UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave

Chapter: 15 WAVES Duration- IO hours:

our commurucal1on essentla y epen s on trnnsauss1on o sign l roug wave.
2. Sending and receiving of light and sound through wave.
3. Electron move around the nucleus along lhe wave motion . (called matter wave i.e. the wav
associated with moving material particles are matter wave).
When particle in a medium starts to vibrate the neighboring particles also starts to vibrate, as a result
disturbance will be setup in lhe medium periodically. This sort of disturbance which is transmitted in
medium without the bulk movement of particles of the medium and it carry & transfer the energy.
Examples; When stone thrown into a pond of water, circular ripples are formed on the surface of lh
water and these ripples appeared to move outward and reach lhe shore of pond from lhe centre
disturbance due to continues dropping of stone. lf some piece of cork is placed on the disturbed surfac
it seen that simply up and down periodically but not move away from the centre of the disturbance. Thi
shows that, the mass of lhe water does not flow from the centre of the circle but rather a movin
disturbance is created. Finally total media are set into vibration periodically and obey lhe elasti
properties.
Similarly when speak a sound move outward from us, without any flow of air from one part of mediu
to another but disturbance roduced in air.
WAVES; A wave is a sort of disturbance which is transmitted in a medium without the bulk
movement of particles of the medium. OR The disturbance setup in elastic media due to
continuous periodic vibration of particle is called wave.
Example; light waves, sound waves, Radio waves, Gamma waves, micro waves, waves on
water surface. waves on stretched string, etc.
Wave motion: The propagation of disturbance from a region to another region in a medium is
called wave motion. During wave motion. Wave can carry and transfer the energy and
momentum from one to another.
Method of transferring energy from one place to another place: J) Wave motion 2) Particle
motion
I. Energy transferred by a wave motion: The energy carried by a wave with out actual motion
of particles.
Ex : light waves, gamma waves, sound waves, micro waves etc ...... ,
2. Energy transferred by a particle motion: The energy carried by a particle, when two
particJes colloid with each other with actual motion.
Ex: Bullet fired from a gun
Note: During wave motion energy transferred in space but not in matter between two points.
Type of waves: Depending on appearance, waves can be classified into three type,
1. Based on media 2. Based on vibration 3. Based on propagation
I. Based on media: On the based on media waves can be classified into two types.
I) Mechanical waves or Elastic waves
2) Non-mechanical waves or Electromagnetic waves
Distinguish between Mecha.nical and Non mechanical waves:
Mechanical wave Non mechanical wave
1 The wave which requires material for The wave which does not require material
their propagation is called mechanical for their propagation is called non-
waves. mechanical waves.
2 Particles of the medium oscillate. Electric and magnetic field oscillate.
3 It can be longitudinal (or) transverse in It can be always transverse in nature.
nature.
4 For the propagation of these waves the They can travel in vacuum as well as in
media must be in elastic proper) y and matter.
inertia
 UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave
5 these waves travels at relatively lower these waves travels at relatively higher
speed in a medium speed in a medium
6 Ex: Sound waves, seismic waves, waves Ex: light waves, u-v rays, LR rays, radio
generated on stretched string etc ...... waves etc .......
2. Mode of vibration: There are two type of wave for mode of vibration.
1. Longitudinal wave
2. Transverse wave
Distinguish between Longitudinal wave and Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave Transverse wave
1 The wave in which the particle of the media The wave in which the particle of the
vibrates along the direction of propagation is media vibrate perpendicular to direction
called longitudinal wave. Ex: sound wave, of the propagation is called transverse
seismic wave, wave due earth quek etc ...... wave. Ex: Light wave, visible wave,
radio wave etc ... .. .
2 The angle between vibration and their The angle between vibration and
propagation is 0° propagation is 90°
3 These waves travel in alternate compression These waves travels in alternate crests
& rarefaction. and troughs.
4 ~ompn,sslon Comp,as, I Cre st Cre st

