves interfere to produce what we call standing in the adjacent segment. Twice in one period all the
waves. To understand these waves, let us discuss the
particles pass through their mean position
special case when   0 .
simultaneously with maximum velocity  As   , the
The resultant displacements of the particles of the string
direction of motion being reversed after each half
are given by the principle of superposition as
cycle.
y  y1  y2

 A sin t  kx   sin t  kx    2 A sin t cos kx

or y   2 A cos kx  sin  t.

This is the required result and from this it is clear that:

1. As the equation satisfies the wave equation,
2 y 1 2 y

v 2 t 2
2
x
it represents a wave. However, as it is not of the
form f  ax  bt  , the wave is not travelling and so
is called standing or stationary wave.
2. The amplitude of the wave
As  2 A cos kx Fig. 13.13
6. Standing waves can be transverse or longitudinal,
Is not constant but varies periodically with position
e.g., in strings (under tension) if reflected wave
(and not with time as om beats).
exists, the waves are transverse-stationary, while in
3. The points for which amplitude is minimum are organ pipes waves are longitudinal-stationary.
called nodes and for these 7. As in stationary waves nodes are permanently at
 3 5 rest, so no energy can be transmitted across them,
cos kx  0, i.e., kx  , ,
2 2 2 i.e., energy of one region (segment) is confined in
that region. However, this energy oscillates
 3 5  2 
i.e., x  , , ,.......  as k  between elastic potential energy and kinetic energy
4 4 4   
of the particles of the medium. When all the
i.e., in a stationary wave, nodes are equally spaced. particles are at their extreme positions KE is
4. The points for which amplitude is maximum are minimum while elastic PE is maximum (as shown
called antinodes and for these, in figure A), and when all the particles
simultaneously) pass through their mean position
cos kx  1, i.e., kx  0,  , 2 ,3 ,....
KE will be maximum while elastic PE minimum
 2 3  2  (Figure B). The total energy confined in a segment
i.e., x  0, , , ,......  as k 
2 2 2    (elastic PE + KE), always remains the same.
i.e., like nodes, antinodes are also equally spaced

with spacing   and Amax  2 A
2
WAVES

 
or  kx    n , n  0,1, 2,... 4
 2
Note that a pressure node in a standing wave would
correspond to a displacement antinode, and a pressure
anti-node would correspond to a displacement node.
(when we label equation (1) as SHM, what we mean is
that excess pressure at any point varies simple-
harmonically. If the sound waves were represented in
terms of displacement waves, then the equation of
standing wave corresponding to (1) would be
   
s  s0 cos   t   where s0  2 s0 sin  kx  
 2  2
Fig. 13.14 This can be easily observed to be an equation of SHM.
Longitudinal Standing Waves: Two longitudinal It represents the medium particles moving simple
waves of same frequency and amplitude travelling in
opposite directions interfere to produce harmonically about their mean position at x.
a standing wave. Vibration Of Air Columns: Standing waves can be set
up in air-columns trapped inside cylindrical tubes if
If the two interfering waves are given by frequency of the tuning fork sounding the air column
p1  p0 sin   t  kx  matches one of the natural frequency of air columns. In
such a case the sound of the tuning fork becomes
And p2  p0 sin  t  kx    markedly louder, and we say there is resonance between
the tuning fork and air-column. To determine the
Then the equation, of the resultant standing wave would natural frequency of the air-column, notice that there is
be given by a displacement node (pressure antinode) at each closed
end of the tube as air molecules there are not free to
   
p  p1  p2  2 p0 cos  kx   sin  t   move, and a displacement antinode (pressure-node) at
 2  2 each open end of the air-column.
In reality antinodes do not occurs exactly at the open
 
 p  p0 sin   t   ... 1 end but a little distance outside. However if diameter
 2
of tube is small compared to its length, this end
The equation of SHM in which the amplitude correction can be neglected
p0 depends on position as
Closed organ pipe: (in the diagram, Ap  pressure
  antinode, As  displacement antinode, N p  pressure
p0  2 p0 cos  kx   ...  2 
 2
node, N s  displacement node).
Points where pressure remains permanently at its
average value; i.e. pressure amplitude is zero is called a
pressure node, and the condition for a pressure node
would be given by
p0  0

