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11 views

Lectures 03 and 04

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MTS 336 Instrumentation and

Measurements

Dr. Basharat Ullah

Week 02

Department of Mechatronics
College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering
Course Contents
❑ Book Title: Principle of Measurement Systems, 4th Edition by John. P. Bently
(Reference Book)
❑Chapter 1: Section: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4
❑Chapter 2: Section: 2.1, 2.2
❑Chapter 3: Section: 3.1
❑Chapter 4: Section: 4.1.1, 4.2.1 (First order element only), 4.2.2 (First order
element only)
❑Chapter 5: Section: 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.1.3
Systematic characteristics
❑ Range – Input and output ranges are specified by the minimum and
maximum values of input and output variables, denoted IMIN, IMAX, OMIN and
OMAX.
❑ Span – the maximum variation of inputs and outputs, i.e. IMAX − IMIN and
OMAX − OMIN

❑ Ideal straight line (Linearity) – The input-output relationship of the element


can be described by the straight-line equation, i.e. O(I) = K · I + a.
Systematic characteristics
Non-linearity – If the relationship between the input and output does not obey
the straight-line equation, the element is said to be non-linear.
❑ The maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a percentage of the
full scale output.
❑ The non-linearity is defined as the deviation from
straight line, i.e. N(I) = O(I) − (K · I + a)
Systematic characteristics
❑ Sensitivity – The change in output ΔO caused by a unit change ΔI in input I.
As ΔI → 0, this becomes dO/dI, that is, the derivative of the output with
respect to the input.
Systematic characteristics
❑ Environmental effects – The output O depends not only on the signal input I,
but the environmental inputs such as temperature, humidity, pressure, supply
voltage, etc. too. The input-output relation must be adjusted to correct for
these effects as;
O = KI + a + N(I) + KMIMI + KIII
Systematic characteristics
❑ Hysteresis – For a given value of I, the output O may differ depending on
whether I is increasing or decreasing. Hysteresis is the difference between
these two values of O. This is known as the hysteresis, H(I), defined as H(I) =
O(I)I↓ − O(I)I↑

Backlash in gears
Systematic characteristics
❑ Resolution – Defined as the largest change in I
that can occur without any corresponding
change in O.
❑ Wear and ageing – Effects that cause the
element’s characteristics to change with time.

❑ Error bands – The effects of non-linearity,


hysteresis, and resolution are often small, and
instead of modeling them individually, the total
performance of the element is given by an error
band.
Generalized model of a system element/sensor
Generalized model of a system element/sensor
❑ Neglecting hysteresis and resolution effects, the output can be modeled with
environmental and nonlinear effects as;
O = KI + a + N(I) + KMIMI + KIII
where IM and II are modifying and interfering inputs, respectively, to compensate
for environmental effects.
Statistical Characteristics
❑ Statistical characteristics: Statistical characteristics can not be described by an
exact mathematical relationship, but have to be quantified in terms of
probabilities and probability density functions.

❑ Random variations in the output of an element affects:


o Accuracy – The difference between the true value and the measured value.
o Repeatability – Variance of measured values, when repeated with same
method, observer and environment
Repeatability of Sensor/Sensing Elements
❑ Measuring the voltage 10000 times, we obtain the
following distribution;
❑ The mean value of the measured value is equal to the
true voltage.
Conclusion: The sensing element is accurate.
❑ The variance around the mean value is very high.
Conclusion: The voltage meter suffers from a large lack of
repeatability.
❑ The most common cause of the variation in output O is
random fluctuations with time in the environmental
inputs IM and II.
Accuracy of Measurement System
Measurement error = measured value – true value

❑ Sensitivity of thermocouple (K1) changes with input temperature.

❑ Output voltage of amplifier (K2) is sensitive to ambient temperature.

❑ Sensitivity of the indicator (K3) depends on the stiffness of the restoring spring
in the moving coil assembly.
Standard Heat Flow Equation
𝑄 = 𝑐 × 𝑚 × ∆𝑇
Q = Heat supplied to the system
m = mass of the system
c = Specific heat capacity of the system and
ΔT = Change in temperature of the system

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇

𝑊 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇)
A = heat transfer coefficient between fluid and sensor
U = heat transfer coefficient
Transfer Function for a First Order Sensor
Example: Temperature sensor an electrical output signal (a thermocouple or thermistor)
❑ Initially at time t = 0− ( just before t = 0), the sensor temperature is equal to the fluid
temperature, i.e. T(0−) = TF(0−).

❑ If the fluid temperature is suddenly raised at t = 0, the


sensor is no longer in a steady state, and its dynamic
behaviour is described by the heat balance equation;
rate of change of sensor heat constant = rate of heat inflow
− rate of heat outflow
Step Response of First Order Sensor
❑ Let the input to a first order system be a unit step at t = 0, that is:
1, t  0 
f i (t ) =  
0, t  0

❑ The output is then: 1 1


f o ( s) = G( s) fi ( s) = .
s + 1 s

and
−1
f o (t ) =  f (s)
o
Identification of the Dynamic Characteristics
❑ Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the
sensor to a family of variable input waveforms: Impulse, step, ramp,
sinusoidal, white noise.

Impulse Step Ramp Sinusoidal Noise


Response of a first-order element to a unit step
Response of a first-order element to a unit step

−𝑡ൗ𝜏
𝑏(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑖 [1 − 𝑒 ]
Identification of the Dynamic Characteristics

𝑡
𝑏(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑖 [1 − 𝑒 − ൗ𝜏 ]

−0.75ൗ1.5
𝑏(0.75) = 660𝑚𝑉 + 1353𝑚𝑉 − 660𝑚𝑉 [1 − 𝑒 ]

𝑏(0.75) = 932.7𝑚𝑉

932.7𝑚𝑉
𝑇= 𝑜
= 28.3 𝑜𝐶
33𝑚𝑉/ 𝐶
Loading Effects in a Measurement System
Inter-Element Loading
❑ Loading: The loading effect is the degree to which a measurement instrument
impacts electrical properties (voltage, current, resistance).

❑ A given element in the system may modify the characteristics of the previous
element; (e.g. by drawing current).

❑ In turn, the characteristics of this element may be modified by the following element
in the system.

❑ Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are used to estimate/compensate inter-


element loading.
Loading Effects in a Measurement System
❑ From circuit theory (Thevenin’s theorem) we know that any network of linear
impedances and voltage sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a voltage source in series with an impedance.

❑ The Thevenin voltage, ETh is the open-circuit voltage across the output terminals.
❑ The Thévenin impedance, ZTh is the impedance seen at the output terminals when all
voltage sources in the networks are set to zero.
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit-Example
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit-Example

Notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as


above calculations are done in an open circuit
condition between A and B, therefore no current
flows through this part, which means there is no
current through R1 and therefore no voltage drop
along this part.
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit-Example
Loading Effects in a Measurement System
❑ Norton’s theorem states that any linear network can be replaced by an equivalent
current source in parallel with an impedance.

Z N .Z L
V L= iN
ZN + ZL

❑ The Norton current, IN is the short-circuit current flowing through the output
terminals.
❑ The Norton impedance, ZN is the impedance seen at the output terminals when all
sources in the networks are set to zero.
Loading Effects in a Measurement System
❑ A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thevenin equivalent circuit by the
following:
Loading Effects in a Temperature Measurement System
Loading Effects in a Temperature Measurement System
Loading Effects in a Temperature Measurement System

So, we have to introduce the factor ZL/(ZTh + ZL) at every interconnection of two
elements to allow for loading.
Error = Measured value – True Value
Error = TM – T
Error = 0.9925T – T = – 0.0075T
Questions?

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