Rarefaction arefactlon JI' ----+Propagi lion

I
1111111111111111 I I I I I I IIIHIIIIII
:="' propagati<
Trough Trough
➔ 011

5 They are always mechanical wave. They are either mechanical (or) non
Mechanical wave.
6 The pressure and density varies as the wave The pressure and density do not vary as
propagates. Hence it is called pressure wave the wave propagates. it is not pressure
wave
7 They can travel in solids, liquids and gases. They can travel in solids and on the
Surface of liquids
8 They do not exhibit polarization. They exhibit polarization.
Velocity of a longitudinal wave in a gas is Velocity of a transverse wave on a

given by v= J¥ where B & p is the bulk stretched string is given by v = J!

modulus and p is the density of media Where T is the tension & µ is linear
density of string.
3. Based on mode of propagation: There are three type of wave for mode of
propagation.
I) One di mensional wave: The wave which travels along straight line
Ex: The waves on stretched string.
2) Two dimensional waves : The wave which travels along plane. Ex: water waves.
3) Three dimensional waves: The waves which travels along space. Ex: light waves.
 UNIT VIll: Oscillation and wave
Progressive wave or travelling wave: The waves which travel
continuously in same media in same direction with constant
amplitude is called Progressive wave.
When Progressive wave propagate in the media phase of
vibrating particle changes from particle to particle resultant all
particles in the media begin to vibrate with constant amplitude
and their execute SHM. Progressive waves may exhibit both
longitudinal and transverse waves.
Progressive waves graphically represented as shown in figure.
Characteristics of progressive wave: )'(

The progressive waves travels along the same direction with

l•t
constant amplitude.
I . It is setup by a continuously vibrating particle. No particle in the media is at rest.
2. All particle vibrate with same amplitude and same frequency and execute SHM.
3. It can change the phase continuously.
4. IL carries energy, transfer the energy and momentum.
5. It is not localized.
6. Jt can exhibit re flection, refraction, diffraction etc ...... .
Displacement relation in the progressive waves:
Consider a SHM wave travel with velocity v along a positive x-axis.
Let particle begin to vibrate from ·o·
be y
point at origin of disturbance at time, t=0.
The displacement of particle at any instant
time t is y=a sin wt
Where a ➔ amplitude
co ➔ angular frequency =21t ---t
Let ' P' be another point of particle al
distance ' x' from ' O'. it will vibrating xiv
second after the vibration of particle 0 . because time taken by disturbance to reach the point P
from O is x/v.
The displacement of the particle at P compare to O at instant time is

y=a sin w ( ~ - t)
. (WX
y=asm -;--rot )

00
y=a sin (kx - ffit) where k= is called propagation constant.
V
The displacement of the progressive wave at any phase ( ct, ) is y=Asin (kx-rot + ~)
This is a progressive wave equation.
Note: The displacement of the progressive wave at any instant along a negative x-axis is
y=a sin(kx +rot)
Amplitude and Phase;
Wave amplitude (a): the maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position.
Phase(~): The phase of the particle indicated state of vibratio n of the particle. The phase of
wave a time t varies from point to point and at pos ition x varies from time lo time.
ie cj> (x,t)=(kx-rot)
 UNIT VITI: Oscillation and wave
Wavelength and angular wave number; ,.
Wave length ;(l) The distance between two successive
vibrating particles of the medium which are in the
same phase is called wave length. OR Distanc e
be/ween any 1wo cres/s or trough is called wave length
of transverse wave. OR Distance between any two ---A--...
compressions or rarefaction is wave length of
longitudinal wa ve.
Angular wave number or propagation constant (k); The number of angular wave present in
unit length is called angular wave number.
W.K.T. y=a sin(kx-rot +~)
if t=O & cj,=O then y=a sin kx ............ .. .. .... (I )
from periodic sine function sin kx =sin(kx1+2nn)
:. y= sin(kx4-2nn)
y = sink( x+ ~n).................(2)
1 2