 
i.e., cos  kx    0
 2

 
i.e., kx   2n  , n  0,1, 2... 3 
2 2
Similarly points where pressure amplitude is maximum
is called a pressure antinode and condition for a Fig. 13.15
pressure antinode would be given by
p0  2 p0

 
i.e., cos  kx    1
 2
WAVES

Fundamental mode: The smallest frequency (largest Fundamental mode: The smallest frequency (largest
wavelength) that satisfies the boundary condition for wavelength) that satisfies the boundary condition for
resonance (i.e. displacement node at left end and resonance (i.e. displacement antinodes at both ends) is,
antinode at right end is 0  4l , , where l  length of 0  2l
closed pipe the corresponding frequency.
v v Corresponding frequency, is called the fundamental
v0   is called the fundamental frequency ... (1) frequency
 4L
v
v0  ...  3
2l

Fig. 13.16
First Overtone: Here there is one node and one
antinode apart from the nodes and antinodes at the ends. Fig. 13.18
4l 0 1 Overtone: Here there is one displacement antinode
st
1  
3 3 between the two antinodes at the ends.
And corresponding frequency, 2l 
1   1  0 and corresponding frequency
v 2 2
v1   3v0
1 v
v1   2v0
This frequency is 3 times the fundamental frequency 1
and hence is called the 3rd harmonic. This frequency is 2 times the fundamental frequency
nth overtone: In general, the nth overtone will have n and is called the 2nd harmonic.
nodes and n antinodes between the two ends.
The corresponding wavelength is nth overtone: The nth overtone has n displacement
4l  antinodes between the two antinode at the ends.
n   0 and nn   2n  1 v0 ...  2 
2n  1 2n  1 2l 
n   0 and vn   n  1 v0 ...  4 
n 1 n 1
 2n  1
th
This corresponds to the harmonic. Clearly
 n  1
th
This correspond to harmonic: clearly both
only odd harmonics are allowed in a closed pipe.
even and odd harmonics are allowed in an open pipe.
9.2 Open organ pipe : End correction: As mentioned earlier the displacement
antinode at an open end of an organ pipe lies slightly
outside the open end. The distance of the antinode from
the open end is called end correction and its value is
given by e  0.6r

Fig. 13.19
Fig. 13.17
WAVES

where r = radius of the organ pipe. with end correction, (c) Law of Mass: The fundamental frequency of a
the fundamental frequency of a closed pipe  f c  and an string is inversely proportional to the square root of
open organ pipe  f0  will be given by the linear mass density, i.e., mass per unit length,
provided the length and the tension remain the
v v same.
fc  and f 0  ...  5 
4  l  0.6r  2  l  1.2r 
1
v if L and F are constants.

9. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF STANDING
WAVES 9.2. Resonance Tube
Figure shows schematically the diagram of a simple
9.1. Sonometer apparatus used in laboratories to measure the speed of
 If a vibrating Tuning fork is pressed against a sound in air. Along cylindrical glass tube (say about 1
sonometer wire then forced vibrations are produced in) is fixed on a vertical wooden frame. It is also called
in table of hollow box & these vibrations are a resonance tube. A rubber tube connects the lower end
transferred to air column filled in hollow box of this glass tube to a vessel which can slide vertically
which results into increase in vibration amplitude on the same wooden frame. A meter scale is fitted
of sound & intensity of sound increases. Air filled parallel to and close to the glass tube.
hollow box is called sound box.
 During contact with table some energy is
transferred to table so TF cannot do vibrations for
longer duration
 At resonance maximum energy is transferred to
table so TF can do vibrations not for longer
duration.
 At resonance maximum energy is transferred from
TF to vibrating wire and sound intensity is
maximum. Fig 13.20
Laws of Transverse Vibrations of a String: The vessel contains water which also goes in the
Sonometer resonance tube through the rubber tube. The level of
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string water in the resonance tube is same as that in the vessel.
fixed at both ends is given by equation. From this Thus, by sliding the vessel up and down, one can
equation, one can immediately write the following change the water level in the resonance tube.
statements known as "Laws of transverse vibrations of a A tuning fork (frequency 256 Hz if the tube is 1 in long)
string". is vibrated by hitting it on a rubber pad and is held near
(a) Law of Length: The fundamental frequency of the open end of the tube in such a way that the prongs
vibration of a string (fixed at both ends) is vibrate parallel to the length of the tube. Longitudinal
inversely proportional to the length of the string waves are then sent in the tube.
provided its tension and its mass per unit length The water level in the tube is initially kept high. The
remain the same. tuning fork is vibrated and kept dose to the open end,
and the loudness of sound coming from the tube is
1
v If F and  are constants. estimated. The vessel is brought down a little to
L
decrease the water level in the resonance tube. The
(b) Law of Tension: The fundamental frequency of a tuning fork is again vibrated, kept close to the open end
string is proportional to the square root of its and the loudness of the sound coming from the tube is
tension provided its length and the mass per unit estimated. The process is repeated until the water level
length remain the same. corresponding to the maximum loudness is located.
v F if L and  are constants. Fine adjustments of water level are made to locate
WAVES

accurately the level corresponding to the maximum

loudness.
The length of the air column is read on the scale 10. BEATS
attached. In this case, the air column vibrates in
When two sound waves of same amplitude and different
resonance with the tuning fork. The minimum length of frequency superimpose, then intensity at any point in
the air column for which the resonance takes place space varies periodically with time. This effect is called
corresponds to the fundamental mode of vibration. A beats.
pressure antinode is formed at the water surface (which If the equation of the two interfering sound waves
is the closed end of the air column) and a pressure node emitted by s1 and s 2 at point O are,
is formed near the open end. In fact, the node is formed
slightly above the open end (end correction) because of p1  p0 sin  2 f1t  k1 x1  1 
the air-pressure from outside. Thus, for the first
p2  p0 sin  2 f 2 t  k2 x2   2 
resonance the length l1 of the air column in the
 Let  k1 x1  1  1 and  k2 x2   2  2
resonance tube is given by l1  e  ,...  i 
4 By principle of superposition
Where d is the end correction.   1  2 
  
 2 p0 sin    f1  f 2  t  1 2  cos    f1  f 2  t  2 
 2   

Fig. 13.22
i.e., the resultant sound at point O has frequency
 f1  f 2 
Fig 13.21  2  while pressure amplitude p0  t  varies with
 
The length of the air column is increase to a little less
   
than three times of l. The water level is adjusted so that time as p0  t   2 p0 cos   f1  f 2  t  1 2 
the loudness of the sound coming from the tube  2 
becomes maximum again. The length of the air column Hence pressure amplitude at point O varies with time
is noted on the scale. In this second resonance the air  f f 
column vibrates in the first overtone. There is one node with a frequency of  1 2 
 2 
and one antinode in between the ends of the column.
Hence sound intensity will vary with a frequency
The length l2 of the column is given by
f1  f 2

l2  e 
3
...  ii 
This frequency is called beat frequency  fB  and the
4 time interval between two successive intensity maxima
By (i) and (ii), (or minima) is called beat time period TB 