Comparing equation ( 1) & (2),

X= (XI +
2
:1t)
x - xI = -2nn t.h.IS IS
. d:u
111erence between n successive
. partlc
. le,
k
for least two particle ie n= l
21t 21t .
:. A= - or k = - angular wave number or propagation constant.
k A
SI unit is radian per metre or rad m·1
Alternative method: W. K.T. y=a sin (kx -rot)
oo 2m 2n
where k= - = - =- :. k= 21t
v FA. A A
Period, angular frequency and frequency;
Wave period (T): Time taken to complete one wave. }'

Wave frequency (f): Number of complete wave in one

second.
Angular frequency (co);the ratio of angular wave to
period of wave.
W.K.T. y=a sin (kx-rot) but x=O then y=a sin (-rot)
y=-asinrot .......... (1)
from periodic sine function is - a sin cot = -a sin ro(t + T )
y=-asin(rot+ wT) .. .. ..... (2)
Comparing equation ( I) & (2), roT=21t
1 (I)
-= -
T 2n:
2rc
w= - SI unit is rad/s
T
this is an equation of angular frequency.
But f =.I_ f =~
T 21t
Speed of a travelling wave or progressive wave; it is defined as Distance travelled by a wave
in one second is called speed of a travelling wave.

HMJ SGS Composite P.U. College, AC Girt, Nagamangala, Mandya 2020-21 <
156
 UNIT YIU: Oscillation and wave
Consider a progressive wave, let L\x (A) be the
distance covered by crest in a small time ~t (t) y
wave lenght 11. t• At
V = - - - - - - - ' c . . . . _ => V = -
time taken T
l
But f = - :. v=fA.
T
Note: Whe n a wave travels from one mecLia to
another media frequency remains constant but
velocity wavelength changes. Because
frequ ency depends on source, velocity and wavelength depends on media.
Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string
Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is dimensionally written as V= /!
Where T is the tension of string & µ is li near density of string.
T=mg= Force on the string and µ is the mass per unit length of string.
Newton-Laplace formula for speed of sound wave or Speed of a longitudinal wave;
When longitudinal wave propagate through elastic media, the pressure & density changes.
During compression pressure & density are increases and they decreased during the
rarefaction.

Speed of a longitudinal wave in a gas is given by Newton is, v = J!

it is dimensionally correct.
Where B & p are the bulk moduJus and the density of medium.
Newton assumed that, when sound wave propagates through a gas is changes isothermally.
For isothermal relation, PV= constant
Differentiate partially w.r.t P & V
PdV-"-VdP=O
VdP dp
P = - - = -- . .. ...... ( I )
dV dV
V

W.K .T bulk modulus B =- :~ .............. ..... (2)

V
From equation ( l ) and (2) we get :. B=P

Newton's formula for velocity of sound is v= l

For air, at STP P=l.013xl05 N/m 2 and p = l.29kg/m 3
5
V= l.Ol 3x10 = 280m / s
1.29
But, the experimental value of velocity of sound in air at STP is found to be 331 mis. Thus, the
value of velocity of sound in air obtain by Newton 's formula does not agree with the
experimental value. and this was correction by Laplace.
According to Laplace the condition, when sound wave propagates through a gas is changes
adiabatically not isothermally.
C
For adiabatic relation, PVY=eonstant. y = _P Where y is specific heat ratio,
C,.
For air y = l.4

HMJ SGS Composite P.U. College, AC Girt, Nagamangala, Manely• 202~21 " 157
 UNIT Vlll: Oscillation and wave
Cp&Cv are specific heat at constant pressure& volume respectively.
Differentiate partially w.r.t P&V
Py v1- 1dV+ V1dP=O
P y yY· 1dV= - VYdP
V YdP
Py =- v 1- 1dV
dp
Py=-~ but B =- -
V dV
dV V
B=Py

Newton-Laplace formula for velocity of sound is v = ~

v= l.4xl.013xl0s =33 1m/ s
1.29
This is in close al!.reement with the exoerimental value.
Factors affecting velocity of sound in gas;
I . Effect of change in pressure;
According in to Boyle 's law. at constant temperature PV=constant or Pm/p=constant
Where mis mass o f the given gas of density p

Velocity of sound is v = ~ =constant

Hence velocity longitudinal wave does not depends on pressure of gas.
2. Effect of change in temperature;
According to Charle's law at constant pressure Vff=constant V=m/p
:. p alNal/f
p al/f
velocity sound is v =-JPyT :. v a ff
Note ; the velocity of sound increased by 0.61 mis by increasing temperature of 1°c.
3. Effect of humidity: The presence of water vapor in a atmosphere is known as moisture or

humidity. Velocity of sound is v = ~ =constant

val / ✓P Density of the moisture is less than density of the dry air.
4. Effect of wind; Velocity of sound is increases along direction of the wind and decreases in
its opposite direction.
Intensity of wave :Amount of energy present in the unit area in one second perpendicular to
direction of propagation is called intensity of wave. SI unit of its w/m2
ie, I= 21t2f2a2pv where, f= frequency of wave, a= amplitude of wave
v= velocity of wave p= density of medium
Pulse; it is single disturbance that move through a medium from one point to the next point.
Example; A single water wave from a splash. a sonic boom from on aircraft breaking the sounc
barrier & an electromagnetic pulse from a nuclear explosion etc..
Relation between phase difference and path difference. We know that equation of progressivt
wave y=a sin(kx- rot+<l>)Let <I> is the phase of the particle at a distance x from the origin along tht
positive x direction. The equation of phase is (kx- rot) =<I>
 UNIT VIll: Oscillation and wave
y

• -- X2

From above the figure phase changes periodically wilh distance x. At a given time (t i=ti=t). let
<1>1 and <1>2 be the phase of two particles at a distance x, and x2 from the origin to a point P and Q
respectively.
Let y,.y2 displacement of two progressive waves and y is resultant displacement
: .<1>1 =kx1-rot1 and <l>2=kx2-roh
~<1>=<1>2- <l>1=(kx2-rot2)-(k:x1-rot1) 6.4>=k:x2-kx1
~<l>=k(x2-x1 ) =kAx
2 2
6-cl>= 1t (rut ) :. Phase difference= ;r x pathdifference
A A
Principle of super position; It states that "when two wave pulse overlap, the resultant
displacement is the algebraic sum of displacement of two wave pulses".
Explanation; when two or more wave travels along same media in same or opposite direction
which are overlap to each other then their resultant displacement is equal to algebraic sum of
individual wave displacement and the resultant wave obeys the SHM"
Let y,,y2 displacement of two progressive waves and y is resultant displacement :. y=y1+y2
Application of super position principle (uses):
l . Stationary wave 2. Beats and 3.lnterference

Derive an equation for resultant displacement & amplitude of two wave in super
imposing
Consider two progressive waves having velocity (v), angular frequency (ro) & wave length A
are same amplitude which are traveling along positive x-axis on stretched string, but their
initial phase is different. The displacement of two progressive wave y,= a sin (kx-rot) & y2= a
sin (kx-rot+<I>)
Where cl> is phase difference between two waves,
According in to super position principle y=y, +y2 where y is resultant displacement.
y=a sin (kx-rot) + a sin (kx-rot+<I>)
. ( kx-rot+kx-rot+c!>) COS ( kx-rot-kx+rot-4>)
y=2a Slfl
2 2

y=2a sin ( kx - rot + ~) cos (- ~) I since sin A+sin B= 2 sin (A;

8
) cos(
8
A;
) I

y=2a cos ( ~) sin ( kx - rot + ~) .. .... .. . .. ........ ( I)

By comparing equation ( 1) with individual wave equations,
We get A=2a coscj,/2 This is equation of resultant amplitude of two waves.
The equation (1) becomes
y=A sin ( kx - rot + ~) This is an equation of resultant displacement of two waves.