l2  l1   , or   2  l2  l1  . f B  f1  f 2
2
1
TB  ... 1
f1  f 2
WAVES

Fig. 13.23
Suppose the source S and observer O are separated by
distance v. Where v is the velocity of sound. Let n be
Important Points:
the frequency of sound emitted by the source. Then n
(i) The frequency f1  f 2 should be less than 16Hz ,
waves will be emitted by the source in one second.
for it to be audible. These n waves will be accommodated in distance v.
(ii) Beat phenomenon can be used for determining an
unknown frequency by sounding it together with a total distance v
So, wavelength   
source of known frequency. total number of waves n
(iii) If the arm of a tuning fork is waxed or loaded, then (1) Source moving towards stationary observer:
its frequency decreases. Let the source start moving towards the observer
(iv) If arm of tuning fork is filed, then its frequency
increases. with velocity vs , after one second, the n waves will
be crowded in distance  v  vs  . Now the observer
11. DOPPLER’S EFFECT
shall feel that he is listening to sound of wave
The apparent change in frequency or pitch due to length  and frequency n 
relative motion of source and observer along the line
of sight is called Doppler Effect. While deriving these
expressions, we make the following assumptions:
(i) The velocity of the source, the observer and the
medium are along the line joining the positions of
the source and the observer.
(ii) The velocity of the source and the observer is less Fig. 13.24
than velocity of sound. Now apparent wavelength
Doppler effect takes place both in sound and light. In total distance v  vs
  
sound it depends on whether the source or observer or total number of waves n
both are in motion while in light it depends on whether And changed frequency,
the distance between source and observer is increasing  v 
v v
or decreasing. n    n 
   v  vs   v  vs 
Notations:  n 
 
n  Actual frequency So, as the source of sound approaches the observer
n  observed frequency (apparent frequency) the apparent frequency n  becomes greater than be
true frequency n,
  actual wavelength
(2) When source move away from stationary observer:
   observed (apparent) wavelength For this situation n waves will be crowded in
v  velocity of sound distance v  vs .

vs  velocity of source

vo  velocity of observer

vw  wind velocity
Case I: Fig. 13.25
Source in motion, observer at rest, medium at rest: v  vs
So, apparent wavelength   
n
And apparent frequency
v v  v 
n    n 
   v  vs   v  vs 
 n 
 
So, n  becomes less thatn n .
WAVES

Case II: Apparent frequency  n  Actual waves

Observer in motion, source at rest, medium at rest:  n   reduction in number of waves  n 
Let the source (S) and observer (O) are in rest at their
v vo v  vo  v  vo   v
respective places. Then n waves given by source ‘S’ n     n    
would be crossing observer ‘ O’ in one second and fill     v   n
the space OA   v  (so n  n )
Case III:
Effect of motion of medium: General formula for a
 v  v0 
Doppler effect  n  n   ...  i 
 v vs 
If medium (air) is also moving with vm velocity in
Fig. 13.26
direction of source and observer. Then velocity of
1. Observer move towards stationary source:
sound relative to observer will be v  vm (-ve sign, if
vm is opposite to sound velocity). So,
 v  vm  vo 
n  n  
 v  vm vs 
Fig. 13.27 [on replacing v by v  vm is equal (i)]
When observer ‘O’ moves towards ‘S’ with velocity NOTE:
vo , it will cover v 0 distance in one second. So, the
When both ‘S’ and ‘O’ are in rest (i.e. vs  vo  0 ) then
observer has received not only the n waves
there is no effect on frequency due to motion of air.
occupying OA but also received additional number
of n waves occupying the distance OO   vo  . Case I:

So, total waves received by observer in one second If medium moves in a direction opposite to the direction
 v  vm  vo 
i.e., apparent frequency  n  Actual waves (n) of propagation of sound, then n   n
 v  vm  vs 
 Additional waves  n 
Case II:
v vo
v  vo  v  vo   v
n     n     n  Source in motion towards the observer. Both medium
  v / n  v    and observer are at rest.
(so, n  n )  v 
2. Observer move away from stationary source:-
n    n; clearly n  n
 v  vs 
For this situation n waves will be crowded in distance
So, when a source of sound approaches a stationary
v  vo . observer, the apparent frequency is more than the actual
frequency.
Case III:
Source in motion away from the observer. Both
medium and observer are at rest.
Fig. 13.28
 v 
When observer move away from source with n    n; clearly n  n
 v  vs 
v 0 velocity then he will get n waves less than real
So, when a source of sound moves away from a
number of waves. So, total number of waves received
stationary observer, the apparent frequency is less than
by observer i.e.,
actual frequency.
WAVES