Thus resultant displacement is a.lso sinusoidal wave.

 UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave
Conslruclive interference: The super position of two waves is in phase. the resultant amplitude
is maximum. As shown in figure (a). ie ~=() :. A=2a is maximum.
Destructive interference: The super position of two waves is our of phase, the resultant
amplitude is minimu. As shown in figure (b). ie cj)= 180 :. A=0 is minimum.

!I super position of !I Resultant amplitude ysuper position of y

two waves A=muimum two waves Resultant amplitude

- A=mmwa

~lso'
(a) (b)

Reflection of wave: It is defined as return of wave in same media when wave pulse incident
on two different densities of media. They are two type of reflection of wave,
l. Hard reflection; The wave which reflected from fixed end (or rigid boundary) with change
of 180° phase is called hard reflection. The phase
Faedend
reversed reflected wave from fixed end is as shown / Incident pulse in
figure. +--
Example; The phenomenon of echo
Let y1& y2 be the displacement of incident and
reflected wave which are travels in same media Reflected pulse but
opposite direction with changes of the phase 180° due
to fixed boundary.
According in to principle of super position,
y=y1+y2
ie, y= a sin (kx-oot}+a sin(kx - oot+n:)
y= a sin (kx -oot) -a sin(kx -oot) { ·: sin (0+ 180)= - si n0 I
:. y=0 Thus.the resultant displacement is zero.
2. Soft reflection: The wave which reflected from free end (or non- rigid boundary) with out
change of phase is called soft reflection . The reflected
wave from free end is same as shown in figure. F.ree end

f
Incident pulse
Example; Wave produce inside open end of organ pipe. ___ _,( \ +--
Let y1& y2 be the displacement of incident and
reflected wave which are travels in same media but
opposite direction with out change of the phase due to
free boundary.
According in to principle of super position, y=y1 +y2
ie. y= a sin (kx-oot)+a sin(kx -oot)
y= 2a sin (kx -oot)
Thus, the resultant displacement is twice of individual displacement.
Note; wave reflected from air boundary the phase changes with 180° other than air boundary
no changes phase.
standing waves and Normal modes;
Standing waves or stationary waves :
The wave which fonn due to super position of two identical progressive wave (both having
same velocity, amplitude, frequency, & Wavelength) travelling in the same media but in
o osite direction is caHed stationa waves.
HMJ SGS Composite P.U. College, AC Girl, Nagamangala, Mandya 2020-21 _
 UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave
Note;
1. Longitudinal stationary wave is produce inside the organ pipe.
2. Transverse stationary wave is produce in a stretched string between fixed points.
4. It can create node (N), Antinodes (A) and loops. Axed end Fi .e d end
5. Stationary wave represented by graphically as
follows.
Node (N): The point at which the amplitude is zero is
caUed node, at nodes the particles are at rest.
Antinode(A) : The point at whkh the amplitude is maximum is called antinode. At antinodes
the particles are vibrate maximum.
Loop:_the space between successive any two node.
a. The clistance between node and antinodes=A)'4
b. The clistance between two successive Nodes or Antinodes =Ai2
c. The length of an loop between successive two Nodes =Ai2
omerences ~tween Stationary wave and progressive wave;
Prog-ressive wave Stationary wave
1 The wave which travels continuous along The which form due to super position
the same direction with constant amplitude of two identical progressive wave
travelling in the same media but in
opposite direction.
2 It can travels from one to another medium IL does not travels from one point to
another
3 It can carries the energy ll can not carries the enernv
4 No one particles are rest in the mediu m The particles at node are permanently
at rest.
5 The wave travel continuously with certain The wave does not move. It remains
velocity called wave velocity localized.
6 Amplitude of vibration is the same for every The amplitude of vibration varies from
particle of the medium along the wave. zero at node & maximum at antinode.
7 Phase chan~es continuously Sarne phase
8 The wave equation is of the form y = a The wave equation is of the form.
sin(kx - wt) y=2a sinkx cosrot
Characteristics of stationary wave;
1. Super position of two identical progressive travels in same direction
2. It does not carry & transfer the energy.
3. The particle at node is permanently at rest.
4. The particle at Antinodes vibrates maximum amplitude.
5. Amplitude of the particle varies from zero to maximum.
6. A particle in the loop vibrates with same phase.
7. The Equation of stationary wave is y = 2a sin kx cos wt.
Equation of stationary wave:
Consider two identical progressive waves which are travelling in opposite direction to
form stationary waves.
Let y,=a sin (kx-rot) is a progressive travelling along positive direction
and y2= a sin (kx+rot) is a progressive travelling along negative direction
According to principle of superposition,
y=y,+y2 where, y=resultant displacement
y=asin(kx-rot)+a sin(kx+rot)

HMJ SOS Composite P.U. College, AC Girt, Nagamangala, Mandya 202~21 .

 UNIT Vlll: Oscillation and wave
y=a[sin(kx-wt)+sin(kx +wt)]
y= a[ 2 sin( kx - wt; kx + wt) x cos( kx - rot; kx + wt)]
y = 2a sin( 2~ )cos( ;
2 1
)

y=2a sinkx cosrot

y=A coswt This is the expression for stationary wave.
Where A=2a sinkx is represent the amplitude of standing wave.
Note;
1. For node amplitude is zero. :. 2a sinkx =0
From periodic sine function kx=mt where n=O, I, 2, 3 .......
2. For antinode amplitude is maximum. :. 2a sinkx = I
From periodic sine function kx= ( n + ½)7t Where n=O, I , 2, ....... .

Normal modes of oscillation; It is set of natural frequencies which vibrate the system of
particle with harmonic travelling wave.
Fundamental mode of vibration; The lowest vibration of the system of the particle to form
least number node & antinode.
Fundamental mode or first harmonic; The lowest possible natural frequency of a system
Fundamental frequency; The lowest possible frequency of a fundamental mode of vibration.
Harmonics: The integral multiple of fundamental frequency are called harmonics
Overtones; The frequency of a system above the fundamental mode.
Example; I x fundamental frequency ➔ I harmonics
2 x fundamental frequency ➔ II harmonics or I overtones
3 x fundamental frequen cy ➔ Ill harmonics or ll overtones
n x fundamental frequency ➔ n hannonics is called normal modes.
Stationary waves produced in a stretched string;
Consider stretched string fixed at both ends of length L when it is plucked to vibrate with
velocity ' v', frequency 'f and to form stationary with node & antinode. The number of node
more then antinode as shown in the figures.
W.K.T stationary wave equation, y=2a sink:x coswt and its amplitude A=2a sinkx
At nodes, sinkx=O :. kx=nrr where n=O, 1, 2, 3 ...... .
2 2
but K= 7t :. n x = n1t
A A
DA
:.x= -
2

Fl.lldamtnal a, First Harmonic Second Harmonic o, Fnt o-tane Third Harmonic o, Second Ovenone
If x=L nodes are formed
A
:. L = n-
2
W.K.T. v=fA.. A.=~
f
L _ nv or f = -nv or t·" = -nv th'1s 1s . o f normaJ m ode.
. an equation
2f 2L 2L
If n=I, then two nodes & one antinode are formed as shown above the fi gure (a).
 UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave
f, = ~ , This is fundamental mode (first harmonic) . . ............... (1)
2
If n=2, then three nodes & two an tin odes are formed as shown above the figure (b)
f =~
~ 2L
V
This is 2 nd mode or 2 nd harmonic
- = -L ,
f,

orf2 = 2f1 This is P' overtone ................. (2)