Case IV:
Observer in motion towards the source. Both medium
and source are at rest.
 v  vo 
n    n; clearly n  n
 v 
So, when observer is in motion towards the source, the
apparent frequency is more than the actual frequency.
Case V:
Observer in motion away from the source. Both
medium and source are at rest.
 v  v0 
n    n; clearly n  n
 v 
So, when observer is in motion away from the source,
the apparent frequency is less than the actual frequency.
Case VI:
Both source and observer are moving away from each
other. Medium at rest.
 v  v0 
n    n; clearly n  n
 v  vs 

SUMMARY
WAVES

1. A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space, 12. Wave velocity: The velocity with which the
transport energy and momentum from one point to disturbance, or planes of equal (wave front), travel
another without the transport of matter. through the medium is called wave (or phase)
velocity
2. Mechanical transverse waves are produced in such
type of medium which have shearing property, so 13. Transverse wave: A transverse wave is a moving
they are known as shear wave or S-wave wave whose oscillations are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave
3. A crest is a portion of the medium, which is raised
 The speed of a wave on a string is given by
temporarily above the normal position of rest of
T
particles of the medium, when a transverse wave v

passes.
where T is tension in the string (in Newtons) and
4. A trough is a portion of the medium, which is  is mass per unit length of the string (kg/m).
depressed temporarily below the normal position of
14. When a travelling wave s established on a string,
rest of particles of the medium, when a transverse
energy is transmitted along the direction of
wave passes.
propagation of the wave, in form of potential energy
5. Longitudinal Wave Motion: Longitudinal wave and kinetic energy
have oscillatory motion of the medium particles 15. Intensity of Sound Waves: The amount of energy
produces regions of compression (high pressure) and carried per unit time by a wave is called its power and
rarefaction (low pressure) which propagated in space power per unit area held perpendicular to the
with time (see figure). direction of energy flow is called intensity.
6. The regions of high particle density are called compressions and16.
regions of low particle
Loudness: Audible density are range
intensity calledfor
rarefactions.
humans: The a
7. Wavelength   [length of one wave]: Distance
17. Decibel Scale: The logarithmic scale which is used for compari
travelled by the wave during the time interval in
which any one particle of the medium completes one
18. Superposition of Waves: The phenomenon of
cycle about its mean position. We may also define intermixing of two or more waves to produce a new
wavelength as the distance between any two nearest wave is called Superposition of waves. Therefore,
particle of the medium, vibrating in the same phase according to superposition principle.
9. Phase: Phase is a quantity which contains all
19. The resultant displacement of a particle at any point of the med
information related to any vibrating particle in a wave.
For equation y  A sin  t  kx  ;  t  kx   phase. 20. Coherence: Two sources are said to be coherent if
the phase difference between them does not change
10. Wave number  v  : it is defined as with time. In this case their resultant intensity at any
point in space remains constant with time. Two
1 k independent sources of sound are generally
v   number of waves in unit length of the
 2 incoherent in nature, i.e. phase difference between
wave pattern. them changes with time and hence the resultant
intensity due to them at any point in space changes
11. Differential equation of Harmonic Progressive with time.
Waves: 21. Standing Wave: Standing waves can be transverse or longitud
Differential equation of Harmonic Progressive Waves
is given by:
2 y
  A 2 sin  t  kx 
t 2

2 y
   Ak 2 sin t  kx 
x 2
2 y 1 y
 2  2
x V t
WAVES

22. Beats: When two sound waves of same amplitude 23. Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in frequency or pitch
and different frequency superimpose, then intensity at
24. Assumptions:
any point in space varies periodically with time. This
effect is called beats. (i) The velocity of the source, the observer and
 The frequency f1  f 2 should be less than the medium are along the line joining the
16 Hz, for it to be audible. positions of the source and the observer.
 Beat phenomenon can be used for determining an (ii) The velocity of the source and the observer is
unknown frequency by sounding it together with less than velocity of sound.
a source of known frequency.