If n=3, then four nodes & three antinodes are formed as shown above the figure (c)
f3 =~ this is 3nd mode or 3rd harmonic
2L
or f 3 = 3f1 This is 2nd overtone ..... .. ..... ..... (3)
From equation (1),(2)& (3) becomes, fi:fi:fJ. ...... =1:2 :3: .. . ........ .
Hence, all harmonic are present in stretched string.
Air column or organ pipe: An air enclosed in a pipe is called air column. al closed end node
is formed and at open end antinode is formed. They are two organ pipe.
Open pipe; the organ pipe which open al both end. The number of antinode greater than node
Closed pipe; the organ pipe which open at one end & closed at another end. The number of
node equal to antinode
Stationary waves in c.losed pipe:
Consider a closed pipe of length L when air column is vibrated with velocity ' v', frequency ' f
and stationary waves are formed. Node is formed at closed end & antinode at open end as
shown in the figures .
W.K.T stationary wave equation. y=2a sinkx cosrot and itc; amplitude A=2a sinkx
At antinodes, sinkx= l

:. kx=(n+½} x=L x=L x=L

A A
Where n=O, I, 2, .. ... .. . A

l
2,r
but k =,.,_-

f1rx=( n; ')n L=~

L = 3A
4
L = 5:1.
4
4

x=(n +½)~
x=L, antinode is formed
L=(n+½)i
..-.·l
X =0
l•I (111
x=O
l lctx = 0
l
W.K.T. v=D.., A.=~
f
L =(n+.!.)~
2 2f

f =(n+.!.).!.....
or r. = + (n .!.).!.....
this is an equation of normal mode.
2 2L 2 2L
If n=0, then one node and one antinode are formed as shown above the figure (a).
:. f, = ~ This is fundamental mode (first harmonjc) ....... .. . ... .... (I)
4
If n= l , then two node and two anlinode are formed as shown above the fig

HMJ SGS Com osite P.U. Coll AC Giri. Na aman ala. Mand a 2020-21
 UNIT VIII: Oscillation and wave
3
f, = (1 +
- 2 2L 4L
.!.J
.:!._ = v This is 2°d mode or 2 nd harmonic

f 2 = 3f1 This is JS' overtone ... .. .... ........ (2)

If n=2. then three node and three antinode are formed as shown above the figure (a).
f3 =
·
(2 + .!.).:!._
2 2L 4L
= Sv This is 3 mode or 3
rd rd harmonic

f 3 = 5f3 This is 2nd overtone ............... .. (3)

From equation (1).(2)& (3) beco mes. fi:frfa .... ... = 1:3:5:7: .......... ..
Hence, all odd harmonic are present in dosed. pipe.
Stationary waves in open pipe: Consider an open pipe of length L when air column is vibrated
with velocity ' v ' , frequency 'f and stationary waves are formed. antinode is formed at both open
end & antinode are greater than node as shown in the figures.
W .K.T stationary wave equation. y=2a sinkx cosrot and its amplitude A=2a sink:x
At nodes, sinkx=O :. kx=nn where n=O, 1, 2, 3 ...... .
k- 21t
A.
2rc
:. Tx= nrc
fL =Az
but
nA
.. X= -
2

W.K.T. v=D... A=-

V
l•I
:~
lbl
f
nv nv nv
L=- or f = - or f = - this is an equation of normal mode.
O
2f 2L 2L
If n= I. then two antinodes & one node are formed as shown above the figure (a).
:. f , = .:!._, This is fundamental mode (first harmonic) .. .... ... . ....... ( 1)
2L
If n=2, then three antinodes & two nodes are formed as shown above lhe figure (b)
f
2
= 2v
2L
f
i
=~
L'
This is 2 nd mode or 2 nd harmonic

or f 1 = 2f, This is 15' overtone ................. (2)

If n=3, then four antinodes & three nodes are formed as shown above the figure (c)
f3 =~ this is 3nd mode or 3n1 harmonic
2L
or f3 = 3f1 This is 2 nd overtone ...... ........... (3)
From equation (1),(2)& (3) becomes, fi:fi:fJ. ......=1 :2:3: ..... .. .. .. .
Hence, all harmonic are present in open pipe.
Beats; The waxing (rise) and waning (fal l) of intensity of sound due to superpose of sound
waves of nearly equal frequency are called be:ats.
Example; Sticking of bicycle bell to produce the sound of ri se & fall.
Define beat period; Time interval between any two successive waxing and waning of sound.
Define beat frequency (fb ); Number of beats heard in one second. S.l unit is hertz (Hz)
Beal frequency is equal to difference in frequency between two vibrating body.
ie fb=f1~ fa
Uses of beats;
1. The beats are used to find the unknown frequency of the given tuning fork.

HMJ SGS Compoute P.U. College, AC Glrl, Nagamangala, Mandy• 202~21 164
 UNIT VTII: Oscillation and wave
2. Beats are used for tuning the musical instrument.
3. By using beats determine harmful gas inside the mines.
Theory of beats: Consider two sound waves of same amplitude and nearly equal frequency but
equal amplitude which are travels in a same media.
W.K.T. y,=a cosm,t and y2 =acosm2t. where ro,=2rrf,, roi=2rrfi
According in to super position, y=y ,+y2 :. y=a cosro,t+a cosro2t
y=a[cosro1t+cosro2t]
y= 2a ms( w, t~ m2t) xcos( w, t; w2t)
y= A cos( ro,t + ro,t)
.
2
A= 2a cos( ro, l; ro2l) is the amplitude of the resultant wave and it is is not constant.
Therefore the intensity of sound waxes and wanes with an angular frequency.
The intensity of resultant sound is mximum when Ais maximum.
w, +ro, & ro 1-ro,
put . =ffin . =(J)b
2 2
:. y=2acosroat . cos<Obt
Where, rob= 21tf b fi,= beat frequency, ro,=27tf1, ro2=21tf2

:. 2rrfb=2rrf1-21tf2 :. fb=f1-fi
In general beat frequency is given by fb= f1 ~fi
One mark question and answer.
I . Name the properties of a medium which are responsible for the propagation of a
mechanical wave? Ans; Elastic and Inertial properties of medium
2. Define amplitude of a wave. Ans; Amplitude is, the maximum displacement of the particle
on either side of the equilibrium position during wave propagation
3. Define phase of a vibrating particle? Ans; The phase of a vibrating particle at a given
instant of time is the state of vibration of a particle at that instant of time with reference to
its equilibrium position.
4. Define propagation constant (or) angular wave number. Ans; It is the number of waves
that can be accommodated per unit length.
5. What is sound? Ans; Sound is a form of energy that produces a sensation of bearing.
6. How is sound produced? Ans; Vibrating bodies surrounded by a material medium produces
sound.
7. Why do we see the flash of lightening before we bear the thunder? Ans; Because speed of
light is much greater that the speed of sound.
8. How much energy is transported by a stationary wave? Ans; zero
9. What are normal modes of oscillation in a stationary wave? Ans; In a stationary wave, the
possible frequencies of oscillation of the system are characterized by a set of natural
frequencies called as normal modes of oscillation.
I 0. Name the quantity associated with a wave that remains unchanged when a wave travel from
one medium to another? Ans; frequency of wave
11. Name the quantities associated with a wave, that changes when a wave travels from one
medium to another. Ans; wave length & velocity
12. Which harmonics are absent in a closed organ pipe? Ans; even harmonics
13. What is the increase in the speed of sound in air when the temperature of the air rises by I 0
C? Ans: The speed of sound increases approximately by 0.61 mis per degree ce ·
rise in temperature
HMJ SGS Compoalte P.U. College, AC Girl, Nagamangala, Mandy■ 202().21